Mathematical letters of the Greek alphabet. Rules for reading in Greek. Κανονισμοί διαβάσετε στα ελληνικά
Greek alphabet came into continuous use from the late 9th to early 8th centuries BC. e. According to researchers, this system of written signs was the first to include both consonants and vowels, as well as signs used to separate them. What were the ancient Greek letters like? How did they appear? Which letter ends the Greek alphabet and which letter begins? This and much more is discussed further in the article.
How and when did Greek letters appear?
It must be said that in many Semitic languages letters have independent names and interpretations. It is not entirely clear when exactly the borrowing of signs occurred. Researchers offer various dates for this process from the 14th to the 7th centuries BC. e. But most authors agree on the 9th and 10th centuries. The later dating is somewhat implausible, since the earliest finds of Greek inscriptions may date back to around the 8th century BC. e. or even earlier. In the 10th-9th centuries, North Semitic scripts had a certain similarity. But there is evidence that the Greeks borrowed the writing system specifically from the Phoenicians. This is also plausible because this Semitic group was the most widely dispersed and actively engaged in trade and navigation.
general information
The Greek alphabet includes 24 letters. In some dialects of the pre-classical era, other signs were also used: heta, sampi, stigma, coppa, san, digamma. Of these, the three letters of the Greek alphabet given at the end were also used to write numbers. In the Phoenician system, each symbol was called the word that began with it. So, for example, the first written sign is “aleph” (ox), the next is “bet” (house), the 3rd is gimel (camel) and so on. Subsequently, when borrowing for greater convenience, changes were made to almost every name. The letters of the Greek alphabet thus became somewhat simpler, losing their interpretation. Thus, aleph became alpha, bet became beta, and gimel became gamma. Subsequently, when some symbols were changed or added to the writing system, the names of the Greek letters became more meaningful. So, for example, “omicron” is a small o, “omega” (the last character in the written system) - accordingly, is a large o.
Innovations
Greek letters were the foundation for the creation of the main European fonts. Moreover, initially the system of written signs was not simply borrowed from the Semites. The Greeks made their own changes to it. Thus, in Semitic writing, the direction of characters was either from right to left, or in turn in accordance with the direction of the lines. The second way of writing began to be called "boustrophedon". This definition is a combination of two words, translated from Greek as “bull” and “turn”. Thus, a visual image of an animal is formed, dragging a plow across the field, changing direction from furrow to furrow. As a result, the direction from left to right became a priority in Greek writing. This, in turn, caused a number of corresponding changes in the form of some symbols. Therefore, the Greek letters of a later style represent a mirrored image of Semitic symbols.
Meaning
Based on the Greek alphabet, it was created and subsequently developed a large number of systems of written signs that spread in the Middle East and Europe and were used in writing in many countries of the world. The Cyrillic and Latin alphabet were no exception. It is known that, for example, predominantly Greek letters were used during creation. In addition to the fact that the symbols were used to record language, they were used as international mathematical symbols. Today, Greek letters are used not only in mathematics, but also in other exact sciences. In particular, these symbols are called stars (for example, the 19th letter of the Greek alphabet “tau” was used to designate Tau Ceti), elementary particles And so on.
Archaic Greek letters
These symbols are not included in the classical writing system. Some of them (sampi, coppa, digamma), as mentioned above, were used for numerical recordings. At the same time, two - sampi and coppa - are still used today. In Byzantine times, the digamma was replaced by the ligature stigma. In a number of archaic dialects, these symbols still had a sound meaning and were used when writing words. The most important representatives The Latin system and its variations are considered to be of the Greek direction. In particular, they include Gaelic and At the same time, there are other fonts that are directly or indirectly related to the Greek alphabet. Among them, the Ogham and runic systems should be noted.
Symbols used for other languages
In a number of cases, Greek letters were used to record completely different languages (for example, Old Church Slavonic). In this case, in new system added new symbols - additional signs that reflected the existing sounds of the language. Over the course of history, separate written systems were often formed in such cases. This, for example, happened with the Cyrillic, Etruscan and Coptic alphabets. But often the system of written signs remained essentially unchanged. That is, during its creation, Greek letters were predominantly present and additional symbols were present only in small quantities.
Spreading
The Greek alphabet had several varieties. Each species was associated with a specific colony or city-state. But all these varieties fall into one of the two main categories used in the western and eastern Greek spheres of influence. The difference between the varieties was the sound functions that were assigned to the symbols added to those already contained in the written system. So, for example, in the east it was pronounced as ps, in the west as kh, while the sign “hi” in the east was pronounced as kh, in the west - ks. Classical Greek script was a typical example of the Ionic or Oriental type writing system. It was officially adopted in 404 BC. e. in Athens and subsequently spread throughout Greece. The direct descendants of this font are modern writing systems, such as, for example, Gothic and Coptic, which have survived only in church use. These also include the Cyrillic alphabet, adopted for Russian and a number of other languages. The second main type of Greek writing system, the Western one, was used in some areas of Italy and other Western colonies belonging to Greece. It is believed that this type of writing laid the foundation for the Etruscan script, and through it the Latin one, which became the main one in the territory Ancient Rome And Western Europe.
