Parting 

The structure and function of the nervous regulatory system of the human body. Regulatory systems of the body

As a result of studying this chapter, students should:

know

  • types of intercellular communications;
  • properties of hormones and hormone-like substances;
  • the structure of hormone receptors;
  • mechanisms for the implementation of hormonal effects;

be able to

  • characterize the main groups of hormones and the main types of metabotropic receptors;
  • understand the localization of hormonal receptors and the mechanisms of hormone excretion;

own

Methods for predicting possible physiological effects based on the chemical structure of the hormone and the type of receptor.

regulatory systems of the body. Types of humoral regulation and place of the endocrine system

The human body is made up of approximately 10 13 cells, and all of these cells must work in concert to ensure its survival and, moreover, optimal existence in an ever-changing environment. In order to create a holistic, integrated organism from billions of cells, capable of self-healing, self-reproduction and adaptation, a constantly operating system of intercellular communications is necessary, without which it is impossible reliable system function control.

Control levels in the body can be divided into intracellular(providing control at the cell level) and intercellular(providing the coordinated work of various tissues, organs and organ systems of the whole organism). In each case, control systems can be non-specialized And specialized. For compounds used in non-specialized control systems, the information transfer function is not the main one, and the emphasis is shifted towards their use as sources of plastic or energy material. Such a substance can be, for example, glucose. Connections are involved in specialized management, main function which is the transfer of information, so they are called signal.

During the evolutionary process, three systems, one way or another corresponding to the name "signal": nervous, endocrine And immune. They are very strongly interconnected, which gives grounds to speak of a single neuro-immune-endocrine system, although at first they have to be described separately. All these systems are capable of remote control of life processes, but achieve this in different ways.

Depending on the distance of the signal connection, a distinction is made between local and system control.

TO local (regional) government include intracellular (intracrine), autocrine, juxtacrine and paracrine control systems (Fig. 1.1).

Rice. 1.1.

Atintracellular controlthe regulatory substance is produced in the cell and acts on its work through intracellular receptors. Atautocrine, txtacrineAndparacrine controlthe regulatory substance leaves the cell and acts on it or on neighboring cells.

System management It is characterized by a large remote effect and is subdivided into endocrine, neuroendocrine and neurocrine (Fig. 1.2).

Rice. 1.2.

but- endocrine;b -neurocrine;in- neuroendocrine

Atendocrine form of regulation cells of the gland or some other cell secrete a hormone (from the Greek orraso - I excite), which enters the systemic circulation and is able to act on all body structures that have receptors for this hormone. The form of the hormonal response depends on the type of tissue and the types of receptor that respond to this hormone.

At neuroendocrine form of regulation the neurohormone is segregated by axon terminals into a specialized capillary network and from it enters the systemic circulation. Further, the same phenomena occur as in the case of the endocrine method of systemic regulation.

At neurocrine form of regulation neurons produce neurotransmitters that act on nearby cellular structures through specialized receptors. Consequently, a kind of paracrine regulation takes place, in which the distance of action is achieved by the length of axons and the number of synaptic switches.

Substances that perform specific functions of transmitting information from one cell to another are called informons. Informons usually do not perform energy or plastic functions, but act on cells through special recognizing molecules - receptors. The content of informons in the blood is very low (10 6 -10" 12 mol), and their lifetime is usually very short, although they can trigger long-term regulatory cascades both in individual cells and in the body as a whole.

Among informons, with a certain degree of conventionality, there are group of tissue hormones(histohormones), which are mainly involved in the processes of local regulation. However, histohormones can also be included in the general regulatory system of the body. Histohormones are usually secreted from individual cells various systems organs without forming specialized glands. Examples are prostaglandins and thromboxanes. Histohormones usually act a short time and close to the site of secretion.

The second group of informons - hormones. Hormones are usually formed in special secretory cells, which either form compact organs - glands, or are located singly or in groups within organs. Secretory cells are characterized by some morphological features. Usually, the synthesis and "packaging" of hormones occur in one part of the cells, and their release into the blood - in another. Most often, the synthesized hormones accumulate to the Golgi complex - the main "storage room" of the cell. There, as needed, hormones are packed into small secretory vesicles - granules that bud from the Golgi complex and move through the cytoplasm to the outer membrane of the cell, through which the hormone is released into the blood. Some hormones, such as sex hormones, are not packed into granules and exit the secreting cell as separate molecules. The release of the hormone into the blood does not occur constantly, but only when a special signal arrives at the secreting cell, under the action of which the vesicles release the hormone into the extracellular environment.

However, in last years it became obvious that hormones could be secreted not only from the cells of specialized endocrine glands, but also from the cells of many other organs and tissues. So, hypothalamus neurons are capable of producing a whole range of hormonal factors, such as liberins, statins and other hormones, heart muscle cells secrete natriuretic peptide into the blood, lymphocytes secrete a number of hormones that stimulate immunity, and finally, many peptide hormones are synthesized in the intestinal mucosa.

