What are foreign words called in Russian. What languages are the words borrowed from? Classification of loanwords

Examples of loanwords: guest worker, motel, confetti, olivier, jam, latte, bulldozer. More examples look in the dictionaries of foreign words L.P. Krysina, N.G. Komleva.

Borrowing words

The reasons for borrowing words from other languages are related to technical and technological progress - the emergence of new technologies, inventions, objects, concepts in the world, for which there are no words in the Russian language.

When borrowing, other people's words undergo phonetic, morphological, morphemic and semantic changes. This is due to the “adjustment” of borrowing words to the established features and rules in the Russian language. Some authors of school textbooks on the Russian language share the concepts of a borrowed and a foreign word. If a borrowed word comes into the vocabulary of the Russian language with changes, then a foreign word undergoes almost no changes, retaining its original phonetic, morphological and other features.

There are a lot of borrowed words in modern Russian. Most of them are deeply rooted in the Russian language, and for modern native speakers, the words are perceived as native Russian. Their true origin is shown by an etymological analysis.

The process of borrowing words began in the Old Russian language and is currently taking place. Words were borrowed from Latin, Finno-Ugric, Greek, Turkic, Polish, Dutch, German, French, and English. Names of people, geographical names, names of months, church terms were borrowed. Some borrowed words have become obsolete: blubber, Berkovets, tiun, grid, golbets and others.

Borrowing morphemes

Not only whole words are borrowed into the Russian language, but also parts of words (morphemes) that affect word formation and give birth to new words. We list some foreign prefixes and foreign suffixes, for each item we give examples of words.

Borrowing prefixes

a- - immoral, amorphous, apolitical, arrhythmia, anonymous, apathy, atheist.
anti- - antiworld, anticyclone, antithesis.
archi- - archival, arch-millionaire, archbishop.
pan-pan-American, pan-Slavism, pan-epidemic.
de- - deheroization, degradation, decomposition, dismantling, demobilization, demotivation.
dis- -disinfection, disorientation, disorganization.
dis- - disharmony, disqualification, disproportion, dysfunction.
dis- - disassociation, disjunction.
counter-counterattack, countermarch, counteroffensive, counterrevolution, counterstrike.
trans- - transatlantic, trans-European, trans-regional.
ultra-ultrasound, ultrashort, ultra-left, far-right, trendy.
and others...

Borrowing suffixes

-ism - anarchism, collectivism, communism.
ist - scuba diver, careerist, machinist, parachutist.
-izirov- - militarize, mechanize, fantasize.
-er- - poacher, gentleman, trainee, boyfriend.
and others...

Borrowing foreign words contributes to the development of the language. Borrowing is associated with close communication between the peoples of the world, a developed system of communications, the presence of international professional communities, etc.

Everyone knows that cultural contacts with neighbors are vital for the normal development of any nation. Mutual enrichment of vocabulary, borrowing words, terms and even names are inevitable. As a rule, they are useful for the language: the use of the missing word allows you to avoid descriptive phrases, the language becomes simpler and more dynamic. For example, a long phrase "trade in a certain place once a year" in Russian is successfully replaced by the one that came from German language word fair. AT modern Russia Unfortunately, one often has to deal with the illegal and unjustified use of foreign words in everyday speech. all sorts of shops, consulting, marketing and leasing literally litter the Russian language, by no means decorating it. However, it should be recognized that sweeping prohibitions can harm its normal development. In the article brought to your attention, we will talk about the successful use of foreign words and terms.

Let's start with terms that are close and familiar to any teacher of the Russian language and literature. Word poetry has become so firmly established in our language that we no longer think about its meaning. However, in Greek it means "creation". Word poem translates as "creation", a rhyme – "proportionality","consistency", the word rhythm is the same root to it. Stanza translated from Greek "turn", a epithet – "figurative definition".

FROM Ancient Greece related terms such as epic ("collection of stories"), myth(word, speech),drama ("action"), lyrics(from the word musical), elegy("the mournful tune of the flute"), Oh yeah ("song"),epithalamus("wedding poem or song"),epic ("word", "story", "song"), tragedy ("goat song"), comedy("bear holidays"). The name of the latter genre is associated with holidays in honor of Greek goddess Artemis, who coped in March. This month the bears came out of hibernation, which gave the name to these representations. well and scene- of course, "tent" where the actors performed. Concerning parodies, that is - "singing inside out" .

Whereas the Greeks took upon themselves the "duty" of naming poetic and theatrical terms, the Romans took up prose in earnest. Latin connoisseurs will tell us what it is short word can be translated into Russian with the phrase "purposeful speech". The Romans generally liked precise and short definitions. Not without reason from Latin the word came to us lapidary, i.e. "carved in stone" (short, concise). Word text means "connection", "compound", a illustration – "explanation"(to the text). Legend- this is "what needs to be read",memorandum – "things to remember", a opus– "work", "work". Word plot translated from Latin means "story", "tale", but it came to Russian from German with the meaning "plot". Manuscript- this is handwritten document, well and editor- this is a person who has to "put everything in order". Madrigal- also a Latin word, it comes from the root "mother" and means song in native, "mother" language. To finish with literary terms, let's say that the Scandinavian word runes originally meant "all knowledge", after - "secret" and only later began to be used in the meaning letters, letters.