Wow! Only twenty-four letters? Are some sounds not indicated? That's exactly what it is. There are sounds common to other languages that are not found in Greek. Such sounds are all post-alveolar affricates (as in the word “ w ov” (only softer), [Z] as in the word “ and uk”, as in the word “ h erta”, and as in English word “j ob”). So, what do the Greeks do when they want to say foreign words with these sounds? If the sound cannot be pronounced correctly, it is simply transformed into the corresponding alveolar sound: [s], [Z] [z], , . What about other common sounds like [b], [d], [g], etc.? It seems they are not in the alphabet either! Are they also not included in the list of sounds of the language? No! They exist in the form sounds language. There are simply no separate letters to represent them. When the Greeks want to write down sounds, they write them in combinations of two letters: [b] is written as the combination μπ (mi + pi), [d] as ντ (ni + tau), and [g] as γκ (gamma + kappa), or as γγ (double gamma). Why all these difficulties? Remember, as stated in the introduction to this article, the sounds [b], [d], and [g] existed in classical Greek. Later, perhaps some time after the New Testament was written in so-called Greek koine(single), these three sounds shifted in pronunciation and began to sound like “soft” sounds ([v], , and). A phonological void appeared. Words in which there was a combination of “mp” and “nt” began to be pronounced as and, respectively. Therefore, “explosive” sounds were reintroduced, but letter combinations began to be used to denote them. There is one more sound that is not in the alphabet: “and ng ma,” pronounced like the English word “ki ng" This sound is very rare in Greek, and when it appears (as in the words “άγχος”: anxiety; “έλεγχος”: check), it is indicated by the combination gamma + chi, where gamma is pronounced ingma. For your convenience, below is a table of pronunciation of letter combinations (2 letters) that make new sounds not included in the Greek alphabet:
| cluster | Pronunciation in Modern Greek |
| ΜΠ μπ | [ b], as in the word “ b yt”, at the beginning of words or in borrowed words; or: [mb], as in the word “to mb at.” |
| ΝΤ ντ | [ d], as in the word “ d at”, at the beginning of words or in borrowed words; or: [nd], as in “fo nd”. |
| ΓΚ γκ ΓΓ γγ | [ g], as in the word “ G orod”, at the beginning of words or in borrowed words; or: [g], as in the word “ri ng" Please note: formγγ never occurs at the beginning of words, so is always pronounced as [g], as in the word “ri ng”. |
| ΓΧ γχ ΓΞ γξ | Beforeχ (chi) letter(ri ng) . Beforeξ (xi) letterγ (gamma) is pronounced “ingma”:(ri ng) . Please note: combinationγξ is rare; it appears only in unusual words such asλυγξ (lynx). |
It is quite possible that the following pairs do not produce original sounds, but are perceived by native Greek speakers as “one”:
What about vowels? Are there any similarities with vowels in Russian, or with vowels in other languages? Vowels in Greek are not difficult. The vowels in Greek are similar to the vowels in Italian, Spanish ( Russian approx. translation) or Japanese: [a], [e], [i], [o], and [u]. Currently, the alphabet has three letters for the sound [I] (eta, iota and upsilon), which are pronounced the same, and two letters for the sound [o] (omicron and omega), which are also pronounced the same. For the sound [u], the combination of letters ου (omicron + upsilon) is used. So, pronouncing vowels is easy. Is there anything else special about vowel sounds? Not in pronunciation, but in spelling. There are three "diphthongs" that are no longer diphthongs, but have become digraphs. (A diphthong is a long sound consisting of two elements, each of which has a different quality, as in the words: “r aw nd”, or“b Ouch”; A digraph is two letters that are read together as one letter, e.g. English language th in a word " th ink”, or ph in the word “gra” ph ".) Below are Greek digraphs consisting of vowels.
Ελληνικό αλφάβητο [eliniko alphabeto] — Greek alphabet used in Greek and in the rather small Greek language group. Despite this, it is one of the most ancient (presumably 9th century) and studied. The word “Alphabet”, which we borrowed from the Greeks, consists of the names of the first two letters: "alpha" And "vita"(by analogy our “ABC” was named: "az" And "beeches") Both the modern and ancient Greek alphabet consists of 24 letters: vowels and consonants.