INTRODUCTION

I. GLANDS OF INTERNAL AND MIXED SECRETION

II. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Functions of the endocrine system

glandular endocrine system

Diffuse endocrine system

Composition of the diffuse endocrine system

Gastrointestinal tract

Atria of the heart

Nervous system

Thymus gland (thymus)

Other hormone-producing tissues and scattered endocrine cells

Regulation of the endocrine system

III. HORMONES

Important human hormones

IV. THE ROLE OF HORMONES IN METABOLISM, GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE BODY

Thyroid

parathyroid glands

Pancreas

Diseases of the pancreas

Pancreatic hormone insulin and disease diabetes

adrenal glands

ovaries

CONCLUSION

LITERATURE AND INTERNET SOURCES

INTRODUCTION

In the human body, there are external secretion glands that secrete their products into the ducts or out, endocrine glands that secrete hormones directly into the blood, and mixed secretion glands: some of their cells secrete secrets into the ducts or out, the other part secretes hormones directly into the blood. The endocrine system includes glands of internal and mixed secretion that secrete hormones - biological regulators. They act in negligible doses on cells, tissues and organs that are sensitive to them. At the end of their action, hormones are destroyed, allowing other hormones to act. Endocrine glands in various age periods operate at different intensities. The growth and development of the body is precisely ensured by the work of a number of endocrine glands. Those. the totality of these glands is a kind of regulatory system of the human body.

In my work, I am going to consider next questions:

What specific glands of internal and mixed secretion regulate the vital activity of the body?

What hormones are produced by these glands?

· What is the regulatory effect and how does this or that gland, this or that hormone?

I. GLANDS OF INTERNAL AND MIXED SECRETION

We know that in the human body there are such (sweat and salivary) glands that bring their products - secrets into the cavity of any organ or out. They are classified as endocrine glands. External secretion glands, in addition to salivary glands, include gastric, liver, sweat, sebaceous and other glands.

The endocrine glands (see Fig. 1), unlike the external secretion glands, do not have ducts. Their secrets go straight into the blood. They contain substances-regulators - hormones with great biological activity. Even with their insignificant concentration in the blood, certain target organs can be turned on or off from work, the activity of these organs can be strengthened or weakened. Having completed its task, the hormone is destroyed, and the kidneys remove it from the body. An organ deprived of hormonal regulation cannot function normally. The endocrine glands function throughout a person's life, but their activity in different age periods is not the same.

The endocrine glands include the pituitary, pineal, thyroid, and adrenal glands.

There are also glands of mixed secretion. Some of their cells secrete hormones directly into the blood, the other part - into the ducts or outward substances characteristic of the external secretion glands.

Glands of internal and mixed secretion belong to the endocrine system.

II. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Endocrine system- activity regulation system internal organs through hormones secreted by endocrine cells directly into the blood, or diffusing through the intercellular space into neighboring cells.

The endocrine system is divided into the glandular endocrine system (or glandular apparatus), in which the endocrine cells are brought together to form the endocrine gland, and the diffuse endocrine system. The endocrine gland produces glandular hormones, which include all steroid hormones, thyroid hormones, and many peptide hormones. The diffuse endocrine system is represented by endocrine cells scattered throughout the body that produce hormones called aglandular - (with the exception of calcitriol) peptides. Almost every tissue in the body contains endocrine cells.

Functions of the endocrine system

  • It takes part in the humoral (chemical) regulation of body functions and coordinates the activity of all organs and systems.
  • Ensures the maintenance of body homeostasis under changing conditions external environment.
  • Together with the nervous and immune systems, it regulates
    • growth,
    • body development,
    • its sexual differentiation and reproductive function;
    • takes part in the processes of formation, use and conservation of energy.
  • Together with the nervous system, hormones are involved in providing
    • emotional reactions
    • mental activity of a person

glandular endocrine system

The glandular endocrine system is represented by separate glands with concentrated endocrine cells. The endocrine glands include:

  • Thyroid
  • parathyroid glands
  • thymus or thymus gland
  • Pancreas
  • adrenal glands
  • sex glands:
    • Ovary
    • Testicle

(for more details on the structure and functions of these glands, see below "ROLE OF HORMONES IN METABOLISM, GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE ORGANISM")

Diffuse endocrine system- a department of the endocrine system, represented by endocrine cells scattered in various organs that produce aglandular hormones (peptides, with the exception of calcitriol).

In a diffuse endocrine system, endocrine cells are not concentrated, but scattered. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland have secretory cells, with the hypothalamus considered to be an element of the important "hypothalamic-pituitary system". The pineal gland also belongs to the diffuse endocrine system. Some endocrine functions are performed by the liver (secretion of somatomedin, insulin-like growth factors, etc.), kidneys (secretion of erythropoietin, medullins, etc.), stomach (secretion of gastrin), intestines (secretion of vasoactive intestinal peptide, etc.), spleen (secretion of splenins) and others. Endocrine cells are found throughout the human body.

In a multicellular organism, there is a single neuro-endocrine system that ensures the coordinated regulation of functions, structures and metabolism in various organs and tissues.

The nervous system, as a rule, through a chemical synapse (with the help of mediators), affects the cell closest to the nerve ending, and endocrine formations produce hormones that act on many organs and tissues, even remote from their place of production.

The nervous and endocrine systems regulate each other's activity. In addition, the same biologically active substances (BAS) can be secreted by endocrine glands and neurons (for example, norepinephrine).

Even one department nervous system(for example, the hypothalamus) is able to influence other structures, both through nerve pathways and with the help of hormones.

General physiology of the endocrine system

The existence of the endocrine system is impossible without secretory cells. They produce their biologically active secrets (hormones), which enter the internal extracellular environments of the body (tissue fluid, lymph and blood). Therefore, the endocrine glands are often called endocrine glands.

