Self-development 

internal ballistics. Sniper training. Internal and external ballistics The movement of a bullet along the bore

Shot is a complex set of physical and chemical phenomena. The firing event can be conditionally divided into two stages - the movement of the projectile in the gun bore and the complex of phenomena that occur after the projectile leaves the barrel.

Shot is called the ejection of a bullet from the bore under the action of powder gases formed during the combustion of a powder charge. From the impact of the striker on the primer of the cartridge, a flame arises that ignites the powder charge. This creates a large number of highly heated gases that create high pressure acting in all directions with the same force. At a gas pressure of 250-500 kg / cm 2, the bullet moves from its place and crashes into the rifling of the bore, receiving rotational motion. Gunpowder continues to burn, therefore, the amount of gases increases. Then, due to the rapid increase in the speed of the bullet, the volume of the bullet space increases faster than inflow new gases, and the pressure starts to drop. However, the speed of the bullet in the bore continues to increase, as the gases, although to a lesser extent, still put pressure on it. The bullet moves along the bore at a continuously increasing speed and is ejected outward in the direction of the axis of the bore. The entire firing process takes place in a very short period of time (0.001–0.06 s). Further, the flight of the bullet in the air continues by inertia and largely depends on its initial velocity.

muzzle velocity is the speed at which the bullet leaves the bore. The value of the muzzle velocity of a bullet depends on the length of the barrel, the mass of the bullet, the mass of the powder charge, and other factors. An increase in the initial speed increases the range of the bullet, its penetrating and lethal effect, reduces the impact external conditions for her flight. The movement of the weapon backwards while firing is called recoil. The pressure of powder gases in the bore acts in all directions with the same force. The pressure of the gases on the bottom of the bullet makes it move forward, and the pressure on the bottom of the cartridge case is transmitted to the bolt and causes the weapon to move backward. When recoil, a pair of forces is formed, under the influence of which the muzzle of the weapon deviates upward. The recoil force acts along the axis of the bore, and the butt stop in the shoulder and the center of gravity of the weapon are located below the direction of this force, therefore, when firing, the muzzle of the weapon deviates upward.

recoil small arms felt in the form of a push in the shoulder, arm or into the ground. The recoil action of a weapon is characterized by the amount of speed and energy that it has when moving backward. The recoil speed of the weapon is about as many times less than the initial speed of the bullet, how many times the bullet is lighter than the weapon. The recoil energy of the Kalashnikov assault rifle is small and is perceived painlessly by the shooter. Correct and uniform holding of the weapon reduces the impact of recoil and increases the effectiveness of shooting. The presence of muzzle brakes-compensators or compensators for weapons improves the results of firing bursts and reduces recoil.

At the time of the shot, the barrel of the weapon, depending on the elevation angle, occupies a certain position. The flight of a bullet in the air begins in a straight line, representing the continuation of the axis of the bore at the time of the bullet's departure. This line is called throw line. When flying in the air, two forces act on a bullet: gravity and air resistance. Gravity pushes the bullet further and further away from the line of throw, while air resistance slows the bullet down. Under the influence of these two forces, the bullet continues to fly along a curve located below the line of throw. Trajectory shape depends on the magnitude of the elevation angle and the initial velocity of the bullet, it affects the range direct shot, covered, struck and dead space. With an increase in the elevation angle, the height of the trajectory and the total horizontal range bullets increase, but this happens up to a certain limit. Beyond this limit, the trajectory height continues to increase and the total horizontal range decreases.

The angle of elevation at which the full horizontal range of the bullet is greatest is called angle longest range . The value of the angle of greatest range for bullets various kinds arms is about 35°. Trajectories obtained at elevation angles, smaller angle the greatest range are called flat.

Straight shot called a shot in which the trajectory of the bullet does not rise above the line of sight above the target throughout its entire length.

Direct shot range depends on the height of the target and flatness of the trajectory. The higher the target and flatter trajectory, the longer the point-blank range and hence the distance at which the target can be hit with one sight setting. The practical significance of a direct shot lies in the fact that in tense moments of the battle, shooting can be carried out without rearranging the sight, while the aiming point in height will be selected along the lower edge of the target.

The space behind a cover that is not penetrated by a bullet, from its crest to the meeting point is called covered space.

The covered space is the greater, the higher the shelter and the flatter the trajectory. The part of the covered space on which the target cannot be hit with a given trajectory is called dead (non-hit) space. It is the greater, the greater the height of the shelter, the lower the height of the target and the flatter the trajectory. The other part of the covered space in which the target can be hit is the hit space.

Shot periodization

The shot occurs in a very short period of time (0.001-0.06 s.). When fired, four consecutive periods are distinguished:

  • preliminary;
  • first, or main;
  • second;
  • the third, or period of the last gases.