Greek alphabet history
The letters of the Greek alphabet were partially borrowed from the Phoenician script of the consonantal type of writing words (using only consonant sounds). Due to the peculiarity of the Greek language, some symbols denoting consonants began to be used to record vowel sounds. Thus, the Greek alphabet can be considered the first in the history of writing, which consisted of vowels and consonants. Phoenician letters changed not only their styles, but also their names. Initially, all the symbols of the Phoenician writing system had names denoting a word and denoting the initial letter of that word. In Greek transcription, the words slightly changed their sound, and the semantic load was lost. New symbols have also been added to represent missing vowel sounds.
Modern Greek alphabet with transcription
(Modern Greek)
| Letter | Greek name | Russian name | Pronunciation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Α α | άλφα | alpha | [a] |
| Β β | βήτα | beta (vita) | [β] |
| Γ γ | γάμμα γάμα | gamma | [ɣ], [ʝ] |
| Δ δ | δέλτα | delta | [ð] |
| Ε ε | έψιλον | epsilon | [e] |
| Ζ ζ | ζήτα | zeta (zita) | [z] |
| Η η | ήτα | this (ita) | [i] |
| Θ θ | θήτα | theta (phyta) | [θ] |
| Ι ι | ιώτα γιώτα | iota | [i], [j] |
| Κ κ | κάππα κάπα | kappa | [k], [c] |
| Λ λ | λάμδα λάμβδα | lambda (lamda) | [l] |
| Μ μ | μι μυ | mu (mi) | [m] |
| Ν ν | νι νυ | nude (neither) | [n] |
| Ξ ξ | ξι | xi | |
| Ο ο | όμικρον | omicron | [o] |
| Π π | πι | pi | [p] |
| Ρ ρ | ρω | ro | [r] |
| Σ σ ς | σίγμα | sigma | [s] |
| Τ τ | ταυ | tau (tav) | [t] |
| Υ υ | ύψιλον | upsilon | [i] |
| Φ φ | φι | fi | [ɸ] |
| Χ χ | χι | hee | [x], [ç] |
| Ψ ψ | ψι | psi | |
| Ω ω | ωμέγα | omega | [o] |
Ancient Greek alphabet with transcription
(ancient Greek)
| Letter | Dr. -Greek name | Russian name | Pronunciation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Α α | ἄλφα | alpha | [a] |
| Β β | βῆτα | beta (vita) | [b] |
| Γ γ | γάμμα | gamma | [g]/[n] |
| Δ δ | δέλτα | delta | [d] |
| Ε ε | εἶ | epsilon | [e] |
| Ζ ζ | ζῆτα | zeta (zita) | , Later |
| Η η | ἦτα | this (ita) | [ɛː] |
| Θ θ | θῆτα | theta (phyta) | |
| Ι ι | ἰῶτα | iota | [i] |
| Κ κ | κάππα | kappa | [k] |
| Λ λ | λάμδα | lambda (lamda) | [l] |
| Μ μ | μῦ | mu (mi) | [m] |
| Ν ν | νῦ | nude (neither) | [n] |
| Ξ ξ | ξεῖ | xi | |
| Ο ο | οὖ | omicron | [o] |
| Π π | πεῖ | pi | [p] |
| Ρ ρ | ῥῶ | ro | [r], |
| Σ σ ς | σῖγμα | sigma | [s] |
| Τ τ | ταῦ | tau (tav) | [t] |
| Υ υ | ὖ | upsilon | [y], (formerly [u], ) |
| Φ φ | φεῖ | fi | |
| Χ χ | χεῖ | hee | |
| Ψ ψ | ψεῖ | psi | |
| Ω ω | ὦ | omega | [ɔː] |
Numbers of the Greek alphabet
The symbols of the Greek alphabet were also used in the system of writing numbers. The letters in order denoted numbers from 1 to 9, then numbers from 10 to 90, multiples of 10, and then numbers from 100 to 900, multiples of 100. Due to the fact that there were not enough alphabetic characters to write numbers, the number system was supplemented with symbols:
- ϛ (stigma)
- ϟ (coppa)
- ϡ (sampi)
| Letter | Meaning | Name |
|---|---|---|
| Α α | 1 | alpha |
| Β β | 2 | beta (vita) |
| Γ γ | 3 | gamma |
| Δ δ | 4 | delta |
| Ε ε | 5 | epsilon |
| Ϛ ϛ | 6 | stigma |
| Ζ ζ | 7 | zeta (zita) |
| Η η | 8 | this (ita) |
| Θ θ | 9 | theta (phyta) |
| Ι ι | 10 | iota |
| Κ κ | 20 | kappa |
| Λ λ | 30 | lambda (lamda) |
| Μ μ | 40 | mu (mi) |
| Ν ν | 50 | nude (neither) |
| Ξ ξ | 60 | xi |
| Ο ο | 70 | omicron |
| Π π | 80 | pi |
| Ϙ ϙ or Ϟ ϟ | 90 | coppa |
| Ρ ρ | 100 | ro |
| Σ σ ς | 200 | sigma |
| Τ τ | 300 | tau (tav) |
| Υ υ | 400 | upsilon |
| Φ φ | 500 | fi |
| Χ χ | 600 | hee |
| Ψ ψ | 700 | psi |
| Ω ω | 800 | omega |
| Ϡ ϡ | 900 | sampi |
αA Alpha is the first letter of the alphabet, its literal meaning is “bull” or, more generally, “cattle”. Like the corresponding Hebrew letter, Alpha is, first of all, interpreted as a symbol of movable property in all its aspects - both material and spiritual. With the advent of coinage, the value of such coins was expressed in the number of heads of cattle - this is where the word “capital” itself comes from (from the Latin “caput” - “head”). The esoteric essence of Alpha involves caring for the horned livestock, i.e. increasing and wisely using this wealth. Life is a fleeting phenomenon and therefore wealth should be managed in such a way that it becomes an asset for everyone and subsequent generations can also enjoy its