What moral principles. Moral principles. Norms. Ideals

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Basic principles of morality.
Table of contents.
Introduction……………………………………….
Question 1. Morality……………………………
Question 2. The role of morality in human life ... ..
Question 3. The concept, the essence of the principles of morality ......
Question 4. Characteristics of the basic principles of morality ... ..
Conclusion……………………………………………
Literature………………………………………….

Introduction.

Ethics is the science of morality. It describes morality, explains morality, and "teaches" morality. And there are a number of difficulties along the way.
First, why describe morality if everyone already knows what it is? Everyone imagines themselves to be connoisseurs and judges of morals. So ethics seems to be doomed to communicate something generally known, except perhaps in a clear and systematized form.
Secondly, ethics "teaches" morality, i.e. conveys not abstract, but practical knowledge, which must be used before one truly understands it. It is knowledge that inspires action. However, no one likes teaching. The right to "read morals" is given only to people of their own impeccable life, with unconditional moral authority, such as, for example, L.N. Tolstoy. But all the preachers for thousands of years have not persuaded mankind to act according to conscience. In general, no matter how much you say "halva", it will not become sweet in your mouth; from talking about good morals do not improve. To the great sorrow of all moralists, it turns out that it is impossible to teach morality. But you can learn. A moral position can be developed independently by studying the judgments of the sages, the words and actions of people. Ethics provides every thinking person with its own methods and means of argumentation.
Thirdly, it is difficult to satisfactorily explain anything in morality. Is it possible to find out exactly the reasons for the existence of injustice, the reasons why the nobility is ridiculed, and the scoundrels triumph? As if our indignation at betrayal or rudeness would decrease if we convincingly state how and why this happens. Good deeds are even harder to explain. After all, good is usually done not for some reason, not because they explained to me what good is, but because I cannot do otherwise. There are moral evidences that are not supported by any evidence. More F.M. Dostoevsky, using the example of his Raskolnikov, showed that even a crime can be rationally substantiated, but the theorem of good cannot be proved. Therefore, one must get used to the fact that in ethics it is impossible to get such an answer as in mathematics: unambiguous, logically proven and experimentally verified. This is only for the "baby son" in the poem by V.V. Mayakovsky is so clear, "what is good and what is bad." In fact, no judgment here is final. And just as an acrobat needs to quickly move his feet to keep his balance on the ball, so in ethics it is necessary to move from thesis to thesis, from one point of view to another, so that the overall complex picture of morality appears in its true light.
Analyzing the theory of morality, we are faced with many problems, it is difficult to find the central one in their multitude. Starting with one, you inevitably move on to all the others. Morality, like a tangled ball, is folded from a thread of uninterrupted reasoning. The world of morality is like the Hermitage, where from each hall you can see the next, no less beautiful, and the prospect lures you further and further. but this world can also turn into a gloomy labyrinth, where in endless wanderings it is impossible to determine whether you are approaching the exit or walking in circles. The confusion is aggravated by the fact that any moral task can become this moment main. Where we are, there is the center of consideration. To paraphrase Pascal, morality is an infinite sphere whose center is everywhere and whose end is nowhere. And in this essay, in addition to considering the structure, functions and antinomies of morality, I decided to consider in detail only one of its problems, which seems to me the most important and interesting - the problem of the absolute in morality.

Question 1. Morality.
This word came from France, but the concept of morality, i.e. about the rules of human behavior among other people, existed long before this word appeared. Explanation in the dictionary of V. Dahl: "rules for the will, conscience." But it can be said even more simply: morality is a generally accepted concept of what is good and what is bad. True, it is necessary to clarify: when and by whom it was recognized ... The mores of society and the concept of moral behavior, morality are formed in specific historical conditions.
Let's just say our modern morality suggests that children should be treated carefully, affectionately, and even more so - to children who are sick or have some kind of physical disability. It's shameful, just mean, to say "lame" to a boy who limps, or "bespectacled" to someone who has to wear glasses. This is generally recognized. Such are the mores of today's society, such are the moral norms (that is, when taking care of a sick child, a person does not commit some act of exceptional kindness, but behaves normally, naturally, as he should). But have they always been like this? No. For example, according to the law of Lycurgus, according to which ancient Sparta lived for more than one century, children were subjected to a special examination, and if a child had a physical defect that prevented him from becoming a full-fledged warrior later, he was killed by dropping into Apothetes - a deep crevice in the mountains of Taygetus.
From books and films, we know about the feat of King Leonidas and the 300 Spartans led by him, who all perished, blocking the way for the Persian invaders near Thermopylae. Grateful descendants immortalized their feat in marble, inscribed on it that the soldiers died, "honestly fulfilling the law." But the same law allowed the killing of children, not considering it something shameful.
Another example.
To shoot a man is a crime, murder. But during the war years, the sniper not only shoots at the enemy, but also counts those killed by his hand. In this situation, one person (sniper), as it were, issues a sentence to another person (enemy soldier) and carries it out himself. The morality of the war allows him to act as an accuser, judge and executor of the sentence, which is completely impossible in peacetime. There are other norms of relations between people. Only a court can pass a sentence on a criminal, and any lynching, no matter how fair, is punishable.
However, morality is not only a concrete historical concept, but also a class one. From the point of view of official morality, the Russian officer Andrei Potebnya, a friend and like-minded person of Herzen, who, with weapons in his hands, went over to the side of the Polish rebels and fought against the tsarist punishers, committed the gravest crime - he violated the oath and betrayed the fatherland. From the point of view of the true patriots of Russia, whose voice was barely audible in 1863 and only resounded in full force decades later, Potebnya accomplished a civic feat in the name of saving the honor of Russia. Now his grave in the vicinity of Krakow is carefully guarded by the Poles - just as carefully as the graves of Soviet soldiers who died in the struggle for the liberation of Poland from the fascist yoke - and every Russian person, standing next to her, will bow to the memory of this Russian patriot who fell from a bullet ... Whose bullets? The bullets of a Russian soldier who considered himself, presumably, the defender of the "Tsar, faith and fatherland" (otherwise he would not have fired at the rebels)...
Morality in words and morality in deed are not the same thing at all.
An object lesson in the misadventures of morality is taught by the history of fascism. In the book and film "Seventeen Moments of Spring" characteristics from the personal files of the SS men are remembered: a good family man, an athlete, he is even with his workmates, has no discrediting ties ...
Of course, not a single fascist said about himself: I am a scoundrel, I am an executioner, I am immoral. Forming the ideology and morality of the "Third Reich", the Nazis tried to create the illusion of imitating the cruel and harsh customs of Ancient Rome, which they saw as the "First Reich". And the camouflage worked. Throwing out their hand in a fascist salute, the Nazis copied the famous gesture of Julius Caesar; the symbolism of their banners, orders, military emblems called to resurrect the times of the Roman legions, in a businesslike manner trampling foreign lands, the revival of barbarism was shrouded in grandiloquent phrases. But the very nature and logic of the savage system caricatured the manners and morality of the Nazis, gave rise to monstrous immorality and immorality, penetrating into all pores of society.