Preliminary period lasts from the beginning of the burning of the powder charge to the complete cutting of the shell of the bullet into the rifling of the barrel. During this period, the gas pressure is created in the barrel bore, which is necessary in order to move the bullet from its place and overcome the resistance of its shell to cutting into the rifling of the barrel. This pressure is called boost pressure; it reaches 250 - 500 kg / cm 2, depending on the rifling device, the weight of the bullet and the hardness of its shell (for example, for small arms chambered for the 1943 sample, the forcing pressure is about 300 kg / cm 2). It is assumed that the combustion of the powder charge in this period occurs in a constant volume, the shell cuts into the rifling instantly, and the movement of the bullet begins immediately when the forcing pressure is reached in the bore.

First or main period lasts from the beginning of the movement of the bullet to the moment complete combustion powder charge. During this period, the combustion of the powder charge occurs in a rapidly changing volume. At the beginning of the period, when the speed of the bullet along the bore is still low, the amount of gases grows faster than the volume of the bullet space (the space between the bottom of the bullet and the bottom of the case), the gas pressure rises rapidly and reaches largest(for example, for small arms chambered for a sample of 1943 - 2800 kg / cm 2, and for a rifle cartridge 2900 kg / cm 2). This pressure is called maximum pressure. It is created in small arms when a bullet travels 4 - 6 cm of the path. Then due to fast speed movement of the bullet, the volume of the bullet space increases faster than the influx of new gases, and the pressure begins to fall, by the end of the period it is equal to approximately 2/3 of the maximum pressure. The speed of the bullet is constantly increasing and by the end of the period reaches approximately 3/4 of the initial speed. The powder charge completely burns out shortly before the bullet leaves the bore.

Second period lasts until the moment of complete combustion of the powder charge until the moment the bullet leaves the bore. With the beginning of this period, the influx of powder gases stops, however, highly compressed and heated gases expand and, putting pressure on the bullet, increase its speed. The pressure drop in the second period occurs quite quickly and at the muzzle, the muzzle pressure is 300 - 900 kg / cm 2 for various types of weapons (for example, for the Simonov self-loading carbine - 390 kg / cm 2, for the Goryunov easel machine gun - 570 kg / cm 2 ). The speed of the bullet at the time of its departure from the bore (muzzle velocity) is somewhat less than the initial velocity.

trajectory called the curved line described by the center of gravity of the bullet in flight.
A bullet flying through the air is subjected to two forces: gravity and air resistance. The force of gravity causes the bullet to gradually descend, and the force of air resistance continuously slows down the movement of the bullet and tends to knock it over. As a result of the action of these forces, the bullet's flight speed gradually decreases, and its trajectory is an unevenly curved curved line in shape. Air resistance to the flight of a bullet is caused by the fact that air is elastic medium and therefore part of the energy of the bullet is expended on movement in this medium.

The force of air resistance is caused by three main causes: air friction, the formation of vortices and the formation of a ballistic wave.
The shape of the trajectory depends on the magnitude of the elevation angle. As the elevation angle increases, the height of the trajectory and the total horizontal range of the bullet increase, but this occurs up to a certain limit. Beyond this limit, the trajectory height continues to increase and the total horizontal range begins to decrease.

The angle of elevation at which the full horizontal range of the bullet is at its greatest is called the angle of greatest range. The value of the angle of greatest range for bullets of various types of weapons is about 35 °.

Trajectories obtained at elevation angles smaller than the angle of greatest range are called flat. Trajectories obtained at elevation angles greater than the angle largest angle longest range are called mounted. When firing from the same weapon (with the same initial speeds) you can get two trajectories with the same horizontal range: flat and hinged. Trajectories having the same horizontal range and swarms of different elevation angles are called conjugated.

When shooting from small arms, only flat trajectories are used. The flatter the trajectory, the greater the extent of the terrain, the target can be hit with one sight setting (the less impact on the shooting results is the error in determining the sight setting): this is practical value trajectories.
The flatness of the trajectory is characterized by its greatest excess over the aiming line. At a given range, the trajectory is all the more flat, the less it rises above the aiming line. In addition, the flatness of the trajectory can be judged by the magnitude of the angle of incidence: the trajectory is the more flat, the smaller the angle of incidence. The flatness of the trajectory affects the value of the range of a direct shot, struck, covered and dead space.