benefits. Alpha has interesting parallels in the Hebrew and runic alphabets, where the first letters mean the same thing - rich herds of livestock. In the Hebrew alphabet, this is the letter Aleph, denoting the sound “a”; in the runic alphabet, it is Feo, denoting the sound “f”. And yet, despite their phonetic differences, in the symbolism of these alphabets there is a large cattle is considered as the most important condition for the existence of society, and in the modern understanding it is certain stage human development when alphabets emerge. In digital terms, Alpha symbolizes the primary and most important thing - the main concern for maintaining human life; Gnostic symbolism speaks of a “triple Alpha,” the symbolic Holy Trinity. The number of the word "Alpha" in Gematria is 532.
βB Beta is the second letter of the alphabet, which has defiant and even demonic properties. Numerically, it denotes the number 2; she is next, not first, and therefore is seen as a violator of unity, and in dualistic religions she is identified with a demonic challenge to one God. Often this challenging challenger is called "another first" (as in modern Sweden), paying tribute to the atmosphere of challenge created by this second, which always tries to take the place of the first through rivalry or overthrow. In Mithraism, the demonic god of the Fall also has the epithet “another first.” This is Angra Mainyu, challenging God and destroying his unity. In Christian terminology, the negative aspect is embodied in the image of the devil. However, this aspect of the Second also carries with it the possibility of reunification. Without the Second, the monad, complete in itself, lacks coherence and thus cannot exist. All religions that recognize the existence of a creator of the universe are reconciled to this necessity, represented here symbolically by the letter Beta. Moreover, some argue that the second quality is not necessarily diametrically opposed to the original principle. The name “Beta” in gematria corresponds to the digital value 308.
γG Gamma is the third letter of the alphabet. It represents the number 3 and symbolizes piety and holiness. Just as a child is born from a father and mother, so a third entity naturally arises from a monad and its antipode. IN in a general sense the letter Gamma symbolizes the trinity of deity, which is found everywhere. For example, the goddess in three forms is a phenomenon known throughout the Mediterranean, as well as throughout continental Europe and even in the north. The inhabitants of Babylon worshiped the triad of Anu, Enliya and Ea; the Egyptians revered Isis, Osiris and Horus; The Anglo-Saxons idolized Woden, Frigg and Thunor, while the Vikings revered Odin, Thor and Balder. In Christian terminology, Gamma refers to the trinity - God the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. In terms of esoteric symbolism, Gamma denotes the triple nature of the process: creation, existence and destruction; beginning, middle and end; birth, life and death. It is the third phase, the phase of the waning moon, leading to the fading of light, that indicates the hidden meaning of a new birth in a new cycle. It is the child, this third entity, that survives its parents. In the Greek context, Gamma has a more specific meaning, this letter is associated with the three goddesses of fate: Clotho, Atropos and Lachesis; Roman parallel - Nonna, Decima and Morga; three graces and even with the three Prophetic Sisters of the old English tradition. According to gematria, Gamma has the number 85.
δD Delta represents four classic element of the universe - fire, air, water and earth. For about seven thousand years, since the construction of the first temples of archaic ancient European culture in the Balkans, quadrangularity has been associated with traces human activity. Quadrangular structures are built easier than round ones - according to the four sides of the body of any human being: back, face, right and left sides. Delta thus became the first element of human intervention aimed at changing the world, which was in a primitive state. The unusual number 4 is the four directions, the four horses in the cart known as the "quadriga" and (in Christian eschatology) the four horsemen of the Apocalypse. This is a symbol of completeness on the material level and the quality of completeness. In Gematria, the word "Delta" represents the number 340.