But back to the Romans, who, as you know, developed a unique set of laws for that time ( Roman law) and enriched world culture many legal terms. For example, justice ("fairness", "lawfulness"), alibi ("in the other place"), verdict ("truth spoken"), advocate(from Latin "call"), notary– ("scribe"),protocol("first sheet"), visa ("viewed") etc. The words version("turn") and intrigue ("confuse") is also of Latin origin. The Romans coined the word blunder – "fall", "mistake", "wrong step". Greek and Latin origin has the majority medical terms. As an example of borrowing from Greek you can use words like anatomy("dissection"), agony ("struggle"), hormone ("set in motion"), diagnosis("definition"), diet ("lifestyle", "mode"), paroxysm ("irritation"). The following terms are Latin in origin: hospital("hospitable"), immunity ("liberation from something"),disabled person ("powerless", "weak"), invasion ("attack"),muscle ("mouse"), obstruction ("blockage"),obliteration ("destruction"), pulse ("push").

At present, Latin is the language of science and serves as a source for the formation of new words and terms that never existed. For example, allergy – "another action"(the term was coined by the Austrian pediatrician K. Pirke). Christianity, as you know, came to us from Byzantium, whose inhabitants, although they called themselves Romans (Romans), spoke mainly Greek. Along with the new religion, many new words came to our country, some of which were sometimes represented by tracing paper - literal translation Greek terms. For example, the word enthusiasm ("divine inspiration") on the Old Slavonic language was translated as "rage"(!). This interpretation was not accepted by the language. More often, new terms were adopted without change. original value many of them have long been forgotten, and few people know that angel- this is "herald", apostle –"messenger",clergy – "lot", icon case – "box", liturgy – "duty", deacon –"servant", bishop– "seeing from above", a sexton– "watchman". Word hero also Greek and means "St"- no more, no less! But the word that has become abusive filthy came to us from the Latin language and means only "rural"(a citizen). The fact is that pagan cults were especially tenaciously held in countryside, as a result, this word has become synonymous with pagan. Foreign in origin are also the words that are called representatives underworld. Word demon "deity", "spirit". It is known that Mikhail Vrubel did not want the demon depicted in his paintings to be confused with the devil or the devil: “Demon means“ soul ”and personifies the eternal struggle of the restless human spirit, seeking reconciliation of the passions that overwhelm him, knowledge of life and not finding an answer to his doubts either on earth or in heaven, This is how he explained his position. What do the words devil and devil mean? Crap- this is not a name, but an epithet ( "horned"). Devil same - "deceiver", "slanderer"(Greek). Other names for the devil are of Hebrew origin: Satan – "opposite", "adversary", Belial- from the phrase "useless". Name Mephistopheles invented by Goethe, but it is composed of two Hebrew words - "liar" and "destroyer". And here is the name Woland, which M.A. Bulgakov used in his famous novel The Master and Margarita, is of Germanic origin: in medieval German dialects it meant "deceiver", "rogue". In Goethe's Faust, Mephistopheles is once mentioned under this name.

Word fairy is of Latin origin and means "fate". The Welsh believed that fairies were descended from pagan priestesses, while the Scots and Irish believed that they were from angels seduced by the devil. However, despite the centuries-old domination of Christianity, Europeans still treat fairies and elves with sympathy, calling them "good people" and "peaceful neighbors."

Word dwarf invented by Paracelsus. In Greek it means "inhabitant of the earth". In Scandinavian mythology, such creatures were called "dark elves" or "zwerg". Brownie in Germany is called "kobold". Later this name was given to a metal that had "bad character", - made it difficult to smelt copper. Nickel called elf living by the water, a big fan of jokes. This name was given to a metal similar to silver.

Word the Dragon in Greek means "sharp seeing". Interestingly, in China it is mythological creature traditionally depicted without eyes. The legend tells that one artist of the Tang era (IX century) got carried away and painted the eyes of a dragon: the room was filled with fog, there was thunder, the dragon came to life and flew away. And the word Hurricane comes from the name of the god of fear of the South American Indians - Huracana. The names of some precious and semi-precious stones. Sometimes the name indicates the color of the stone. For example, ruby – "red"(lat.), chrysolite – "golden"(Greek), olevin – "green"(Greek), lapis lazuli– "sky blue"(Greek), etc. But sometimes their name is associated with certain properties that were attributed to these stones in antiquity. So, amethyst translated from Greek as "not drunk": according to legends, this stone is able to "curb passions", therefore Christian priests often use it to decorate vestments, insert it into crosses. For this reason, amethyst has another name - "bishop's stone." And the word agate in Greek means "good", which he had to bring to his owner.

There were cases when the same word came to our country from different languages and different time, resulting in different meanings. For example, words colossus, machination and machine- single root. Two of them came to us directly from the Greek language. One of them means "something huge", other - "trick". But the third came through Western European languages and is a technical term.

Sometimes words are formed as a result of combining roots belonging to different languages. For example: word abracadabra contains a Greek root with the meaning "deity" and Hebrew with the meaning "word". That is "word of God"- an expression or phrase that seems meaningless to the uninitiated.