Question 2. The role of morality in human life.
Philosophers argue that morality has three tasks: to evaluate, regulate and educate.
Morality puts estimates. All our actions, as well as all public life(economy, politics, culture) evaluates morality from the point of view of humanism, determines whether it is good or bad, good or evil. If our actions are useful to people, contribute to the improvement of their lives, their free development - this is good, this is good. Do not contribute, hinder - evil. If we want to give a moral assessment to something (our own actions, the actions of other people, some events, etc.), we, as you know, do this with the help of the concepts of good and evil. Or with the help of other close, derivative concepts: justice - injustice; honor - dishonor; nobility, decency - meanness, dishonesty, meanness, etc. At the same time, evaluating any phenomenon, action, deed, we express our moral assessment in different ways: we praise, agree or condemn, criticize, approve or disapprove, etc. d.
Evaluation, of course, affects our practical activities, otherwise we would simply not need it. When we evaluate something as good, this means that we should strive for it, and if we evaluate it as evil, we should avoid it. This means that when evaluating the world around us, we change something in it, and above all ourselves, our position, our worldview.
Morality regulates the activities of people. The second task of morality is to regulate our life, the relationship of people to each other, to direct the activities of man, society towards humane goals, towards the achievement of good. Moral regulation has its own characteristics, it differs from state regulation. Any state also regulates the life of society, the activities of its citizens. It does this with the help of various institutions, organizations (parliaments, ministries, courts, etc.), normative documents (laws, decrees, orders), officials (officials, employees, police, police, etc.).
Morality has nothing of the kind: it is ridiculous to have moral officials, it is pointless to ask who issued the order to be humane, just, kind, courageous, etc. Morality does not use the services of departments and officials. It regulates the movement of our life in two ways: through the opinion of the surrounding people, public opinion, and through the inner convictions of the individual, conscience.
The person is very sensitive to the opinions of others. No one is free from the opinion of society, the collective. A person is not indifferent to what others think of him. Consequently, public opinion can influence a person and regulate his behavior. Moreover, it is based not on the force of the order, the law, but on moral authority, moral influence.
But there should not be a conviction that public opinion, as the opinion of the majority, is always true, more true than the opinion of individuals. This is not true. It often happens that public opinion plays a reactionary role, protecting obsolete, obsolete norms, traditions and habits.
Man is not a slave to circumstances. Public opinion is, of course, a great force for moral regulation. However, it should be remembered: one person can be wrong, and the majority can be wrong. A person should not be a naive lumberjack, blindly and thoughtlessly obey someone else's opinion, the pressure of circumstances. After all, he is not a soulless cog in the state machine and not a slave to social circumstances. All people are born equal equal rights to life, liberty and happiness. Man is a free, active, creative being, he not only adapts to the world in which he lives, but this world itself adapts to itself, changes circumstances, creates a new public environment. Without personalities, humane and courageous, just and courageous, disinterested and independently thinking, society would simply stop developing, would rot and die.
A person living in society should, of course, listen to public opinion, but he must also be able to evaluate it correctly. And if it is reactionary - protest, fight against it, go against it, defending truth, justice, humanism.
Inner spiritual beliefs of the individual. Where does a person take strength when he opposes outdated public opinion, against reaction, prejudices?
Spiritual beliefs constitute the content of what we call conscience. A person is under the constant control of others, but also under the self-control of his inner beliefs. Conscience is always with a person. Every person has in life successes and failures, periods of ups and downs. You can free yourself from failures, but never from an unclean, tarnished conscience.
And a person constantly criticizes, remakes himself, as his conscience tells him. A person finds in himself the strength and courage to speak out against evil, against reactionary public opinion - this is what conscience commands. To live according to conscience requires great personal courage, and sometimes self-sacrifice. But the conscience of a person will be pure, the soul is calm, if he acted in full accordance with his inner convictions. Such a person can be called happy.
The educational role of morality. Education always goes in two ways: on the one hand, through the influence of other people on a person, through a purposeful change in the external circumstances in which the educated person is placed, and on the other hand, through the influence of a person on himself, i.e. through self-education. The upbringing and education of a person continues throughout his entire life: a person constantly replenishes and improves knowledge, skills, his inner world, because life itself is constantly updated.
Morality has its own special position in the educational process.
Question 3. The concept, the essence of the principles of morality.
The principle of morality is the principle of autonomous self-regulation by an individual of his relations to himself and to others, to the world, his behavior (internal and external).
Moral principles are one of the forms of moral consciousness in which moral requirements are expressed in the most general way. If ye nopma morality ppedpicyvaet, kakie konkpetno poctypki chelovek dolzhen covepshat, a ponyatie mopalnogo kachectva xapaktepizyet otdelnye ctopony povedeniya and chepty xapaktepa lichnocti, verily principles morality obschey fopme packpyvayut codepzhanie toy or inoy npavctvennocti, vypazhayut vypabotannye in mopalnom coznanii obschestva tpebovaniya, kacayuschiecya npavctvennoy cyschnocti cheloveka , his purpose, the meaning of his life and the nature of relationships between people.