εΕ Epsilon personifies the spiritual element contained in the material and at the same time located outside of it. These are Aeon and Aether, the fifth element, known among alchemists as "quintessence" (equivalent to "Noivre" in the tradition of the Celtic bards). Whatever it is called, the power of its spirit is the subtle energy of life, the “breath of life,” known to the Greeks as “Pneuma”; on it is based every existence of life (its esoteric number 576). Traditionally, this element is depicted as a pentagram in the form of a five-pointed star. In magical writing, the pentagram thus replaces the letter Epsilon. It contains the sacred proportions of the golden section, one of the three principles of sacred geometry, which were provided for in the design of the holiest and most beautiful temples ancient Greece, such as the Parthenon in Athens and the Temple of Zeus at Olympia. Epsilon, as an expression of mathematical proportion, has a mystical connection with Lambda, the eleventh letter of the Greek alphabet. In the Gnostic tradition, Epsilon represents the second heaven. In digital terms, Epsilon means the number 5. In Gematria, the digital sum of this word is 445.
ζZ Zeta, the sixth letter of the alphabet, denotes the giving of gifts to God or sacrifice. This should not be taken literally as killing for the sake of sacrifice, but rather as an offering of energy to assist in the creative process of creation. In an esoteric sense, Zeta is the seventh letter of the alphabet, since the sixth letter was Digamma (F), removed before the classical period and used only as a number. As the seventh and yet sixth letter, Zeta denotes the formative principle of the cosmos. According to biblical tradition, the universe was created in six days, and the seventh day of rest was intended to be completed. Also geometrically, the number six is the guiding principle of matter, forming the hexagonal lattices that underlie the structure of matter. Six points of the hexagonal lattice are needed to place the seventh point inside. The equivalent image of Zeta is the pattern associated with the Archangel Michael: six equidistant points located around the seventh. This magic symbol and can still be seen today as a protective sign on old English and German houses. Zeta means the number 7, the gematric sum of its name is 216.
ηH This is the seventh letter of the alphabet, more numerically than in a conceptual sense, symbolizing the energy of joy and love. This is the letter of balance - a quality that implies harmony with the world around you and the ability to be in the right place at the right time and fully reveal your potential. More detailed description The harmony represented by the letter Eta can be found in pre-Copernican cosmology, which reveals the divine harmony of the seven planets and seven spheres. Thus, Eta may symbolize the so-called “music of the spheres.” Mark the Gnostic placed the letter Eta in the ensemble of the third heaven: “The first heaven sounds Alpha, echoed by E (Epsilon), and the third Eta...” In the Christian science of numbers, Eta represents the desire for improvement, renewal and salvation. But in a digital sense, Eta means the number 8 - the basic number of the Sun. In gematria, the word Eta has a sum of 309 - the number of the god of war Ares and the planet Mars.
θΘ Theta, the eighth letter of the alphabet, stands for the aspirated “T” sound. Theta symbolizes the eighth, crystal sphere, to which, according to ancient cosmology, the fixed stars are attached. Thus, she is a symbol of balance and unification. In the traditional European way of life, Theta symbolizes the eightfold division of time and space. However, in the numbering system this letter stands for the number 9, which indicates an esoteric connection between the numbers 8 and 9, and this relationship is emphasized magical properties two luminaries: the Sun and the Moon. According to gematria, numeric value the words "Theta" is 318; This is the number of the sun god Helios.
ι Ι Iota, despite its smallest size, symbolizes fate. It is dedicated to the goddess of fate Ananka and thus also to the three parks. Ananke is in gematric relationship with the Great God Pan, since the numerical value of Ananke is 130, and Pana is 131. It follows that the smallest letter is a microcosm of all others associated with Pan through complex gematric numerology. After all, symbolically, the smallest part of the universe contains the entire universe at the microcosm level. The letter Iota stands for the number 10, which is considered the fourth heaven in the Gnostic branch of the Christian faith. In gematria, the word “Iota” has the number 381, the number of the god of the winds, Aeolus. As a symbol of fate, it acquired impermanence - a quality characteristic of the fickle winds of fate. It is a symbol of insignificance, if something is not worth even an iota, but when someone tempts fate without thinking one iota about what is important to him, then this seemingly unimportant detail can turn against him itself and bring misfortune.
κ Κ Kappa is considered the letter that brings bad luck, illness, old age and death. According to this property, it is dedicated to the god Cronus. In Mithraism, this tenth letter of the Greek alphabet is associated with the god of evil Angra Mainyu, who in turn is likened to a thousand (10x10x10) deadly demons. There is an opinion that Angra Mainyu is the lord of 10,000 various diseases with which he punishes the human race. On a more abstract level, Kappa is the letter of time, the bearer of inevitable and inexorable processes. In this respect, it is related to the Ken rune, which personifies the inexorable process of the fire element. Kappa means the number 20. In Gematria, its name is the number 182.