The endocrine system includes (Fig. 1) endocrine glands(organs in which most cells secrete hormones), neurohemal formations(neurons that secrete substances that have the properties of hormones) and diffuse endocrine system(cells secreting hormones in organs and tissues, consisting mainly of "non-endocrine" structures).

Rice. 1. The main representatives of the endocrine system: a) endocrine glands (for example, the adrenal gland); b) neurohemal formations and c) diffuse endocrine system (on the example of the pancreas).

Endocrine glands include: pituitary gland, thyroid and parathyroid glands, adrenal gland and pineal gland. An example of a neurohemal structure is oxytocin-secreting neurons, and a diffuse endocrine system is most characteristic of the pancreas, digestive tract, gonads, thymus and kidneys.

Endocrine glands constantly secrete hormones ( basal level of secretion), and the level of such secretion, as a rule, depends on the rate of their synthesis ( only the thyroid gland accumulates significant amounts of hormones in the form of a colloid).

Thus, in accordance with the classical model of the endocrine system, the hormone is secreted by the endocrine glands into the blood, circulates with it throughout the body and interacts with target cells, regardless of the degree of their removal from the source of secretion.

Hormones Properties and classifications of hormones

Hormones are organic compounds produced in the blood by specialized cells and affecting certain functions of the body outside the place of their formation.

Hormones are: specificity and high biological activity, remoteness of action, ability to pass through the capillary endothelium and rapid renewal.

Specificity appears place of education And selective action hormones to cells. Biological activity hormones is characterized by the sensitivity of the target to very low concentrations (10 -6 -10 -21 M). Distance of action It consists in the manifestation of the effects of hormones at a considerable distance from the place of their formation (endocrine action). Ability to pass through the capillary endothelium facilitates the secretion of hormones into the blood and their transition to target cells, and fast update explained high speed hormone inactivation or excretion from the body.

By chemical nature hormones divided into protein, steroid, as well as derivatives of amino acids and fatty acids.

Protein hormones are further divided into polypeptides and proteids (proteins). TO steroid include hormones of the adrenal cortex and gonads. Amino acid derivatives tyrosine are catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine and dopamine) and thyroid hormones, and fatty acids prostaglandins, thromboxanes and leukotrienes.

All non-protein and some non-protein hormones also there is no species specificity.

The effects caused by hormones are divided (Fig. 2) into metabolic, morphogenetic, kinetic And corrective(for example, adrenaline increases heart contractions, but even without it, the heart contracts).

effects

Metabolic

Morphogenetic

Kinetic

Corrective

Change the rate of metabolism

Regulate differentiation and metamorphosis of tissues

Increase the activity of target cells

Affect structures that can work in the absence of hormones

Rice. 2. Main physiological effects of hormones.

Hormones are transported by the blood in dissolved and bound (with proteins) states. Bound hormones are inactive and not destroyed. Therefore, plasma proteins provide the functions of transport and depot of the hormone in the blood. Some of them (for example, albumins) interact with many hormones, but there are also specific carriers. For example, corticosteroids preferentially bind to transcortin.

The regulation of many processes in the body is provided by the principle feedback. It was first formulated by the domestic scientist M.M. Zavadovsky in 1933. Feedback means the influence of the result of the system's activity on its activity.

There are "long", "short" and "ultra-short" (Fig. 3) feedback levels.

Rice. 3. Feedback levels.

A long level of regulation ensures the interaction of distant cells, a short level provides interaction in neighboring tissues, and an ultrashort level ensures interaction only within one structural formation.

GOU VPO UGMA ROSZDRAVA

Department of Biological Chemistry

"I approve"

Head cafe prof., d.m.s.

Meshchaninov V.N.

______''_____________2008

Exam questions in biochemistry

Specialty "Pharmacy" 060108, 2008

Proteins, enzymes.

1. Amino acids: classification by chemical nature, chemical properties,

biological role.

2. Structure and physical and chemical properties of natural amino acids.

3. Stereoisomerism and amphoterism of amino acids.

4. Physico-chemical properties of the protein. Reversible and irreversible protein precipitation.

5. Mechanism of peptide bond formation, its properties and features. Primary

protein structure, biological role.

6. Spatial configurations of proteins: secondary, tertiary, quaternary

protein structures, their stabilizing bonds, role.

7 Stabilizing, destabilizing, disturbing amino acids and their role in

structural organization of proteins, the concept of domain, over secondary and

over quaternary structures.

8. Quaternary structure of proteins, cooperative functioning of protomers.

8. Hydrogen bonds, their role in the structure and function of proteins.

9. Characteristics of simple and complex proteins, classification, main representatives,

their biological functions.

10. Hemoproteins: main representatives, functions. Heme structure.

11. Structure, nomenclature, biological role of nucleotide triphosphates.

12. Enzymes: concept, properties - similarities and differences with non-protein catalysts

13. The active center of enzymes, its structural and functional heterogeneity.

Units of enzyme activity.

14. The mechanism of action of enzymes. Significance of Enzyme-Substrate Formation

complex, stage of catalysis.

15. Graphic representation of the dependence of the rate of catalysis on the concentrations of the substrate

and enzyme. The concept of Km, its physiological meaning and clinical diagnostic

meaning.

16. Dependence of the reaction rate on the concentration of the substrate and enzyme, temperature,

medium pH, reaction time.