They give a person a general direction of activity and usually serve as the basis for more particular norms of behavior. Pomimo principles of morality, packpyvayuschix codepzhanie toy or inoy npavctvennocti, nappimer, individyalizm and altpyizm, kollektivizm and gymanizm, cyschectvyyut takzhe fopmalnye principles packpyvayuschie ocobennocti cpocoba vypolneniya mopalnyx tpebovany (nappimer, coznatelnoct and ee ppotivopolozhnocti - fetishizm, fopmalizm, dogmatizm, avtopitapizm, fanatizm, fatalism). Xotya these principles and ne obocnovyvayut nikakix konkpetnyx nopm povedeniya, they are normally tem ne menee tecno cvyazany c ppipodoy toy or inoy npavctvennocti, pokazyvayut, nackolko ona dopyckaet coznatelnoe otnoshenie cheloveka to ppedyavlyaemym emy tpebovaniyam.
Moral principles motivate human behavior, i.e. act as causes and motives that cause a person to want to do something (or, conversely, not to do something). As a result of upbringing and self-education, people develop attitudes that force them - sometimes even as if against their will - to do things that they should do in accordance with moral standards, and not to take any actions that they should not do, since they contradict these norms. . An honest person simply cannot, say, steal something: he will not raise his hand to it. Whenever any values ​​or regulations conflict with moral ones, the choice must be made in favor of the latter. The priority of moral principles over all others extends to any human relationships and actions. In this sense, all spheres of human life and activity are subject to moral principles. Immorality is unacceptable either in everyday life or in production; neither at home nor at school; neither in sports nor in science; neither in economics nor in politics. Morality, by virtue of the priority of its principles, ensures the unity and coherence of the interaction of people in a wide variety of circumstances. Confidence that the person who happened to be nearby adheres to the same moral principles, allows you to foresee the general direction of his actions, rely on him and trust him. Even without knowing either the character of a person, or his habits, skills, abilities, you can determine in advance what should and should not be expected from him. Observance by people of uniform and universal moral principles makes their behavior predictable.
Question 4. Characteristics of the basic principles of morality.
Humanism (lat himapis -. Chelovechny) - Principles for mipovozzpeniya (.. In t h and npavctvennocti) in ocnove kotopogo lezhit ybezhdenie in bezgpanichnocti vozmozhnoctey cheloveka and ego cpocobnocti to covepshenctvovaniyu, tpebovanie cvobody or protecting doctoinctva lichnocti, ideya o ppave cheloveka nA cchacte and o that the satisfaction of his needs and interests should be the ultimate goal of society.
The principle of humanism is based on the idea of ​​a respectful attitude to another person, fixed since ancient times. Ona vypazhaetcya in zolotom "you would xotel poctypay on otnosheniyu to dpygomy tak zhe, kak, chtoby poctypali on otnosheniyu to tebe" ppavile npavctvennocti and kantovckom kategopicheckom impepative "poctypay vcegda tak, chtoby makcima tvoego povedeniya mogla ctat vceobschim zakonom".
However, the golden rule of morality contains an element of subjectivism, because what some individual person desires in relation to himself, it is not at all necessary that all others want.
Humanism, represented by its imperative side, acting as a practical normative requirement, undoubtedly, proceeds from the primacy of the individual over other values. Therefore, the content of humanism correlates with the idea of ​​personal happiness.
Genuine happiness presupposes the fullness, emotional saturation of life. It can be achieved only in the process of self-realization of the personality, one way or another carried out on the basis of goals and values ​​shared with other people.
It is possible to identify three main meanings of humanism:
1. Guarantees of basic human rights as a condition for preserving the humane foundations of his existence.
2. Support for the weak, going beyond the usual ideas of this society about justice.
3. The formation of social and moral qualities that allow individuals to carry out self-realization on the basis of public values.
By covpemennym tendentsiyam pazvitiya gymanicticheckoy thought mozhno otnecti vnimanie ychenyx, obschectvennyx deyateley, vcex zdpavomyclyaschix lyudey to cydbam pazvitiya chelovechectva "Bozniknovenie globalnyx ppoblem - pealnaya ocnova for obedineniya vcex nyne cyschectvyyuschix fopm pealnogo gymanizma nezavicimo From pazlichiya mipovozzpeny, politicheckix, peligioznyx and inyx ybezhdeny".
B covpemennom mipe ogpomny ycpex imeli idei nenaciliya, pozvolivshie nA ppaktike ocvobodit mnogie napody From kolonialnoy zavicimocti, cvepgnyt totalitapnye MODE, vozbydit obschectvennoe mnenie ppotiv pacppoctpaneniya yadepnogo opyzhiya, ppodolzheniya podzemnyx yadepnyx icpytany etc. B tsentpe CAUTION gymanicticheckoy mycli naxodyatcya takzhe ekologicheckie ppoblemy, globalnye altepnativy, cvyazannye c nekotopym cnizheniem tempov pazvitiya ppoizvodctva, ogpanicheniem potpebleniya, pazvitiem bezotxodnyx ppoizvodctv. Pocpedctvom fopmalnogo ppintsipa nelzya peshit konkpetnye voppocy o gymannom otnoshenii one sort cheloveka to dpygomy and pealny gymanizm, Po-vidimomy, ppedctavlyaet nekotopy balanc in cochetanii paznyx ppintsipov, ctepen coedineniya cvobody camovypazheniya lichnocti c tpebovaniyami to povedeniyu ee, zadavaemymi kyltypoy dannogo obschectva.
MERCY - compassionate and active love, expressed in readiness to help every needy and extending to all people, and in the limit - to all living things. In ponyatii mercy coedinyayutcya large screen acpekta - dyxovno-emotsionalny (pepezhivanie chyzhoy kak boli cvoey) and konkpetno-ppaktichecky (popyv to pealnoy pomoschi): bez pepvogo mercy vypozhdaetcya in xolodnyyu filantpopiyu, bez vtopogo - in pyctyyu centimentalnoct.
The origins of mercy as a moral principle lie in the apex tribal solidarity, which strictly obliges, at the cost of any sacrifices, to rescue a relative from trouble, but excluding "strangers". Ppavda, podovaya colidapnoct mozhet chactichno pacppoctpanyatcya and nA tex, kto naxoditcya vne kpyga "cvoix" Nr HOW verily c it cvyazan (obyazannocti to goctyu, ppedpicannoe in Betxom zavete otnoshenie to necvobodnym litsam and "ppisheltsam", etc.).
Odnako mercy mozhno govopit only togda, kogda vce bapepy mezhdy "cvoimi" and "chyzhimi" if ye ne in povcednevnoy ppaktike, verily in the idee and otdelnyx gepoicheckix mopalnyx aktax ppeodoleny and chyzhoe ctpadanie pepectaet only be ppedmetom xolodnovatogo cnicxozhdeniya.
Religions such as Buddhism and Christianity were the first to preach mercy. In Christian ethics, a caring attitude towards one's neighbor is defined as mercy, which is one of the main virtues. The essential difference between mercy and friendly love-attachment is that, according to the commandment of love, it is mediated by an absolute ideal - love for God. Christian love for one's neighbor is not limited to loved ones, it extends to all people, including enemies.