λΛ Lambda is associated with plant growth and geometric progressions in mathematics, which express the basic principle of all organic growth. Mystically, it is associated with a geometric proportion known as Golden Ratio. Like the eleventh letter of the Greek alphabet, Lambda represents the ascension to more high level. This is proven mathematically using the example of two Lambda progressions: geometric and arithmetic, the basic number series of ancient Greek mathematics. On a more abstract level, Lambda denotes the increase in numerical sequences that underlie all physical processes. In the runic alphabet we find a direct correspondence to this Greek letter - the rune Lagu, which is also associated with growth and denotes the sound “L”. Similar characteristics are characteristic of the Hebrew letter Lamed. Lambda represents the number 30, and in Gematria its name gives the number 78.
μΜ Mu, the twelfth letter of the alphabet, represents the sacred number 40. This letter is associated with trees - the largest, most powerful and resilient representatives flora. The tree is a symbol of the cosmic axis. It is a link connecting the underground, earthly and heavenly worlds. Its roots grow underground - in the kingdom of Hades. It permeates the surface of the earthly world on which humanity lives, and then rushes upward to the heavenly empyrean of gods and goddesses. The very shape of the letter Mu symbolizes stability and indestructibility, enclosure, security and the connection between the three states of being. Considering the gematric value of the word “Mu” - 440, its meaning intensifies and increases, since the number 440 is the sum of the letters in the word “house” (“About OIKOΣ”), the main symbol of protection from horrors and dangers outside world. Cosmically, as the twelfth letter, it implies all 12 months of the year, the completed cycle of everything living on Earth.
νN Nu is the thirteenth letter. The number 13 has gloomy semantic connections - in in this case, with the witchcraft aspect of the Great Goddess Hecate. The Greeks revered Hecate as the goddess of the night and the underworld. There is also a connection here with the Egyptian goddess Nut and with the later Scandinavian night goddess Not. Just like its runic counterpart Nid, the letter Nu symbolizes an unpleasant necessity; the darkness of the night as a necessity for the day to shine again. The number of this letter is 50, and in Gematria its name gives the sum 450.
ξΞ Xi is the fourteenth letter of the Greek alphabet. According to the esoteric interpretation of the alphabet, this letter represents the stars, as the fifteenth letter represents the sun and moon, and the sixteenth letter represents Mithras himself. This fourteenth letter can be interpreted according to medieval astrology as stars, or more precisely, as “15 Stars”, which had their own occult signs in medieval astrology. These stars and constellations are extremely significant and important, since certain qualities and influences are traditionally attributed to them. These fixed stars are above all others, and the strength of their power cannot be questioned. For a medieval magician who made talismans, the individual characteristics of each of the 15 stars were the basis of his work. At the same time, he took into account not only the predominant properties inherent in each individual planet, but also took into account the influence of the related members of the stellar fifteen. In standard astrology it is believed that these stars also have specific and unique properties. As a result, they are treated in the same way as the most known planets. These stars are called: Pleiades, Aldebaran, Algol, Capella, Sirius, Procyon, Regulus, Algorab, Spica, Arcturus, Polaris, Alphecca, Antares, Vega and Deneb. This letter stands for the number 60, a favorite number in ancient Babylonian astronomy. In gematria the name "Xi" has a sum of 615.
OO Omicron is the power of the sun enclosed in a circle, the source of all energy on Earth, various aspects of which are symbolically represented by the gods Helios and Apollo. The round shape of the letter resembles appearance the sun and the eternal essence of light in the midst of cosmic darkness. In a later interpretation, Omicron symbolizes Christ as the bearer of light. On the other hand, Omicron represents the moon - the mirror of the sun. The Gnostics designate this letter as the fifth heaven. It has a numerical value of 70, and in gematria it is 1090.
πП The letter Pi also symbolizes the sun in a blaze of glory, but this time not a disk, but a round shape surrounded by sixteen rays, which are identified with all the solar deities, including Apollo, Serapis and Christ. More specifically, it is associated with Mithras, to whose veneration, according to the Persian Avestan calendar, the sixteenth day of each month was dedicated. The sun, surrounded by sixteen rays, much later becomes the property of Christian art, where it is also associated with the name of God (for example, the Royal Collegiate Chapel, Cambridge, see Fig. 8). Pi stands for the number 80; The gematric sum of the word “Pi” is 101.