And the word snob interesting because, being Latin in origin, it appeared in England at the end of the 18th century. It originated from latin expression sine nobilitas ( "no nobility"), which was reduced to s. nob.: so on English ships passengers who did not have the right to dine with the captain began to be called. Later, in English houses, this word was placed on the guest lists opposite persons who should have been announced without a title.

But what about other languages? Did they contribute to the Russian vocabulary? The answer to this question is clearly in the affirmative. There are many examples. So, the Arabic phrase "lord of the sea" became a Russian word admiral.

Fabric name atlas translated from Arabic means "beautiful", "smooth".cabal- this is "receipt", "commitment",shackles – "fetters", "fetters" etc. Long been perceived as Russian Turkic words scribble ("black or bad hand") and peanut ("like a watermelon"). About the antiquity of the word iron evidence of its Sanskrit origin ( "metal", "ore"). Weight- this is "heavy"(Persian), stage –"platform"(Spanish), coat of arms – "inheritance"(Polish). The words bank(from "put the ship on its side") and yacht(from "drive") are of Dutch origin. The words rush ("top everything"– over all), bluff("deception"), velveteen("velvet") came to Russia from England. The last word it is interesting because it is a “false friend of the translator”: readers have probably been surprised more than once that at receptions and balls, kings and court ladies flaunt in velvet suits and dresses. The words came from the German language cabin boy("boy"), tie("scarf"), vane ("wing"), flask ("bottle"), Workbench ("workshop"). There are a lot of borrowings from Italian and French. For example, trampoline("hit"),career("run"), feint ("pretense", "fiction"), stamp ("seal"), relay race ("stirrup") are Italian. scam ("a business"), gauze ("Kiseya"), balance ("scales"),compliment("Hey"), negligee ("negligence") are French.

Italian and French have given life to so many musical and theatrical terms. Here is some of them. Italian word conservatory("shelter") recalls the decision of the Venice authorities to turn 4 convents to music schools (XVIII century). Virtuoso means "valor", word cantata derived from Italian kantare –"sing", capriccio- from the word "goat"(a work with a galloping, “like a goat”, change of themes and moods), opera –"essay", tutti – "performing by the whole team".

Now it's France's turn: arrangement – "tidying up", overture from the word "open", benefit – "profit", "benefit", repertoire– "scroll", decoration –"decoration", pointe shoes(solid toe ballet shoes) - "point", "tip",divertissement– "entertainment", foyer – "hearth". And in modern pop music, the word is very popular plywood which comes from the German "impose"(voice to already recorded music).

Speaking of borrowing from French, you can not ignore the culinary theme. Yes, the word garnish derived from French "to equip", "to equip".Glace- means "frozen", "icy". Cutlet – "rib". Consomme – "bouillon".Langet – "tongue". Marinade– "put in salt water» . Roll- from the word "clotting". Word the vinaigrette– exception: being French in origin (from vinaigre – "vinegar"), it appeared in Russia. All over the world this dish is called "Russian salad".

It is interesting that many dog names popular in our country have a foreign origin. The point is that the peasants Russian villages often could not afford to keep a dog. The landlords, on the other hand, often kept dozens and even hundreds of hunting dogs on their country estates (and even took bribes with “borzoi puppies”) and several lap dogs in city houses. Since the Russian nobles knew French (and later English) better than their native language, they gave foreign names to their dogs. Some of them are widely spread among the people. What familiar word could be heard by a peasant who did not know French, nicknamed Cheri ("Cutie")? Of course, Ball! Trezor translated into Russian means "treasure"(French), nickname watchdog descended from French word"bearded", a Rex- this is "tsar"(lat.). A number of nicknames are derived from foreign names. For example, Bobik and Tobik- these are variants of Russian adaptation English nameBobby,Bug and Julie descended from Julia. And the nicknames Jim and Jack do not even try to hide their foreign origin.

But what about the great and mighty Russian language? Did he contribute to the development of foreign languages? It turns out that many languages of the world included Russian word man. Word grandmother in English is used in the meaning "women's headscarf", a pancakes in Britain is called small round sandwiches. Word vulgarity entered the dictionary of English language because V. Nabokov, who wrote in this language, having despaired of finding its full-fledged analogue, decided to leave it without translation in one of his novels.

The words satellite and comrade known all over the world and kalashnikov for a foreigner - not a surname, but the name of a Russian machine gun. Relatively recently, the now somewhat forgotten terms made a triumphal procession around the world perestroika and glasnost. The words vodka, matryoshka and balalaika are used so often and out of place by foreigners talking about Russia that they cause irritation. But for the word pogrom, which entered the dictionaries of many European languages in 1903, is frankly a shame. The words intelligentsia(author - P. Boborykin) and disinformation are not Russian "by origin", but they were invented precisely in Russia. From the Russian language that became their "native" language, they passed into many foreign languages and became widespread throughout the world.

In 1939, during World War II, a reporter used the word "blitz" to describe fast action. The original meaning of the German word - "lightning" - reflected how quickly the word is becoming fashionable, symbolizing the constant attacks of Germany on Britain. A few years later, the linguist Carl F. Koenig documented the entry of words into English in 1943 in the Modern Language Journal.