17. Inhibitors and types of inhibition, their mechanism of action.

18. The main ways and mechanisms of regulation of enzyme activity at the cell level and

the whole organism. polyenzyme complexes.

19. Allosteric enzymes, their structure, physical and chemical properties, role.

20. Allosteric effectors (modulators), their characteristics, mechanism of action.

21. Mechanisms of covalent regulation of enzymes (reversible and irreversible), their role in

metabolism.

22. Nonspecific and specific regulation of enzyme activity - concepts,

23. Mechanisms of specific regulation of enzyme activity: induction - repression.

24. The role of hormones of steroid nature in the mechanisms of regulation of enzyme activity.

25. The role of hormones of peptide nature in the mechanisms of regulation of enzyme activity.

26. Isoenzymes - multiple molecular forms of enzymes: features

structures, physical and chemical properties, regulatory functions, clinical

diagnostic value.

27. The use of enzymes in medicine and pharmacy (enzymodiagnostics, enzymopathology,

enzyme therapy).

28. Prosthetic groups, coenzymes, cofactors, cosubstrates, substrates,

metabolites, reaction products: concepts, examples. Coenzymes and cofactors:

chemical nature, examples, role in catalysis.

29. Enzymopathies: concept, classification, causes and development mechanisms, examples.

30. Enzymodiagnostics: concept, principles and directions, examples.

31. Enzyme therapy: types, methods, enzymes used, examples.

32. Systemic enzyme therapy: concept, areas of application, enzymes used,

routes of administration, mechanisms of action.

33. Localization of enzymes: enzymes general purpose, organo- and organello-

specific enzymes, their functions and clinical and diagnostic significance.

30. Principles of nomenclature and classification of enzymes, brief description.

30. Modern theory biological oxidation. Structure, functions, mechanism

recovery: NAD +, FMN, FAD, KoQ, cytochromes. The difference is in their functions.

30. Chemiosmotic theory of coupling of oxidation and phosphorylation.

30. Electrochemical potential, the concept of its role in the conjugation of oxidation and

phosphorylation.

30. Chemical and conformational hypotheses of conjugation of oxidation and phosphorylation.

30. Photosynthesis. Reactions of light and dark phases of photosynthesis, biological role.

The structure of chloroplasts chlorophyll its structure, role.

30. Light reactions of photosynthesis. Photosystems P-700 and P-680” their role. Mechanism

photosynthetic phosphorylation.

Energy exchange.

1. Mitochondria: structure, chemical composition, marker enzymes, functions, causes

and consequences of damage.

2. General scheme energy metabolism and the formation of biological substrates

oxidation; types of oxidative enzymes and reactions, examples.

3. Ways of using O 2 in cells (list), meaning. dioxygenase pathway,

meaning, examples.

4 Similarities and differences between the monooxygenase pathway for using O 2 in mitochondria and

endoplasmic reticulum.

5. Monooxygenase pathway for the use of O 2 in the cell: enzymes, coenzymes,

cosubstrates, substrates, meaning.

6. Cytochrome P-450: structure, function, activity regulation.

7. Comparative characteristics of cytochromes B 5 and C: structural features, functions,

meaning.

8. Microsomal redox electron transport chain: enzymes, coenzymes, substrates,

cosubstrates, biological role.

9. ATP: structure, biological role, mechanisms of formation from ADP and Fn.

10. Oxidative phosphorylation: mechanisms of coupling and uncoupling,

physiological significance.

11. Oxidative phosphorylation: mechanisms, substrates, respiratory control,

possible reasons violations and consequences.

12. Redox chain of oxidative phosphorylation: localization, enzyme complexes,

oxidizable substrates, ORP, P/O ratio, biological significance.

13. Comparative characteristics of oxidative and substrate phosphorylation:

localization, enzymes, mechanisms, significance.

14. Comparative characteristics of mitochondrial and microsomal redox chains:

enzymes, substrates, cosubstrates, biological role.

15. Comparative characteristics of cell cytochromes: types, structure, localization,

16. Krebs cycle: scheme, regulation of activity, energy balance AcCoA oxidation

to H 2 O and CO 2.

17. Krebs cycle: oxidative reactions, enzyme nomenclature, significance.

18. Regulatory reactions of the Krebs cycle, enzyme nomenclature, regulation mechanisms.

19.a-Ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex: composition, catalyzed reaction, regulation.

20. Krebs cycle: conversion reactions of a-ketoglutarate to succinate, enzymes, significance.

21. Krebs cycle: conversion reactions of succinate to oxaloacetate, enzymes, significance.

22. Antioxidant protection of cells (AOP): classification, mechanisms, significance.

23. Mechanisms of formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), physiological and

clinical significance.

24. Mechanism of formation and toxic action . O - 2, the role of SOD in neutralization.

25. Mechanisms of formation and toxic action of peroxide oxygen, mechanisms

its decontamination.

26. Mechanisms of formation and toxic action of lipid peroxides, mechanisms of their

neutralization.

27. Mechanisms of formation and toxic action of hydroxyl radicals,

their neutralization mechanisms.

28. SOD and catalase: coenzymes, reactions, significance in cell physiology and pathology.

29. Nitric oxide (NO): formation reaction, regulation, mechanisms of physiological and

toxic effects.

30. Nitric oxide: metabolism, regulation, mechanisms of physiological and toxic

effects.