Even in cases of rejection of property inequality, loneliness, old age, ailments and other sufferings that require not only public care, but also more merciful individuality will remain. In our time, the process of the full return of the term "mercy" into the lexicon of our society is gradually taking place, and activities are being activated aimed at concrete help to merciful people.
PABEHCTBO (in morality) - a relationship between people, within which they have the same rights to develop creative abilities for happiness, respect for their personal dignity. Hapyady ppedctavleniem c o necessary, shall bpatckogo edinctva mezhdu people equality yavlyaetcya klyuchevoy ideey mopali, ictopichecki voznikayuschey HOW altepnativa kpovnopodctvennoy zamknytocti and cotsialnoy obocoblennocti lyudey, THEIR fakticheckomy ekonomicheckomy and politicheckomy nepavenctvy. Haibolee adekvatnym vypazheniem ppintsipa equality mopali yavlyaetcya zolotoe ppavilo of fopmylipovki kotopogo vytekaet ynivepcalnoct (vceobschnoct) mopalnyx tpebovany, THEIR pacppoctpanennoct nA vcex lyudey, nezavicimo From THEIR obschectvennogo polozheniya and yclovy life and ynivepcalnoct mopalnyx cyzhdeny, zaklyuchayuschayacya in tom, chto DURING otsenke poctypkov d.pugoy people, a person proceeds from the same grounds as when evaluating his own actions.
The idea of ​​equality receives a normative expression in the principle of altruism and the corresponding requirements of compassion (pity), mercy, co-participation.
Kak pokazyvaet ictopichecky Experience, mopalnoe equality mozhet be ppaktichecki pealizovano tolko DURING oppedelennom cotsialno - politicheckom and kyltypnom ctatyce lyudey, eccentricity xapaktepizyetcya ekonomicheckoy and politicheckoy camoctoyatelnoctyu, vozmozhnoctyu povysheniya obpazovatel-nogo and ppofeccionalnogo ypovnya, dyxovnym pazvitiem DURING neppemennoy otvetctvennocti kazhdogo chlena obschestva za pezyltaty cvoey deyatelnocti .
ALTRUISM (from Latin altego - another) is a moral principle that prescribes compassion for other people, selfless service to them and readiness for self-denial in the name of their good and happiness. The concept of "Altruism" was introduced into the theory of morality by Kont, who made this principle the basis of his ethical system. Kont connected the moral improvement of society with the upbringing in people of a social sense of altruism, which should counteract their egoism.
As a requirement for equality and humanity, altruism is one of the normative foundations of morality and humanism. Bmecte c tem, bydychi obpaschennym to individy HOW nocitelyu chactnogo intepeca altruism faktichecki neppemenno ppedpolagaet camootpechenie, ibo in ycloviyax vzaimnoy obocoblennocti intepecov zabota Ob intepece blizhnego vozmozhna only DURING yschemlenii cobctvennogo intepeca. Concrete forms of realization of altruism in behavior are charity and philanthropy.
Justice - the concept of moral consciousness, expressing not you or another value, good, but their general relationship between themselves and the specific distribution between individuals; the proper order of human community, corresponding to the ideas about the essence of man and his inalienable rights. Justice is also a category of legal and socio-political consciousness. In contrast to the more abstract concepts of good and evil, with the help of which a moral assessment is given to certain phenomena in general, justice characterizes the relationship of several phenomena with the point of abuse of people.
Justice does not contradict mercy, kindness, or love. Love includes both of these concepts. A just judge is obliged to punish the criminal, however, moved by love and according to the circumstances, he can at the same time show mercy in order to mitigate the punishment, which must always be humane. For example, the judge should not bully the accused, deprive him of a lawyer, or make a wrong trial.
According to Aristotle, the main thing of the prudent (prudent) is to make the right decisions regarding the good and benefit for himself as a whole - for a good life. With the help of prudence, a person is able to choose the right means for this purpose in a particular situation and implement it in an act. Aristotle emphasizes that being prudent means not just knowing, but being able to act in accordance with knowledge. If scientific and philosophical knowledge deals with extremely general definitions that do not allow substantiation, then prudence implies knowledge not only of the general, but even more of the particular, since it deals with making decisions and performing actions in specific (private) circumstances. And the prudent, as capable of making decisions, is able to achieve the highest of the benefits that can be realized in a particular act. If wisdom is acquired through the mind, then prudence is acquired through experience and a special feeling similar to conviction.
Subsequently, I. Kant separated prudence from morality. He showed that the moral law is not determined by any external goal in relation to it. Prudence is aimed at the natural goal - happiness, and a prudent act is only a means to it.
The rehabilitation of prudence in modern moral philosophy involves the restoration of its meaning as practical wisdom, that is, as the ability to act in specific circumstances in the best way. In the best way - means focusing, if not on a morally exalted, then at least - on a morally justified goal.
Prudence is determined by one of the key (along with justice and benevolence) principles of morality. This principle is formulated in the form of a requirement to take care of all parts of your life equally and not to prefer the present good to the greater good that can only be achieved in the future.
MP Final - Principle Mopales and Paltiki, who has a need for someone's lives of life, have been made by the helpful of the fact that the MPA and YPA will have a tent of the MPA and the money and gocydapcats. Peacefulness presupposes respect for the personal and national dignity of individual citizens and entire peoples, the sovereignty of the state, human rights and the people in the choice of their own life.
Peacefulness contributes to the maintenance of public order, mutual understanding of generations, the development of historical, cultural traditions, the interaction of various social groups, ethnic groups, nations, cultures. Peacefulness is opposed by aggressiveness, belligerence, a tendency to violent means of resolving conflicts, suspicion and distrust in relations between people, nations, socio-political. In the history of morality, peacefulness and aggressiveness, enmity oppose as two main trends.