Soya(English Soy)
Origin language: Japanese

You may already know that karaoke and ramen noodles came to English from Japanese, but soy might seem more European at its core. From a technical point of view, this is true: in English, this word came from the Dutch “saio” in the 1670s, and meant soy-based fish sauce. The presence of the Dutch in Japan was conditioned by lengthy trade agreements. The Dutch word “saio” is derived from the Japanese word “shoyu,” which meant exclusively soy, and was derived from the Chinese word “shi-yu”, fermented bean oil.

Alcohol(eng. Alcohol)
Origin language: Arabic

Al-kuhul (English Al-kuhul) means a type of cosmetic product, powder for blackening the eyelids. Arab scholars enriched the English language with many mathematical and technological terms through interactions with the Romans and Greeks during a period of close early stages development of the world and later through the conflict with the British during the Crusades.

In the 1540s, the word "alcohol" in Latin meant freeze-dried powder, and English speakers used it to mean "powdered cosmetic product". In the 1670s, this word already meant any sublimated, pure substance, even in liquid state. In 1753, the alcohol of wine was reduced to "alcohol". When was it released chemical formula of this "pure substance", organic chemists in the 1850s began to call all chemically similar substances in the same way.

Shampoo(English Shampoo)
Origin language: Hindi

During the period of British imperialism over India, Anglo-Indian was spoken by both cultures. The Anglo-Indian word "shampoo" meaning "to massage" originally came from the Indian "champna" - "to press, knead", but stumbled over the form of the imperative in the meaning of "You! Stretch!" - “champo”. Perhaps the word “champna” comes from the Sanskrit “capayati”, that is, “beats, kneads”.

In the 1860s, an English speaker recorded a new meaning for the word "shampoo" as "to wash hair" as the English kneaded and pressed soap into the scalp. The nominal form of the phrase "hair-soap" (English "hair-soap") appeared shortly after five English words borrowed from other languages.

Chauffeur(English Chauffeur)
Origin language: French
In French, the word “Chauffer” means “stoker” or “stoker”, since the driver of a French car in 1899 served a steam engine.

The word entered the English language around the same time as the steam-powered car, as the wealthy English-speaking elite often used French words for expensive cultural terms. By 1902, the word had expanded its meaning to "pay driver."

Sauna(English Sauna)
Origin language: Finnish

The Finnish Bath Society claims that the word "sauna" could originally mean a heated, partly underground winter dwelling. The dwelling evolved into a bathhouse, and when the English-speaking population took over the bathhouse, it was also decided to keep the name.

Language is the most universal means of communication that reacts mobilely to changes in the needs of society. Every day one or more new words appear, which are the result of a simplification or merger of existing ones, but the largest number verbal novelties come from abroad. So, foreign words in Russian: why do they arise and what are they?

Original Russian vocabulary

The Russian language has been formed over many centuries, as a result of which three stages of the genesis of original Russian words have been identified.

Indo-European vocabulary arose in the Neolithic era and was based on the basic concepts of kinship (mother, daughter), household items (hammer), food (meat, fish), the name of animals (ox, deer) and elements (fire, water).

The main words were absorbed by the Russian language and are considered part of it.

Proto-Slavic vocabulary, which had a high relevance at the border of the 6th-7th centuries, made a great influence on Russian speech. and spread to the territory of Eastern and Central Europe, as well as the Balkans.

This group contains words related to flora(tree, grass, root), names of crops and plants (wheat, carrots, beets), tools and raw materials (hoe, fabric, stone, iron), birds (goose, nightingale), as well as food products (cheese, milk, kvass).

Modern words of primordially Russian vocabulary arose in the period from the 8th to the 17th centuries. and belonged to the East Slavic language branch. The mass fraction of them expressed an action (run, lie, multiply, lay down), the names of abstract concepts arose (freedom, outcome, experience, fate, thought), words appeared that corresponded to household items (wallpaper, carpet, book) and names national dishes(stuffed cabbage, cabbage soup).

Some words have taken root so firmly in Russian speech that they will not need to be replaced soon, while others were brazenly replaced by more consonant synonyms from neighboring countries. So "humanity" turned into "humanity", "appearance" was transformed into "image", and "competition" was called "duel".

The problem of borrowing foreign words

Since ancient times, the Russian people have had trade, cultural and political relations with speakers of other languages, so it was almost impossible to avoid mixing vocabulary.

New words were introduced into Russian speech both from neighboring states and from distant republics.

In fact, words of foreign origin are present in our speech so often and for a long time that we are already used to them and absolutely do not perceive them as something alien.

Here are some examples of well-established foreign words:

China: tea.
Mongolia: hero, label, darkness.
Japan: karate, karaoke, tsunami.
Holland: orange, jacket, hatch, yacht, sprats.
Poland: donut, market, fair.
Czech Republic: tights, pistol, robot.

Official statistics say that only 10% of words in Russian are borrowed. But if you listen to colloquial speech younger generation, we can conclude that the contamination of the Russian language with foreign words has a more global scale.

We go to a fast food restaurant for lunch and order a hamburger and a milkshake. Having found free Wi-Fi, we will not miss the opportunity to visit Facebook to put a couple of likes under the photo of the best friend.

Borrowing foreign words: the main reasons

Why are we so attracted to vocabulary from neighboring countries?

Greece

Now consider the geography of borrowing.