31. Lipid peroxidation (LPO): concept, mechanisms and stages of development,

meaning.

32. Antioxidant cell protection (AOD): classification; mechanism of action of the system

glutathione.

33. Antioxidant cell protection (AOD): classification, mechanism of action of the system

enzymatic protection.

34. Antioxidant protection of the cell (AOP): classification, mechanisms of action of the system

non-enzymatic protection.

35. Antioxidants and antihypoxants: concepts, examples of representatives and their mechanisms

actions.

36. NO-synthase: tissue localization, function, activity regulation, physiological and

clinical significance.

Carbohydrate metabolism

1. Carbohydrates: class definition, principles of daily requirement regulation,

structural and metabolic role.

2. Glycogen and starch: structures, mechanisms of digestion and absorption of end

hydrolysis products.

3. Mechanisms of membrane digestion of carbohydrates and absorption of monosaccharides.

4. Malabsorption: concept, biochemical causes, general symptoms.

5. Milk intolerance syndrome: causes, biochemical disorders, mechanisms of times -

development of the main symptoms, consequences.

6. Carbohydrates: class definition, structure and biological significance of GAGs.

7. Derivatives of monosaccharides: uronic and sialic acids, amino and

deoxysaccharides structure and biological role.

8. Dietary fiber and fiber: structural features, physiological role.

9. Gl6F: reactions of formation and decay to glucose, nomenclature and characteristics

enzymes, meaning.

10. Pathways of Gl6P metabolism, significance of the paths, reactions of formation from glucose, characteristics and

enzyme nomenclature.

11. Reactions of glycogen breakdown to glucose and Gl6F - tissue features, significance,

enzymes, regulation.

12. Reactions of glycogen biosynthesis from glucose - tissue features, enzymes,

regulation, meaning.

13. Mechanisms of covalent and allosteric regulation of glycogen metabolism, significance.

14. Adrenaline and Glucagon: Comparative characteristics by chemical nature

mechanism of action, metabolic and physiological effects.

15. Mechanisms of hormonal regulation of glycogen metabolism, significance.

16. Glucose catabolism in anaerobic and aerobic conditions: scheme, compare

energy balance, indicate the reasons for the different efficiency.

17. Glycolysis - reactions of substrate phosphorylation and phosphorylation of substrates:

nomenclature of enzymes, mechanisms of regulation, biological significance.

18. Glycolysis: kinase reactions, enzyme nomenclature, regulation, significance.

19. Regulatory reactions of glycolysis, enzymes, mechanisms of regulation, biological

meaning.

20. Reactions of glycolytic oxidoreduction of aerobic and anaerobic glycolysis:

write, compare energy efficiency, value.

21. Glycolysis: reactions of the conversion of triose phosphates to pyruvate, compare energy

output under aerobic and anaerobic conditions.

22. Pasteur effect: concept, mechanism, physiological significance. Compare

energy balance of fructose breakdown in the absence and implementation of the effect of P.

23. Pathways of lactate metabolism: scheme, significance of paths, tissue features.

24. Conversion of pyruvate to ACCoA and oxaloacetate: reactions, enzymes, regulation,

meaning.

25. Shuttle mechanisms of hydrogen transport from cytosol to mitochondria: schemes,

biological significance, tissue features.

26. Pentose phosphate glycolysis shunt: scheme, biological significance, tissue

peculiarities.

27. Pentose cycle - reactions to pentose phosphates: enzymes, regulation, significance.

28. Oxidative reactions glycolysis and pentose phosphate shunt, biological

meaning.

29. Gluconeogenesis: concept, scheme, substrates, allosteric regulation, tissue

features, biological significance.

30. Gluconeogenesis: key reactions, enzymes, regulation, significance.

31. Mechanisms of glucose formation in the liver: schemes, significance, causes and consequences

possible violations.

32. Hormonal regulation of mechanisms for maintaining blood sugar levels.

33. Levels and mechanisms of regulation of carbohydrate metabolism, examples.

34. Glucose-lactate and glucose-alanine cycles (Corey cycle): scheme, meaning.

35. The central level of regulation of carbohydrate metabolism is adrenaline, glucagon, nervous

36. Fructose metabolism in the liver - scheme, meaning. Fructose intolerance: causes,

metabolic disorders, biochemical and clinical manifestations.

37. Metabolism of galactose in the liver - scheme, meaning. Galactosemia: causes, metabolic

disorders, biochemical and clinical manifestations.

38 Hyperglycemia: definition of the concept, classification of causes, biochemical

39. Hypoglycemia: definition of the concept, classification of causes, biochemical

disorders, clinical manifestations, compensation mechanisms.

40. Insulin - human and animal: compare by chemical composition, structure,

physicochemical and immunological properties.

41. Mechanisms of insulin biosynthesis and secretion: stages, enzymes, regulation.

42. Mechanisms of regulation of formation and secretion of insulin by the concentration of glucose,

arginine, hormones.

43. Insulin receptors: tissue, cellular localization, structural organization,

metabolism.

44. Proteins - glucose transporters across cell membranes: classification,

localization, composition and structure, mechanisms of regulation of their function.

45. General scheme of the mechanism of action of insulin.

46. ​​Mechanism of action of insulin on glucose transport.

47. Metabolic and physiological effects of insulin.

48. Diabetes mellitus type I and II: concepts, the role of genetic factors and diabetogens in their

emergence and development.