Conclusion
Nothing can happen outside of morality, i.e. outside the circle of values ​​that determine human life. Each individual, each group, each society is a certain system of norms, ideals, prohibitions that allow the individual to gradually improve in the chosen direction. Morality is thus an indispensable dimension of human existence. The ultimate goal of morality is human happiness, the most harmonious development of the individual and all people.
One of the necessary signs of true morality is eternity, the immutability of its principles and categories, including the categories of good and evil, which are the most general and fundamental concepts of ethics.
Material things, especially those created by man, are subject to change. Moreover, they must change and improve. Human genius is constantly inventing better things. This is part of the progress that man naturally seeks in his creativity.
But moral principles and values ​​belong to a different order. Some of them are relative, while others are absolute and immutable. They are immutable because, among many other things, they prevent us from doing things that are against our dignity.

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Each person is capable of different things. There are rules that are established by the inner convictions of people or the whole team. These norms dictate the behavior of an individual and the unwritten laws of coexistence. These moral frameworks, located within a person or a whole society, are moral principles.

The concept of morality

The study of morality is a science called "ethics", related to the philosophical direction. The discipline of morality studies such manifestations as conscience, compassion, friendship, the meaning of life.

The manifestation of morality is inextricably linked with two opposites - good and evil. All moral norms are aimed at maintaining the first and rejecting the second. It is customary to perceive goodness as the most important personal or social value. Thanks to him, a person creates. And evil is the destruction of the inner world of a person and the violation of interpersonal relationships.

Morality is a system of rules, standards, beliefs that is reflected in people's lives.

A person and society evaluate all events in life through the prism of morality. Pass through it politicians, economic situation, religious holidays, scientific achievements, spiritual practices.

Moral principles are internal laws, which determine our actions and allow or do not allow us to cross the forbidden line.

High moral principles

There are no norms and principles that are not subject to change. Over time, what seemed unacceptable can easily become the norm. Society, mores, worldviews are changing, and with them the attitude to certain actions is changing. However, in society there are always high moral principles that time cannot influence. Such norms become the standard of morality to which one should strive.

High moral principles are conditionally divided into three groups:

1. Internal beliefs completely coincide with the norms of behavior of the surrounding society.
2. Right actions are not questioned, but their implementation is not always possible (for example, rushing after a thief who stole a bag from a girl).
3. The implementation of these principles can lead to criminal liability when they are contrary to the law.

How moral principles are formed

Moral principles are formed under the influence of religious teachings. Of no small importance are hobbies for spiritual practices. A person can independently add up moral principles and norms for himself. Parents and teachers play an important role here. They give a person the first knowledge about the perception of the world.

For example, Christianity carries a number of restrictions that a believing person will not cross.

Religion has always been closely linked with morality. Failure to comply with the rules was treated as a sin. All existing religions interpret the system of moral and ethical principles in their own way, but they also have general norms (commandments): do not kill, do not steal, do not lie, do not commit adultery, do not do to another what you do not want to receive yourself.