The most generous country that has lent part of the vocabulary to the Russian language is Greece. She gave us the names of almost all famous sciences(geometry, astrology, geography, biology). In addition, many words related to the field of education (alphabet, spelling, Olympiad, department, phonetics, library) have Greek origin.

Some foreign words in Russian have abstract meanings (victory, triumph, chaos, charisma), others characterize quite tangible objects (theater, cucumber, ship).

Thanks to the ancient Greek vocabulary, we learned how sympathy is expressed, felt the taste of style and were able to capture bright events in photographs.
It is interesting that the meaning of some words passed into the Russian language without change, while others acquired new meanings (economics - home economics, tragedy - a goat song).

Italy

What do you think, are there many words in Russian speech that come from the Apennine Peninsula? Surely, apart from the famous greeting “chao”, nothing will immediately come to mind. It turns out that Italian foreign words in Russian are present in sufficient quantities.

For example, an identity document was first called a passport in Italy, and only then this word was borrowed by many languages, including Russian.

Everyone knows the tricks of the Sicilian clans, so the origin of the word "mafia" is beyond doubt. Likewise, "carnival" has taken root in many languages thanks to a colorful costume show in Venice. But the Italian roots of “vermicelli” surprised: in the Apennines, vermicelli is translated as “worms”.

AT recent times it became fashionable to use the definition for the press as "paparazzi". But in direct translation, these are not journalists at all, as you might think, but "annoying mosquitoes."

France

But France gave Russian speech a lot of “delicious” words: grillage, jelly, croissant, canape, creme brulee, scrambled eggs, mashed potatoes, stew, soup, soufflé, eclair, cutlet and sauce. Of course, along with the names, recipes were borrowed from French chefs, many of which were to the taste of Russian gourmets.

A few more extensive branches of borrowing are literature, cinema and the entertainment industry: artist, ballet, billiards, magazine, couplet, play, purse, repertoire, restaurant and plot.

The French also became the inventors of seductive details. women's clothing(panties and peignoir), taught the world the rules of behavior in society (etiquette) and the art of beauty (make-up, cream, perfumery).

Germany

German vocabulary is so different from Russian that it is difficult to imagine what kind of words could take root in it. It turns out there are quite a few of them.

For example, we often use german word"route", which refers to a pre-selected path. Or "scale" - the ratio of sizes on the map and on the ground. And the "font" in Russian is the designation of the characters of the letter.

The names of some professions also took root: a hairdresser, an accountant, a locksmith.

The food industry also did not do without borrowings: sandwich, dumplings, waffles and muesli, it turns out, also have German roots.

Also, the Russian language has absorbed several fashionable accessories into its vocabulary: for women - “shoes” and “bra”, for men - “tie”, for children - “backpack”. By the way, a smart child is often called a "wunderkind" - this is also a German concept.

Foreign words in Russian feel quite comfortable, they even settled in our house in the form of a chair, a bathroom and a tile.

England

The largest number of borrowed words come from Foggy Albion. Since English is an international language, and many people know it at a fairly decent level, it is not surprising that many words migrated into Russian speech and began to be perceived as native.

Foreign words in Russian are almost ubiquitous, but the most popular areas of their use are:

business (PR, office, manager, copywriter, broker, holding);
sports (goalkeeper, boxing, football, penalties, time-out, foul);
computer technologies (blog, offline, login, spam, traffic, hacker, hosting, gadget);
entertainment industry (talk show, casting, soundtrack, hit).

Often English words are used as youth slang, which is most influenced by fashion (baby, boyfriend, loser, teenager, respect, make-up, freak).

Some words have become so popular in the world that they have acquired a nominal meaning (jeans, show, weekend).

In modern Russia, unfortunately, one often has to deal with the illegal and unjustified use of foreign words in everyday speech ...

Everyone knows that cultural contacts with neighbors are vital for the normal development of any nation. Mutual enrichment of vocabulary, borrowing words, terms and even names are inevitable. As a rule, they are useful for the language: the use of the missing word allows you to avoid descriptive phrases, the language becomes simpler and more dynamic. For example, the long phrase “trade in a certain place once a year” in Russian is successfully replaced by the word fair that came from the German language. In modern Russia, unfortunately, one often has to deal with the illegal and unjustified use of foreign words in everyday speech. All sorts of shops, consulting, marketing and leasing literally litter the Russian language without decorating it. However, it should be recognized that sweeping prohibitions can harm its normal development. In the article brought to your attention, we will talk about the successful use of foreign words and terms.

***
Let's start with terms that are close and familiar to any teacher of the Russian language and literature. The word poetry has become so firmly established in our language that we no longer even think about its meaning. And meanwhile, in translation from Greek, it means "creativity." The word poem is translated as "creation", and rhyme - "proportion", "consistency", the word rhythm is the same root to it. The stanza in Greek means “turn”, and the epithet is “figurative definition”.

Such terms as epic (“collection of legends”), myth (“word”, “speech”), drama (“action”), lyrics (from the word musical), elegy (“mournful tune of a flute”) are also associated with Ancient Greece. , ode (“song”), epithalama (“wedding poem or song”), epic (“word”, “story”, “song”), tragedy (“goat song”), comedy (“bear holidays”). The name of the latter genre is associated with the holidays in honor of the Greek goddess Artemis, which were celebrated in March. This month, the bears came out of hibernation, which gave the name to these performances. Well, the stage is, of course, the “tent”, where the actors performed. As far as parody is concerned, it is “singing inside out”.