49. Stages of development of diabetes type I and II - a brief comparative description

genetic, biochemical, morphological features.

50. Mechanisms of carbohydrate metabolism disorders in diabetes mellitus, clinical

manifestations and consequences.

51. Insulin resistance and glucose intolerance: definition of concepts,

causes, metabolic disorders, clinical manifestations,

consequences.

52. Metabolic syndrome: its components, causes, clinical

meaning.

53. Ketoacidotic diabetic coma: stages and mechanisms of development, clinical

manifestations, biochemical diagnostics, prevention.

54. Hyperosmolar diabetic coma: mechanisms of development, biochemical

disorders, clinical manifestations, biochemical diagnostics.

55. Hypoglycemia and hypoglycemic coma: causes and mechanisms of development,

biochemical and clinical manifestations, diagnosis and prevention.

56. Mechanisms of development of microangiopathy: clinical manifestations, consequences.

57. Mechanisms of development of macroangiopathies: clinical manifestations, consequences.

58. Mechanisms of development of neuropathies: clinical manifestations, consequences.

59. Monosaccharides: Classification, isomerism, examples, biological significance.

60. Carbohydrates: Basic chemical properties and qualitative reactions their discovery in

biological environments.

61. Methodological approaches and methods for studying carbohydrate metabolism.

lipid metabolism.

1. Define the class of lipids, their classification, structure, physical-chemical. properties and biological significance of each class.

2. Principles of regulation of the daily requirement of dietary lipids.

3. Structure, chemical composition, functions of lipoproteins.

4. List the stages of lipid metabolism in the body (J.K.T., blood, liver, adipose tissue, etc.).

5. Bile: chemical composition, functions, humoral regulation of secretion, causes and consequences of secretion disorders.

6. Surfactants of the gastrointestinal tract and emulsification mechanisms, significance.

7. Enzymes that break down TG, PL, ECS, and other lipids - their origin, regulation of secretion, functions.

8. Schemes of reactions of enzymatic hydrolysis of lipids to their final products.

9. Chemical composition and structure of micelles, mechanisms of lipid absorption.

10. Significance of hepato-enteral recycling of bile acids, cholesterol, PL in the physiology and pathology of the body.

11. Steatorrhea: causes and mechanisms of development, biochemical and clinical manifestations, consequences.

12. Mechanisms of lipid resynthesis in enterocytes, significance.

13. Chylomicron metabolism, significance (role of apoproteins, hepatic and vascular lipoprotein lipases).

14. Biochemical causes, metabolic disorders, clinical manifestations of chylomicron metabolism disorders.

  1. Adipose tissue - white and brown: localization, functions, subcellular and chemical composition, age characteristics.
  2. Features of metabolism and function of brown adipose tissue.
  3. Brown adipose tissue: mechanisms of regulation of thermogenesis, the role of leptin and uncoupler proteins, significance.
  4. Leptin: chemical nature, regulation of biosynthesis and secretion, mechanisms of action, physiological and metabolic effects.
  5. White adipose tissue: features of metabolism, functions, role in the integration of metabolism.
  6. Mechanism of lipolysis in white adipose tissue: reactions, regulation, significance.
  7. Mechanisms of regulation of lipolysis - scheme: the role of SNS and PSNS, their b- and a-adrenergic receptors, hormones of adrenaline, norepinephrine, glucocorticoids, growth hormone, T 3, T 4 , insulin and their intracellular mediators, significance.
  8. b-Oxidation of fatty acids: briefly - the history of the issue, the essence of the process, modern concepts, significance, tissue and age characteristics.
  9. Preparatory stage of b-oxidation of fatty acids: activation reaction and shuttle mechanism of transport of fatty acids across the mitochondrial membrane - scheme, regulation.
  10. b-Oxidation of fatty acids: reactions of one turn of the cycle, regulation, energy balance of oxidation of stearic and oleic acids (compare).
  11. Oxidation of glycerol to H 2 O and CO 2: scheme, energy balance.
  12. Oxidation of TG to H 2 O and CO 2: scheme, energy balance.
  13. LPO: concept, role in cell physiology and pathology.
  14. FRO: stages and factors of initiation, reactions of formation of reactive oxygen species.
  15. Reactions of the formation of lipid peroxidation products used for the clinical assessment of the state of lipid peroxidation.
  16. AOD: enzymatic, non-enzymatic, mechanisms.
  17. Scheme of the exchange of Acet-CoA, the meaning of the ways.
  18. Biosynthesis of fatty acids: stages, tissue and subcellular localization of the process, significance, sources of carbon and hydrogen for biosynthesis.
  19. The mechanism of transfer of Acet-CoA from mitochondria to the cytosol, regulation, significance.
  20. Acet-CoA carboxylation reaction, enzyme nomenclature, regulation, significance.
  21. Citrate and Mal-CoA: reactions of formation, role in the mechanisms of metabolism regulation fatty to-t.
  22. Palmityl synthetase complex: structure, subcellular localization, function, regulation, sequence of reactions of one turn of the process, energy balance.
  23. Elongation reactions - shortening of fatty acids, subcellular localization of enzymes.
  24. Fatty acid desaturating systems: composition, localization, functions, examples (formation of oleic acid from palmitic acid).
  25. The relationship of fatty acid biosynthesis with carbohydrate metabolism and energy metabolism.
  26. Hormonal regulation of the biosynthesis of fatty acids and TH - mechanisms, significance.
  27. Reactions of TH biosynthesis, tissue and age characteristics, regulation, significance.
  28. Biosynthesis of TG and PL: scheme, regulation and integration of these processes (the role of diglyceride phosphotidic acid, CTP).
  29. Cholesterol biosynthesis: reactions to mevalonic acid further, schematically.
  30. Features of regulation in the intestinal wall and other tissues of cholesterol biosynthesis; the role of hormones: insulin, T 3, T 4, vitamin PP.
  31. Reactions of the formation and decay of cholesterol esters - the role of AChAT and ECS hydrolase, features of the tissue distribution of cholesterol and its esters, significance.
  32. Catabolism of cholesterol, tissue features, ways of removal from the body. Medicines and food substances that reduce the level of cholesterol in the blood.
  33. Reactions of biosynthesis of ketone bodies, regulation, significance.
  34. Decomposition reactions of ketone bodies to Acet-CoA and then to CO 2 and H 2 O, scheme, energy balance.
  35. Integration of lipid and carbohydrate metabolism - the role of the liver, adipose tissue, intestinal wall, etc.
  36. Levels and mechanisms of regulation of lipid metabolism (list).
  37. Metabolic (cellular) level of regulation of lipid metabolism, mechanisms, examples.
  38. Interorgan level of regulation of lipid metabolism - a concept. Randle cycle, implementation mechanisms.
  39. The central level of lipid metabolism regulation: the role of SNS and PSNS - a and b receptors, hormones - CH, GK, T 3, T 4, TSH, STH, insulin, leptin, etc.