The difference between morality and customs and legal norms

Customs, legal norms and moral norms, despite the seemingly similarity, have a number of differences. The table shows several examples.

moral standards	customs	Law
a person chooses meaningfully and freely	carried out exactly, without reservations, unquestioningly
standard of conduct for all people	may differ among different nationalities, groups, communities
they are based on a sense of duty	performed out of habit, for the approval of others
the basis is personal beliefs and public opinion		approved by the state
may be optional, not mandatory		mandatory
not recorded anywhere, passed down from generation to generation		are fixed in laws, acts, memorandums, constitutions
non-compliance is not punished, but causes a feeling of shame and pangs of conscience		failure to comply may result in administrative or criminal liability

Sometimes legal norms are absolutely identical and repeat moral ones. A great example is the "don't steal" principle. A person does not engage in theft, as it is bad - the motive is based on moral principles. And if a person does not steal because he is afraid of punishment, this is an immoral reason.

People often have to choose between moral principles and law. For example, stealing some medicine to save someone's life.

Permissiveness

Moral principles and permissiveness are cardinally opposite things. In ancient times, morality was not just different from the current one.

It would be more correct to say - it was not at all. Its complete absence sooner or later leads society to death. Only thanks to the gradually developing moral values, human society was able to go through the immoral ancient era.

Permissiveness develops into chaos that destroys civilization. Moral rules should always be in a person. This allows not to turn into wild animals, but to remain rational beings.

IN modern world a vulgarly simplified perception of the world has become widespread. People are thrown into extremes. The result of such differences is the spread of radically opposite moods in people and in society.

For example, wealth - poverty, anarchy - dictatorship, overeating - hunger strike, etc.

Functions of morality

Moral and ethical principles are present in all spheres of human life. They perform several important functions.

The most important is educational. Each new generation of people, adopting the experience of generations, inherits morality. Penetrating into all educational processes, it cultivates in people the concept of a moral ideal. Morality teaches a person to be a person, to perform such actions that will not harm other people and will not be done against their will.

The next function is the evaluation function. Morality evaluates all processes, phenomena from the position of uniting all people. Therefore, everything that happens is considered as positive or negative, good or evil.

The regulatory function of morality lies in the fact that it is she who dictates to people how they should behave in society. It becomes a way to regulate the behavior of each individual person. How a person is able to act within the framework of moral requirements depends on how deeply they have penetrated his consciousness, whether they have become an integral part of his inner world.

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Moral principles- the main element in the system of morality is the basic fundamental ideas about the proper behavior of a person, through which the essence of morality is revealed and on which other elements of the system are based. The most important of them: humanism, collectivism, individualism, altruism, selfishness, tolerance . Unlike norms, they are selective in nature and are determined by a person independently. They characterize the moral orientation of the individual as a whole.

moral standards- specific rules of conduct that determine how a person should behave in relation to society, other people, himself. The imperative-evaluative nature of morality is clearly traced in them. Moral norms are the simplest forms of moral statements ("do not kill", "do not lie", "do not steal", etc.) that determine a person's behavior in typical, repetitive situations. Often they take the form of moral habits in a person and are observed by him without much thought.

moral values- social attitudes and imperatives, expressed in the form of normative ideas about good and evil, fair and unfair, about the meaning of life and the purpose of a person in terms of their moral significance. Serve normative form moral orientation of a person in the world, offering him specific regulators of action.

moral ideal- this is a holistic model of moral behavior that people strive for, considering it the most reasonable, useful, beautiful. The moral ideal allows you to evaluate people's behavior and is a guideline for self-improvement.

1. structure of morality.

Moral norms, principles, ideals are manifested in the moral activity of people, which is the result of the interaction of moral consciousness, moral relations and moral behavior. . In their unity and interdependence, they are a way of being morality, embodied in its structure.

Understanding the essence of morality involves an analysis of its structure. From the point of view of content, traditionally (since the ancient era) three main elements are distinguished:

♦ moral consciousness;

♦ moral behavior;

♦ moral relations.

moral consciousness- this is a person's knowledge of the essence of the main categories of ethics, understanding moral values and the inclusion of some of them in the system of personal beliefs, as well as moral feelings and experiences.

moral relations as one of the types of social relations, they consist in the realization of moral values ​​by a person when communicating with others. They are determined by the level of moral consciousness of the individual.

moral behavior- these are concrete actions of a person, which are an indicator of his moral culture.

Moral consciousness includes two levels: emotional and rational. . Schematically, the structure of moral consciousness can be represented as follows.

Emotional level- mental reaction of a person to an event, attitude, phenomenon. It includes emotions, feelings, mood.

Emotions - special mental states that reflect the immediate evaluative reactions of the individual to situations that are morally significant for a person. A kind of emotion is an affect - a particularly strong short-term experience that is not controlled by consciousness.

The senses - it is the joy and sadness experienced by a person, love and hatred, suffering and compassion, arising from emotions. Passion is a kind of moral feeling. – a strongly expressed feeling leading to the achievement of the goal by any, including immoral, means.

Moods - emotional condition, which is distinguished by duration, stability and is the background against which feelings are manifested and human activity proceeds. As a variety of mood depression can be considered - an oppressed, depressed state and stress state particular mental stress.

Rational level - the ability of the individual to logical analysis and introspection - is the result of the purposeful formation of moral consciousness in the process of training, education and self-education. The result is the moral competence of the individual, which includes three main components.

Knowledge principles, norms and categories , included in the system of morality. ethical knowledge - primary, necessary, but insufficient component of moral consciousness.

Understanding the essence of moral norms and principles and the need for their application. To establish moral relations, both the correctness and the similarity of this understanding by different subjects are important.

Adoption moral norms and principles, including them in one's own system of views and beliefs, using them as a "guide to action".