ρΡ Rho is the seventeenth letter of the Greek alphabet, it represents the creative feminine qualities that exist in any thing and are inherent in both sexes - both male and female. More specifically, this is understood as fertility, the strength of development of the entire plant world and the ability of a living organism to reproduce. Rho symbolizes unlimited adaptability and mobility, which lead to “becoming”, that is, creation in all its aspects. Thus, the letter Ro, as it were, anticipates the meaning of its runic counterpart Rad, also associated with movement and fluidity. Arithmetically, this letter represents the number 100; the gematric sum of its name is 170, the same as that of the Greek word “O AMHN” - “amen”, “so be it.”
σΣ Sigma is the Lord of Death; in the Greek pantheon she is a symbol of Hermes Psychopomp, the guide of souls to the afterlife. Being the eighteenth in a row, it is associated with the mysterious eighteenth rune of the Scandinavian tradition, as well as with the esoteric properties of the eighteenth letter of the Gaelic alphabet. In the Mithraic tradition, she symbolizes Rashna, the second brother of Mithra, the god of the underworld. It represents the number 200, and the gematric value of its name is 254.
τΤ Tau represents the microcosm, and in a narrower sense, the lunar aspect of man. The cross of the letter Tau often served as the main pictographic form of the human body. It apparently comes from the ancient Egyptian sign Ankh, a symbol eternal life, used in magic as an amulet against infertility. In Christian iconography, Tau represents the cross. This could be the copper serpent of Moses, or the old Testament rod of Aaron - “anti-heroes” Old Testament, foreshadowing the appearance of a “hero,” i.e., the Cross of the Savior. Naturally, Tau also represents the cross on which Christ was crucified, since the shape of “Tau” is the true form of the crosses used by the Romans for crucifixions. It is this form of the cross that can be seen in many medieval and Renaissance images of the crucifixion of Christ and the two thieves. In esoteric Christian symbolism, the three ends of the letter Tau represent the trinity. The arithmetic value of Tau is 300; according to the rules of gematria, this letter represents the moon goddess Selene (ΣEΛHNH), whose name has the numerical value of 301. The gematric value of the word “Tau” is 701, which traditionally correlates with the number of the so-called “Chrismon” - the monogram of Christ, consisting of the letters Chi and Rho, which add up to 700.
υY Upsilon - the twentieth letter of the alphabet - denotes water and fluidity properties. Here, in contrast to the creative, generative fluidity of Ro, these qualities are associated with the element of water. Upsilon represents properties that are similar to flowing streams of water and are difficult to define, but at the same time are essential for the continuation of life. The number 20 in Greek mysticism is also associated with water. Plato's geometric body called the “icosahedron,” which represents the element of water in esoteric geometry, has twenty faces. The Gnostic tradition associates the letter Upsilon with the “sixth heaven.” Its arithmetic value is 400. In gematria, the name “Ypsilon” is equivalent to 1260.
φΦ Phi is the phallus, the male principle of reproduction. Phi denotes the number 500. In gematria, this number is identified with the mystical shell (ENΔYMA) - the manifestation of the spiritual element in the world of forms. The letter is also a representation of the word “to Pan” - i.e. “all”. According to the Greek tradition, it symbolizes the great god Pan - the one who connects everything that exists into a single natural integrity. His name contains the number 500, symbolized by the letter Phi; according to gematria, this number is equivalent to the number of the universe (501). The gematric value of the word "phi" is 510.
χX Chi is the twenty-second letter of the alphabet, denoting space, and on the human level - private property. Chi number - 600; this number is equivalent to the gematric sums of the Greek words "Cosmos" (KOΣMOΣ) and "deity" ("O THEOTHΣ) (the latter being the sacred component of the former). Chi is an indicator of ownership, defining the boundaries of what has already been appropriated. It is also a symbol of the presented a gift that in the horizontal plane connects man to man, and if you look vertically, it is a link in the unity of the gods with humanity. Only in its form, but not phonetically, the letter Chi is related to the Gifu rune (in the letter X, phonetically “G”) , which symbolizes giving gifts to the gods or receiving gifts from them.In Gematria, the word "Chi" is equivalent to the number 610.
ψΨ Psi is the twenty-third letter of the alphabet, denoting the heavenly light embodied in the sky god Zeus. It also has a secondary meaning, that is, daylight, and more specifically the climax of midday. Hence, this letter corresponds to the moment of insight, clear and precise vision. It represents the number 700 - the gematric sum of the Christian monogram Chi-Rho, symbolizing the heavenly radiance of Christ. The gematric value of the word "Psi" is 710, which corresponds to the words "piston" (PIΣTON) ("faithful") and "pneuma agion" (PNEYMA AGION) ("Holy Spirit").