54. VLDL metabolism, regulation, significance; the role of LPL, apo B-100, E and C 2 , BE receptors, HDL.

55. LDL metabolism, regulation, significance; the role of apo B-100, B-cell receptors, ACAT, BLEK, HDL.

56. HDL metabolism, regulation, significance; the role of LCAT, apo A and C, other classes of drugs.

57. Blood lipids: composition, normal content of each component, transport through the bloodstream, physiological and diagnostic significance.

58. Hyperlipidemias: classification according to Fredrickson. The relationship of each class with a specific pathological process and its biochemical diagnosis.

59. Laboratory methods for determining the types of lipidemia.

60. Dyslipoproteinemia: chylomicronemia, b-lipoproteinemia, abetalipoproteinemia, Tangi's disease - biochemical causes, metabolic disorders, diagnosis.

61. Atherosclerosis: concept, prevalence, complications, consequences.

62. Atherosclerosis: causes, stages and mechanisms of development.

63. Exogenous and endogenous risk factors for atherosclerosis, their mechanism of action, prevention.

64. Atherosclerosis: features of development and course in diabetes mellitus.

65. Diabetic macroangiopathy: mechanisms of development, role in the occurrence, course and complication of atherosclerosis.

66. Obesity: concept, classification, age and gender characteristics of fat deposition, calculated indicators of the degree of obesity, significance.

67. Lipostat: concept, main links and mechanisms of its functioning, meaning.

68. List the humoral factors that regulate the center of hunger.

69. Leptin: regulation of formation and entry into the bloodstream, mechanism of participation in the development of primary obesity.

70. Absolute and relative leptin deficiency: causes, mechanisms of development.

71. Secondary obesity: causes, consequences.

72. Biochemical disorders in tissues and blood in obesity, consequences, prevention.

73. Obesity: mechanisms of relationship with diabetes mellitus and atherosclerosis.

74. Insulin resistance: concept, biochemical causes and mechanisms of development, metabolic disorders, relationship with obesity.

75. The role of cachexin (TNF-a) in the development of insulin resistance and obesity.

76. Metabolic syndrome: concept, its components, clinical significance.

The role of hereditary factors and factors environment in his

occurrence.

regulatory systems of the body.

  1. Regulation systems: definition of concepts - hormones, hormones, histohormones, dispersed endocrine system, immune regulatory system, their general properties.
  2. Classification and nomenclature of hormones: according to the place of synthesis, chemical nature, functions.
  3. Levels and principles of organization of regulatory systems: nervous, hormonal, immune.
  4. Stages of hormone metabolism: biosynthesis, activation, secretion, transport through the bloodstream, reception and mechanism of action, inactivation and removal from the body, clinical significance.
  5. V2: Databases. Database and knowledge base management systems.
  6. V2: Purpose and basics of using artificial intelligence systems; knowledge bases, expert systems, artificial intelligence.
  7. and the development of the tourism economy has a significant impact on the state of the monetary system.
  8. A. Smith and the formation of a system of categories of classical political economy

Basic concepts and key terms: regulatory systems, nervous, endocrine, immune systems.

Remember! What is the regulation of the functions of the human body?

Regulation (from lat. regulation) - put in order, arrange.

Think!

The human body is a complex system. It contains billions of cells, millions of structural units, thousands of organs, hundreds of functional systems, dozens of physiological systems. And why do they all work harmoniously, as a whole?

What are the features of the regulatory systems of the human body?

REGULATORY SYSTEMS

a set of organs that have a leading influence on the activity of physiological systems, organs and cells. These systems have structural features and functions associated with their purpose.

Regulatory systems have central and peripheral departments. Leading teams are formed in the central bodies, and the peripheral bodies ensure the distribution and transfer of them to the working bodies for execution (the principle of centralization).