Moral Relations- the central element of the structure of morality, in which the properties of any human activity in terms of its moral value. The most significant in the moral sense are such types of relations as the attitude of a person to society as a whole, to other people, to himself.

The relation of man to society regulated by a number of principles, in particular, the principles of collectivism or individualism. Moreover, it is possible various combinations these principles:

v the merging of collectivism and egoism gives rise to the so-called group egoism, when a person, identifying himself with a certain group (party, class, nation), shares its interests and claims, thoughtlessly justifies all its actions.

v the merging of individualism and egoism, when, satisfying one's own interest, a person guided by the principle of individualism can harm other people, selfishly realizing himself "at their expense."

Relationship to another a person can be subject-subject or subject-object character.

The subjective type of relations is characteristic of humanistic ethics and manifests itself in the dialogue . This approach is based on the principles of altruism and tolerance.

Lecture 1The subject of ethics, the main problems of ethics. The structure and functions of morality.

Moral principles.

Ethics(from the Greek "ethos" - temper, custom) - a philosophical study of morality and ethics. Initially, the word "ethos" meant the rules of cohabitation of people, norms of behavior that unite society, helping to overcome aggression and individualism.

The second meaning of the word ethics- a system of moral and moral norms of a certain social group of people.

First time term ethics used Aristotle(384 - 322 BC), he interpreted it as a practical philosophy that seeks an answer to the question: - "What should we do?".

The Golden Rule of Ethics(morality) - “do not do to others what you do not wish for yourself” - is found in Confucius (551 - 479 BC).

The main problems of ethics:

The problem of good and evil

The problem of justice

The problem of due

The meaning of life and the purpose of man.

Morality is a form of social consciousness that establishes a socially necessary type of human behavior. Unlike law, morality is mostly unwritten and fixed in the form of customs, traditions and generally accepted ideas.

Moral is the practical embodiment of moral ideals, goals and attitudes in various fields social life, in the behavior of people and relationships between them.

Morality consists of the following components.

moral activity- the most important component of morality, manifested in actions. Only the totality of a person's actions gives an idea of ​​his morality. “... A person is nothing but a series of his actions” (G. Hegel).

An act, in turn, contains three components:

- motive deed;

- result deed;

- grade surrounding both the act itself and its result and motive.

2. Moral (moral) relations are the relationships that

people doing things (moral or immoral). Entering into this relationship

people assume certain moral obligations and at the same time

acquire certain moral rights. The established system of moral

relations underlies the moral and psychological climate of a certain

social group of people (service team).

moral consciousness appears in the form:

Obligatory forms of moral requirements (described using the concepts moral principles,moral standards And moralcategories);

Personal forms of moral requirements (described using close concepts self-esteem, self-awareness);

Public moral requirements (described using the concepts social ideal, justice).

Moral consciousness is generated by the need to regulate the social life of people and their relationships. Unlike science, moral consciousness operates mainly at the level of social psychology and everyday consciousness. Moral principles, norms and categories directly woven into human activity, acting as motives for actions. Moral consciousness is mandatory, each person has his own system of moral values, experiences moral impulses, knows about ethical norms and principles. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) wrote: “Two things always fill the soul with new and ever stronger surprise and reverence –

it is the starry sky above me and the moral law in me.”

Basic functions of morality.

regulatory function. The function of moral regulation of relationships between people is the main and decisive one. It covers the sphere of relations that is not regulated by law, and in this sense it complements law. Note that all legal norms also affirm justice, serve the good and the good of society and citizens, and are unconditionally moral in nature.

Evaluation function. The subject of evaluation from the position of "moral - immoral" or "moral - immoral" are actions, attitudes, intentions, motives personal qualities etc.

orienting function. In practice, before making a moral judgment and implementing one or another moral norm in an act or behavior, a person has to take into account a significant number of circumstances, each of which may prompt the application of different (sometimes mutually exclusive) moral norms. A high level of moral culture helps to choose the only correct one from a variety of moral norms, thus orienting a person in the system of moral priorities.

motivational function. This function allows you to evaluate actions, ends and means in terms of the motivating intention. Motives and motivations can be moral and immoral, noble and vile, selfish and disinterested, etc.

Cognitive (information) function. This function is aimed at acquiring ethical knowledge: principles, norms, codes of conduct, etc.

educational function. Through upbringing, moral experience is passed on from generation to generation, forming a moral type of personality and ensuring the preservation of cultural traditions.

worldview function. This function is very close to the evaluative function, with the only difference that the worldview function covers the basic, basic concepts and ideas of a person about the reality around him.

communicative function. It acts as a form of communication, transmission of information about the values ​​of life, moral contacts between people. Provides mutual understanding, communication of people on the basis of the development of common moral values, and hence - official interaction, "sense of elbow", support and mutual assistance.

Moral principles.

The principles of morality play a dominant role in moral consciousness. Expressing the requirements of morality in the most general form, they constitute the essence of moral relations and are the strategy of moral behavior. Moral principles are perceived by moral consciousness as unconditional requirements, the observance of which is strictly mandatory in all life situations. They express the basic requirements relating to the moral essence of a person, the nature of relationships between people, determine the general direction of human activity and underlie private, specific norms of behavior. Moral principles include such general principles of morality as:

1 .principle of humanism. The essence of the principle of humanism is the recognition of man as the highest value. In the ordinary sense, this principle means love for people, protection of human dignity, people's right to happiness and the possibility of self-realization. It is possible to identify three main meanings of humanism:

Guarantees of basic human rights as a condition for preserving the humane foundations of his existence;

Support for the weak, going beyond the usual ideas of this society about justice;

The formation of social and moral qualities that allow individuals to carry out self-realization on the basis of public values.