***
Whereas the Greeks took upon themselves the "duty" of naming poetic and theatrical terms, the Romans took up prose in earnest. Latin connoisseurs will tell us that this short word can be translated into Russian with the phrase "purposeful speech." The Romans generally liked precise and short definitions. It is not for nothing that the word lapidary came to us from the Latin language, i.e. "carved in stone" (short, concise). The word text means “connection”, “connection”, and the illustration means “explanation” (to the text). A legend is “what should be read”, a memorandum is “what should be remembered”, and an opus is “work”, “work”. The word fabula in Latin means "story", "tale", but in Russian it came from German with the meaning "plot". A manuscript is a document “written by hand”, but an editor is a person who must “put everything in order”. Madrigal is also a Latin word, it comes from the root "mother" and means a song in the native, "mother" language. To finish with literary terms, let's say that the Scandinavian word runes originally meant "all knowledge", then - "mystery" and only later began to be used in the meaning of "writing", "letters".

But let's get back to the Romans, who, as you know, developed a unique set of laws for that time (Roman law) and enriched the world culture with many legal terms. For example, justice (“justice”, “legality”), alibi (“in another place”), verdict (“truth is spoken”), lawyer (from the Latin “I call”), notary - (“scribe”), protocol (“ first page”), visa (“viewed”), etc. The words version ("turn") and intrigue ("to confuse") are also of Latin origin. The Romans, on the other hand, came up with the word blunder - “fall”, “mistake”, “wrong step”. Most medical terms are of Greek and Latin origin. As an example of borrowings from the Greek language, one can cite such words as anatomy (“dissection”), agony (“struggle”), hormone (“I set in motion”), diagnosis (“definition”), diet (“lifestyle”, "mode"), paroxysm ("irritation"). The following terms are Latin in origin: hospital (“hospitable”), immunity (“liberation from something”), invalid (“powerless”, “weak”), invasion (“attack”), muscle (“mouse”), obstruction ("blockage"), obliteration ("destruction"), pulse ("push").

At present, Latin is the language of science and serves as a source for the formation of new words and terms that never existed. For example, allergy is “another action” (the term was coined by the Austrian pediatrician K. Pirke). Christianity, as you know, came to us from Byzantium, whose inhabitants, although they called themselves Romans (Romans), spoke mainly Greek. Along with the new religion, many new words came to our country, some of which were sometimes represented by tracing paper - a literal translation of Greek terms. For example, the word enthusiasm (“divine inspiration”) was translated into Old Slavonic as “possession” (!). This interpretation was not accepted by the language. More often, new terms were adopted without change. The original meaning of many of them has long been forgotten, and few people know that an angel is a “messenger”, an apostle is a “messenger”, a clergy is a “lot”, an icon case is a “box”, a liturgy is a “duty”, a deacon is a “servant” , the bishop is “looking from above”, and the sexton is “watchman”. The word hero is also Greek and means "holy" - no more, no less! But the word filthy, which has become abusive, came to us from the Latin language and means only “rural” (resident). The fact is that pagan cults were especially tenacious in rural areas, as a result, this word became synonymous with pagan. Foreign in origin are also the words that are called representatives of the other world. The word demon in Greek means "deity", "spirit". It is known that Mikhail Vrubel did not want the demon depicted in his paintings to be confused with the devil or the devil: “Demon means“ soul ”and personifies the eternal struggle of the restless human spirit, seeking reconciliation of the passions that overwhelm him, knowledge of life and not finding an answer to his doubts neither on earth nor in heaven – this is how he explained his position. What do the words devil and devil mean? Damn is not a name, but an epithet (“horned”). The devil is “seducer”, “slanderer” (Greek). Other names of the devil are of Hebrew origin: Satan - "contradictory", "adversary", Belial - from the phrase "without benefit." The name Mephistopheles was invented by Goethe, but it is made up of two Hebrew words - “liar” and “destroyer”. But the name Woland, which M.A. Bulgakov used in his famous novel The Master and Margarita, it is of Germanic origin: in medieval German dialects it meant "deceiver", "rogue". In Goethe's Faust, Mephistopheles is once mentioned under this name.

The word fairy is of Latin origin and means "fate". The Welsh believed that fairies were descended from pagan priestesses, while the Scots and Irish believed that they were from angels seduced by the devil. However, despite the centuries-old domination of Christianity, Europeans still treat fairies and elves with sympathy, calling them "good people" and "peaceful neighbors."

The word dwarf was coined by Paracelsus. In Greek, it means "inhabitant of the earth." In Scandinavian mythology, such creatures were called "dark elves" or "zwerg". Brownie in Germany is called a "kobold". Later, this name was given to a metal that had a "harmful character" - it made it difficult to smelt copper. Nickel was the name of an elf living by the water, a great lover of jokes. This name was given to a metal similar to silver.