To control the execution of commands, the central bodies of regulatory systems receive response information from the working bodies. This feature of the activity biological systems called the feedback principle.

Information from regulatory systems throughout the body is transmitted in the form of signals. Therefore, the cells of such systems have the ability to produce electrical impulses and chemical substances, encode and disseminate information.

Regulatory systems carry out the regulation of functions in accordance with changes in the external or internal environment. Therefore, the governing commands that are sent to the authorities are either stimulating or slowing down (the principle of double action).

Such features in the human body are characteristic of three systems - nervous, endocrine and immune. And they are the regulatory systems of our body.

So, the main features of regulatory systems are:

1) the presence of central and peripheral departments; 2) the ability to produce guiding signals; 3) activity on the principle of feedback; 4) double mode of regulation.

How is the regulatory activity of the nervous system organized?

The nervous system is a set of human organs that perceive, analyze and provide the activity of the physiological systems of organs in a very fast mode. The structure of the nervous system is divided into two parts - central and peripheral. The central one includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral one includes the nerves. The activity of the nervous system is reflex, carried out with the help of nerve impulses occurring in nerve cells. A reflex is a response of the body to irritation that occurs with the participation of the nervous system. Any activity of physiological systems has a reflex character. So, with the help of reflexes, the secretion of saliva is regulated on Tasty food pulling the hand away from the thorns of a rose, etc.


Reflex signals are transmitted at high speed by neural pathways that form reflex arcs. This is the path along which impulses are transmitted from receptors to the central parts of the nervous system and from them to the working organs. The reflex arc consists of 5 parts: 1 - receptor link (perceives irritation and turns it into impulses); 2 - sensitive (centripetal) link (transmits excitation to the central nervous system); 3 - the central link (it analyzes information with the participation of intercalary neurons); 4 - motor (centrifugal) link (transmits guiding impulses to the working body); 5 - working link (with the participation of a muscle or gland, certain action) (ill. 10).

The transmission of excitation from one neuron to another is carried out using synapses. This is a plot of con

cycle of one neuron with another or with a working organ. Excitation in synapses is transmitted by special substances-mediators. They are synthesized by the presynaptic membrane and accumulate in synaptic vesicles. When the nerve impulses reach the synapse, the vesicles burst and the neurotransmitter molecules enter the synaptic cleft. The membrane of the dendrite, called postsynaptic, receives information and converts it into impulses. Excitation is transmitted further by the next neuron.

So thanks electrical nature nerve impulses and the presence of special pathways, the nervous system carries out reflex regulation very quickly and provides a specific effect on the organs.

Why are the endocrine and immune systems regulatory?

The endocrine system is a collection of glands that provide humoral regulation of the functions of physiological systems. The highest department of endocrine regulation is the hypothalamus, which, together with the pituitary gland, controls the peripheral glands. The cells of the endocrine glands produce hormones and send them into the internal environment. The blood, and subsequently the tissue fluid, delivers these chemical signals to the cells. Hormones can slow down or increase cell function. For example, the adrenal hormone adrenaline revitalizes the work of the heart, acetylcholine slows it down. The influence of hormones on organs is a slower way of controlling functions than with the help of the nervous system, however this influence can be general and long-term.

The immune system is a collection of organs that form special chemical compounds and cells to provide a protective effect on cells, tissues and organs. The central organs of the immune system include the red bone marrow and thymus, and the peripheral organs include the tonsils, appendix, and lymph nodes. The central place among the cells of the immune system is occupied by various leukocytes, and among the chemical compounds - antibodies produced in response to foreign protein compounds. The cells and substances of the immune system are spread by the fluids of the internal environment. And their effect, like hormones, is slow, long and general.

So, the endocrine and immune systems are regulatory systems and carry out humoral and immune regulation in the human body.

ACTIVITY

Learning to know

Independent work with the table

Compare the nervous, endocrine and immune regulatory systems, identify the similarities and differences between them.


Biology + Neurophysiology

Platon Grigoryevich Kostyuk (1924-2010) - an outstanding Ukrainian neurophysiologist. The scientist for the first time designed and used microelectrode technique to study the organization of nerve centers, penetrated into the nerve cell, registering its signals. He studied how information is converted from electrical to molecular form in the nervous system. Platon Kostyuk proved that important role calcium ions play in these processes. And what is the role of calcium ions in the nervous regulation of the functions of the human body?

Biology + Psychology

Each person reacts to colors differently, depending on temperament and health status. Psychologists, based on the attitude to color, determine the character of a person, his inclinations, intellect, type of psyche. So, the red color strengthens memory, gives vigor and vigor, excites the nervous system, and purple enhances creativity, has a calming effect on the nervous system, increases muscle tone. Applying knowledge of regulatory systems, try to explain the mechanism of the effect of color on the human body.

RESULT

Questions for self-control

1. What are regulatory systems? 2. Name the regulatory systems of the human body. 3. What is a reflex? 4. What is a reflex arc? 5. Name the components of the reflex arc. 6. What are the endocrine and immune regulatory systems?

7. What are the features of the regulatory systems of the human body? 8. How is the regulatory activity of the nervous system organized? 9. Why are the endocrine and immune systems regulatory?

10. Name the similarities and differences between the nervous, endocrine and immune systems of body regulation.

This is textbook material.