2. The principle of altruism. This is a moral principle that prescribes selfless actions aimed at the benefit (satisfaction of interests) of other people. The term was introduced into circulation by the French philosopher O. Comte (1798 - 1857) to fix the concept opposite to the concept selfishness. Altruism as a principle, according to Comte, says: "Live for others."

3. The principle of collectivism. This principle is fundamental in bringing people together to achieve common goals and carry out joint activities, has a long history and is of fundamental importance for the existence of mankind. The collective seems to be the only way of social organization of people from primitive tribes to modern states. Its essence consists in the conscious desire of people to promote the common good. The opposite principle is principle of individualism. The principle of collectivism includes several particular principles:

Unity of purpose and will;

Cooperation and mutual assistance;

Democracy;

Discipline.

4.Principles of justice proposed by the American philosopher John Rawls (1921-2002).

First principle: Every person should have equal rights with respect to fundamental freedoms.

Second principle: social and economic inequalities should be arranged so that:

Benefits for all could reasonably be expected from them;

Access to positions and positions would be open to all.

In other words, everyone should have equal rights in relation to freedoms (freedom of speech, freedom of conscience, etc.) and equal access to schools and universities, positions, jobs, etc. Where equality is not possible (for example, in an economy where there are not enough benefits for everyone), this inequality should be arranged for the benefit of the poor. One possible example of such a redistribution of wealth could be a progressive income tax, when the rich pay more taxes, and the proceeds go to the social needs of the poor.

5. The principle of mercy. Mercy is a compassionate and active love, expressed in the readiness to help each one in need and spreading to all people, and in the limit - to all living things. The concept of mercy combines two aspects:

Spiritual-emotional (experiencing someone else's pain as your own);

Concrete-practical (rush to real help).

The origins of mercy as a moral principle lie in the apex tribal solidarity, which strictly obliges, at the cost of any sacrifice, to get a relative out of trouble.

Religions such as Buddhism and Christianity were the first to preach mercy.

6. The principle of peace. This principle of morality is based on the recognition of human life as the highest social and moral value and affirms the maintenance and strengthening of peace as an ideal of relations between the peoples and the hosts. Peacefulness presupposes respect for the personal and national dignity of individual citizens and entire peoples, the sovereignty of the state, human rights and the people in the choice of their own life.

Peacefulness contributes to the maintenance of public order, mutual understanding of generations, the development of historical, cultural traditions, the interaction of various social groups, ethnic groups, nations, cultures. Peacefulness is opposed by aggressiveness, belligerence, a tendency to violent means of resolving conflicts, suspicion and distrust in relations between people, nations, socio-political. In the history of morality, peacefulness and aggressiveness are opposed as two main trends.

7. The principle of patriotism. This is a moral principle, in a generalized form expressing a feeling of love for the Motherland, concern for its interests and readiness to protect it from enemies. Patriotism is manifested in pride for the achievements of the native country, in bitterness because of its failures and misfortunes, in respect for its historical past and in a careful attitude to the people's memory, national traditional.

The moral meaning of patriotism is determined by the fact that it is one of the forms of subordination of personal and public interests, the unity of man and the Fatherland. Ho patpioticheckie chyvctva and idei tolko togda npavctvenno vozvyshayut cheloveka and napod, kogda coppyazheny c yvazheniem to napodam d.pugoy ctpan and ne vypozhdayutcya in pcixologiyu natsionalnoy icklyuchitelnocti and nedovepiya to "chyzhakam". Etot acpekt in patpioticheckom coznanii ppiobpel ocobyyu aktyalnoct in poclednee time kogda ygpoza yadepnogo camoynichtozheniya or ekologicheckoy katactpofy potpebovala pepeocmycleniya patriotism HOW ppintsipa, povelevayuschego kazhdomy cpocobctvovat vklady cvoey ctpany in coxpanenie planety and vyzhivanie chelovechectva.

8. The principle of tolerance. Tolerance means respect, acceptance and a proper understanding of the rich diversity of our world's cultures, our forms of self-expression and ways of expressing human individuality. It is promoted by knowledge, openness, communication and freedom of thought, conscience and belief. Tolerance is a virtue that makes peace possible and promotes the replacement of a culture of war by a culture of peace.

The manifestation of tolerance, which is consonant with respect for human rights, does not mean a tolerant attitude towards social injustice, a rejection of one's own or concession to other people's beliefs. This means that everyone is free to adhere to their beliefs and recognizes the same right for others. This means recognizing that people are inherently different in appearance, position, speech, behavior and values ​​and have the right to live in the world and preserve their individuality. It also means that one person's views cannot be imposed on others.

Morality and law.

Law, like morality, regulates the behavior and attitudes of people. But unlike morality, the implementation of legal norms is controlled by public authorities. If morality is an “internal” regulator of human actions, then law is an “external”, state regulator.

Law is a product of history. Morality (as well as mythology, religion, art) is older than it in its historical age. It has always existed in human society, but law arose when class stratification occurred. primitive society and states began to form. The socio-cultural norms of a primitive stateless society concerning the division of labor, the distribution of material wealth, mutual protection, initiation, marriage, etc. had the force of custom and were reinforced by mythology. They generally subordinated the individual to the interests of the collective. Measures of public influence were applied to violators of them - from persuasion to coercion.

Both moral and legal norms are social. What they have in common is that both types serve to regulate and evaluate the actions of the individual. Various include:

law is developed by the state, morality - by society;

law is enshrined in state acts, morality is not;

for violation of the rule of law, sanctions of the state are assumed, for violation of the norm of morality - public condemnation, criticism and, in some cases, sanctions of the state.