The word dragon in Greek means "sharp seeing". Interestingly, in China, this mythological creature was traditionally depicted without eyes. The legend tells that one artist of the Tang era (IX century) got carried away and painted the eyes of a dragon: the room was filled with fog, there was thunder, the dragon came to life and flew away. And the word hurricane comes from the name of the god of fear of the South American Indians - Huracan. The names of some precious and semi-precious stones also have their own meaning. Sometimes the name indicates the color of the stone. For example, ruby is “red” (Latin), chrysolite is “golden” (Greek), olevin is “green” (Greek), lapis lazuli is “sky blue” (Greek), etc. But sometimes their name is associated with certain properties that were attributed to these stones in antiquity. So, amethyst is translated from Greek as “non-drunk”: according to legends, this stone is able to “curb passions”, therefore Christian priests often use it to decorate vestments, insert it into crosses. For this reason, amethyst has another name - "bishop's stone." And the word agate in Greek means "good", which he was supposed to bring to his owner.

There were cases when the same word came to our country from different languages and at different times, resulting in different meanings. For example, the words colossus, machination and machine have the same root. Two of them came to us directly from the Greek language. One of them means "something huge", the other - "trick". But the third came through Western European languages and is a technical term.

Sometimes words are formed as a result of combining roots belonging to different languages. For example: the word abracadabra contains a Greek root meaning "deity" and a Hebrew root meaning "word". That is, "the word of God" is an expression or phrase that seems meaningless to the uninitiated.

And the word snob is interesting because, being Latin in origin, it appeared in England at the end of the 18th century. It came from the Latin expression sine nobilitas ("without nobility"), which was shortened to s. nob.: this is how passengers on English ships began to be called who did not have the right to dine with the captain. Later, in English houses, this word was placed on the guest lists opposite persons who should have been announced without a title.

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But what about other languages? Did they contribute to the Russian vocabulary? The answer to this question is clearly in the affirmative. There are many examples.

So, the Arabic phrase "lord of the sea" became the Russian word admiral.

The name of the fabric satin in Arabic means "beautiful", "smooth". Bondage is a “receipt”, “obligation”, shackles are “fetters”, “fetters”, etc. It has long been perceived as Russian Turkic words doodle ("black or bad hand") and karapuz ("like a watermelon"). The antiquity of the word iron is evidenced by its Sanskrit origin (“metal”, “ore”). The kettlebell is “heavy” (Persian), the stage is “scaffold” (Spanish), the coat of arms is “inheritance” (Polish). The words roll (from "to put the ship on its side") and yacht (from "to drive") are of Dutch origin. The words avral (“up all” - over all), bluff (“deception”), velveteen (“velvet”) came to Russia from England. The last word is interesting because it is a “false friend of the translator”: readers have probably been surprised more than once that at receptions and balls, kings and court ladies flaunt in velvet suits and dresses. From the German language came the words jung ("boy"), tie ("scarf"), weather vane ("wing"), flask ("bottle"), workbench ("workshop"). There are a lot of borrowings from Italian and French. For example, a trampoline (“hit”), a quarry (“running”), a feint (“pretense”, “fiction”), a stamp (“seal”), a relay race (“stirrup”) are Italian. Scam ("case"), gauze ("muslin"), balance ("scales"), compliment ("hello"), negligee ("negligence") - French.

Italian and French have given life to so many musical and theatrical terms. Here is some of them. The Italian word conservatory ("shelter") recalls the decision of the authorities of Venice to turn 4 convents into music schools (XVIII century). Virtuoso means "valor", the word cantata is derived from the Italian cantare - "sing", capriccio - from the word "goat" (a work with a galloping, "like a goat", a change of themes and moods), opera - "composition", tutti - " performance by the whole team.

Now it's France's turn: arrangement - "bringing in order", overture from the word "open", benefit performance - "profit", "benefit", repertoire - "list", decoration - "decoration", pointe shoes (hard socks of ballet shoes) - " point”, “tip”, divertissement - “entertainment”, foyer - “hearth”. And in modern pop music, the word plywood is very popular, which comes from the German “overlay” (voice over already recorded music).

Speaking of borrowing from the French language, one cannot ignore the culinary theme. So, the word garnish comes from the French "to supply", "equip". Glace means “frozen”, “icy”. Cutlet - "rib". Consomme - "broth". Langet - "tongue". Marinade - "put in salt water." Roll - from the word "folding". The word vinaigrette is an exception: being French in origin (from vinaigre - "vinegar"), it appeared in Russia. All over the world, this dish is called "Russian salad".

It is interesting that many dog names popular in our country have a foreign origin. The fact is that peasants in Russian villages could not often afford to keep a dog. The landlords, on the other hand, often kept dozens and even hundreds of hunting dogs on their country estates (and even took bribes with “borzoi puppies”) and several lap dogs in city houses. Since the Russian nobles knew French (and later English) better than their native language, they gave foreign names to their dogs. Some of them are widely spread among the people. What familiar word could be heard by a peasant who did not know French, nicknamed Cheri (“Cutie”)? Of course, Sharik! Trezor translated into Russian means “treasure” (fr.), the nickname Barbos comes from the French word “bearded”, and Rex is “king” (lat.). A number of nicknames are derived from foreign names. For example, Bobik and Tobik are variants of the Russian adaptation of the English name Bobby, Zhuchka and Zhulka came from Julia. And the nicknames Jim and Jack do not even try to hide their foreign origin.