ωΩ Omega is the twenty-fourth and last letter of the alphabet, denoting wealth and abundance, successful completion of affairs. This is the apotheosis, the seventh heaven of the Gnostics. Its numerical value is 800, equivalent to the words “pistis” (1ШЛТС) (“faith”) and “kyurios” (KYПIOΣ) (“lord”). In Gematria, the word "Omega" gives the sum of 849, which is equivalent to the word "scheme" (ΣXHMA) ("plan"). Thus, Omega is the embodiment of faith and the divine plan in both pagan and Christian interpretations of the word "Lord", be it Zeus or Jesus.
in his oldest form was an exact copy Phoenician: the Greeks retained the same sequence of letters in the alphabet as the Phoenicians, and even the names of the letters were denoted by distorted Semitic words.
The Semitic direction of writing was also preserved in ancient Greek inscriptions: characters were written from right to left.
And only in the 4th century BC. The Greeks switched to writing from left to right.
This is how the Greeks wrote and read. This is called “bull turn” (a letter similar to the move of plowing bulls).
Almost all of them originate from the Greek alphabet. all European alphabets. In the West, the alphabet spread through the Greek colonies located in the southern part of the Apennine Peninsula.
The alphabet was borrowed from the Greeks by the Romans, and from them it spread throughout all the countries of Western Europe. At the end of the 4th - beginning of the 5th centuries. the alphabet influenced the emergence of the Armenian alphabet. In the VI century. The Georgian alphabet arose - partly from the Greek with the addition of a few letters.
The Greeks used new material for writing - it was parchment made from animal skins. It was more durable than papyrus. The use of leather for writing began from very early times in Egypt, Greece, and Asia Minor, where it became most widespread.
According to legend in city of Pergamon in the 1st century BC was invented new way obtaining material for writing from animal skins.
The oldest pieces of parchment with surviving fragments of texts date back to the 1st century BC, but they began to use it only from the 2nd century. n. e. For making parchment They used the skins of sheep, goats, donkeys, and calves. The skins were soaked in lime water, the wool was scraped off, stretched onto a frame, dried, smoothed with pumice and treated with chalk.
It was durable, had a smooth and light surface. It could be written on both sides. Parchment was painted yellow, blue, black, and purple and was used for luxurious manuscripts. Purple was written in gold or silver.
For a thousand years, the book made from parchment dominated in Europe, while paper made its victorious path in Asian countries. Thanks to parchment, a significant number of manuscripts from the early Middle Ages have been preserved.
In Greece, they were used for writing ceras- wooden planks coated with wax. They wrote with a stick - style. “Rotate style”, i.e. to erase what was written meant to remove the beauty of language. This is where the expression “literary style” comes from.
Wax tablets were used mainly for notes and for writing letters, but sometimes literary and scientific texts. Several planks were fastened together using a strap or cord pulled through one side. This is how the book turned out.
This method of writing became widespread in Rome. Later he entered the countries medieval Europe. In Paris back in the 13th century. There were workshops for making wax tablets.
They recited, accompanying themselves on the cithara. Singers were held in high esteem. The Greek rulers loved to surround themselves with the most prominent poets and scientists.
The center of Greek culture was the Athenian slave-owning republic with its capital, where the greatest Greek tragedians, Sophocles and Euripides, lived. Comedy author Aristophanes. Famous philosophers Socrates. In the Republic of Athens, as in other Greek city-states, public education stood at a considerable height: the children of all citizens were educated in schools.
In Athens there were also higher schools, where young men studied science under the guidance of philosophical teachers. The most famous were: the school of Plato and the school of Aristotle. Plato's teaching was abstract. Aristotle's teaching was based primarily on the observation of natural phenomena. He gave his lectures while walking with his students.
Some of Aristotle's views and discoveries still amaze scientists. Apparently, some of the writings that have survived to this day under the name of Aristotle are recordings of his lectures. One of higher manifestations Hellenic creativity was theatrical art. During the heyday of Athenian culture, poets created wonderful comedies and tragedies, many of which have come down to us in later copies. However, Greek culture was put at the service only of free citizens, slaves remained on the sidelines. If among the slaves there were educated people, then this was a rare exception.
The book of that time was papyrus scroll. delivered from Egypt. The text on the scroll was written in narrow columns, the direction of the lines was parallel to the length of the scroll. When reading, the papyrus ribbon was gradually rolled from one side to the other so that two columns were simultaneously in view, and the rest of the scroll was rolled up.
? Try rolling up a paper scroll and writing on it like papyrus. Is it convenient?
Due to the fact that papyrus scrolls did not tolerate moisture, which had a destructive effect on them, no authentic books of that time were preserved. And only Egyptian and Greek scrolls were preserved for two to three millennia in completely dry Egyptian sand. Most known scrolls survive in fragments, but sometimes these fragments are significant.