But what about the great and mighty Russian language? Did he contribute to the development of foreign languages? It turns out that the Russian word muzhik has entered many languages of the world. The word grandmother in English is used in the meaning of "women's headscarf", and pancakes in Britain are called small round sandwiches. The word vulgarity got into the English dictionary because V. Nabokov, who wrote in this language, having despaired of finding its full-fledged analogue, decided to leave it without translation in one of his novels.

The words satellite and comrade are known all over the world, and Kalashnikov for a foreigner is not a surname, but the name of a Russian machine gun. Relatively recently, the now somewhat forgotten terms perestroika and glasnost made a triumphal march around the world. The words vodka, matryoshka and balalaika are used so often and out of place by foreigners talking about Russia that they cause irritation. But for the word pogrom, which was included in the dictionaries of many European languages in 1903, frankly ashamed. The words intelligentsia (author - P. Boborykin) and disinformation are not Russian "in origin", but they were invented in Russia. From the Russian language that became their "native" language, they passed into many foreign languages and became widespread throughout the world.

In conclusion, we will give several examples of the successful formation of new words that were invented by poets and writers and appeared in the Russian language relatively recently. So, we owe the appearance of the words acid, refraction, balance to M.V. Lomonosov. N.M. Karamzin enriched our language with the words influence, industry, public, generally useful, touching, entertaining, concentrated. Radishchev introduced the word citizen in its modern meaning into the Russian language. Ivan Panaev was the first to use the word dude, and Igor Severyanin - the word mediocrity. V. Khlebnikov and A. Kruchenykh claim the authorship of the word zaum.

Of course, in a short article it is impossible to adequately and fully describe the meaning of words borrowed from foreign languages. We hope that we managed to interest readers who themselves will be able to continue an amusing trip according to the vocabulary of the Russian language.

http://www.distedu.ru/mirror/_rus/rus.1september.ru/2005/16/9.htm
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200 foreign words that have a replacement in Russian

Absolute - perfect
Abstract - abstract
Agrarian - agricultural
Adequate - appropriate
active - active
Actual - topical
immoral - immoral
Analysis - parsing
Entourage - environment
Argument - argument
business - business
Boyfriend - buddy
Briefing - letuchka
variant - variety
Dimensions - dimensions
Sealed - impenetrable
hypothetical - conjectural
Goalkeeper - goalkeeper
Humanity - humanity
Diver - diver
Digest - overview
Debate - debate
Devaluation - depreciation
Demo - show
Destructive - destructive
Detailed - Detailed
Dialogue - conversation
Director - Managing Director
Discomfort - inconvenience
Discussion - discussion, dispute
Differentiation - division
Dominate - dominate, dominate
duel - duel
ignore - disregard
identical - identical
Image - image
Import - import
individual - sole
indifferent - indifferent
Industry - Industry
inert - indifferent
Intervention - invasion
international - international
infected - infected
Information - information
Camouflage - cover
Merchant - merchant
Compensation - reimbursement
Comfort - convenience
Comfortable - convenient, well-appointed
specific - specific
Competitor - Rival
Competition - competition
ascertain - establish
construct - arrange, build
Constructive - creative
Continent - mainland
Contract - agreement
Confrontation - confrontation
Concentration - concentration
Corrections - amendments
Correspondence - correspondence; message
lender - lender
criminal - criminal
Legitimate - legal
Lepta - contribution
Liquidation - destruction
Linguist - linguist
Lifting - skin tightening
Maximum - maximum, limit
Mask - disguise
Mentality - mindset
Method - reception
Minimum - smallest
Mobility - Mobility
Model - Sample
Modernization - update
Moment - moment
instant - instant
Monologue - speech
monument - monument
monumental - majestic
natural - natural
Negative - negative
Level - equalize
Objective - unbiased
Original - original
Hotel - hotel
Parameter - value
Parking - parking
Passive - inactive
personal - personal
Pluralism - plurality
positive - positive
Controversy - dispute
potential - possible
prevail - prevail
claim - claim
Precise - refined
Private - private
Primitive - mediocrity
Forecast - prediction
Progress - promotion
Propaganda - distribution
Publication (action) - publication, publication
Radical - indigenous
Reaction - response
Implement - put into practice
Revision - check
Revolution - coup
Regression - decline
Resolution - decision
Resonance - echo
Result - consequence, consequence
Reconstruction - perestroika
Relief - outline
Renaissance - rebirth
respectable - venerable
Restoration - restoration
Reform - transformation
secret - secret
Service - maintenance
Symposium - session
Symptom - symptom
Synthesis - collection, generalization
Synchronously - simultaneously
Situation - position, situation
Social - public
Sociology - social science
Sponsor - philanthropist (philanthropist)
Stability - resilience
stagnation - stagnation
Stress - tension, shock
Structure - device
Subjective - personal, biased
Sphere - area
Theme - subject
Tolerance - tolerance
Tomatoes - tomatoes
Transformation - transformation
Actual - valid
Forum - meeting
Fundamental - fundamental
Hobby - passion
Chief - head
Shopping - shopping
Show is a spectacle
Exclusive - exceptional
Experiment - experience
Exposition - display
Export - export
Embryo - fetus
Era - chronology

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