Trajectory elements

Departure point- the center of the muzzle of the barrel. The departure point is the start of the trajectory.
Weapon Horizon is the horizontal plane passing through the departure point.
elevation line- a straight line, which is a continuation of the axis of the bore of the aimed weapon.
Shooting plane- a vertical plane passing through the line of elevation.
Elevation angle- the angle enclosed between the line of elevation and the horizon of the weapon. If this angle is negative, then it is called the angle of declination (decrease).
Throw line- a straight line, which is a continuation of the axis of the bore at the time of the bullet's departure.
Throwing angle
Departure angle- the angle enclosed between the line of elevation and the line of throwing.
drop point- the point of intersection of the trajectory with the horizon of the weapon.
Angle of incidence- the angle enclosed between the tangent to the trajectory at the point of impact and the horizon of the weapon.
Total horizontal range- the distance from the point of departure to the point of fall.
final speed- the speed of the bullet (grenade) at the point of impact.
Full time flight- the time of movement of a bullet (grenade) from the point of departure to the point of impact.
Top of the path - highest point trajectories over the horizon of the weapon.
Trajectory height- the shortest distance from the top of the trajectory to the horizon of the weapon.
Ascending branch of the trajectory- part of the trajectory from the departure point to the top, and from the top to the drop point - the descending branch of the trajectory.
Aiming point (aiming)- the point on the target (outside it) at which the weapon is aimed.
line of sight- a straight line passing from the shooter's eye through the middle of the sight slot (at the level with its edges) and the top of the front sight to the aiming point.
aiming angle- the angle enclosed between the line of elevation and the line of sight.
Target elevation angle- the angle enclosed between the aiming line and the horizon of the weapon. This angle is considered positive (+) when the target is higher and negative (-) when the target is below the weapon's horizon.
Sighting range - distance from the departure point to the intersection of the trajectory with the line of sight. The excess of the trajectory over the line of sight is the shortest distance from any point of the trajectory to the line of sight.
target line- a straight line connecting the departure point with the target.
Slant Range- distance from the departure point to the target along the target line.
meeting point- point of intersection of the trajectory with the surface of the target (ground, obstacles).
Meeting angle- the angle enclosed between the tangent to the trajectory and the tangent to the target surface (ground, obstacles) at the meeting point. The meeting angle is taken as the smaller of the adjacent angles, measured from 0 to 90 degrees.

Ballistics studies the throwing of a projectile (bullet) from a barreled weapon. Ballistics is divided into internal, which studies the phenomena occurring in the barrel at the time of the shot, and external, which explains the behavior of the bullet after leaving the barrel.

Fundamentals of external ballistics

Knowledge of external ballistics (hereinafter referred to as ballistics) allows the shooter even before the shot with sufficient practical application know exactly where the bullet will hit. The accuracy of a shot is influenced by a lot of interrelated factors: the dynamic interaction of parts and parts of the weapon between themselves and the body of the shooter, gas and bullets, bullets with the walls of the bore, bullets with the environment after leaving the barrel, and much more.

After leaving the barrel, the bullet does not fly in a straight line, but along the so-called ballistic trajectory close to a parabola. Sometimes at short shooting distances, the deviation of the trajectory from a straight line can be neglected, but at large and extreme shooting distances (which is typical for hunting), knowledge of the laws of ballistics is absolutely necessary.

Note that airguns usually give a light bullet a small or average speed(from 100 to 380 m / s), so the curvature of the trajectory of the bullet from different influences greater than for firearms.

A bullet fired from a barrel at a certain speed is subject to two main forces in flight: gravity and air resistance. The action of gravity is directed downward, it causes the bullet to descend continuously. The action of the air resistance force is directed towards the movement of the bullet, it causes the bullet to continuously reduce its flight speed. All this leads to a downward deviation of the trajectory.

To increase the stability of the bullet in flight on the surface of the bore rifled weapons there are spiral grooves (rifling) that give the bullet a rotational motion and thereby prevent it from tumbling in flight.


Due to the rotation of the bullet in flight

Due to the rotation of the bullet in flight, the force of air resistance acts unevenly on different parts of the bullet. As a result, the bullet encounters more air resistance on one of the sides and in flight deviates more and more from the plane of fire in the direction of its rotation. This phenomenon is called derivation. The action of derivation is uneven and intensifies towards the end of the trajectory.

Powerful air rifles can give the bullet an initial velocity higher than the sound one (up to 360-380 m/s). The speed of sound in air is not constant (depends on atmospheric conditions, height above sea level, etc.), but it can be taken equal to 330-335 m/s. Light bullets for pneumatics with small transverse load experience strong perturbations and deviate from their trajectory, overcoming sound barrier. Therefore, it is advisable to shoot heavier bullets with an initial velocity approaching to the speed of sound.

The trajectory of a bullet is also affected by weather conditions - wind, temperature, humidity and air pressure.

The wind is considered weak at its speed of 2 m/s, medium (moderate) - at 4 m/s, strong - at 8 m/s. Side moderate wind, acting at an angle of 90° to the trajectory, already has a very significant effect on a light and "low-velocity" bullet fired from an airgun. The impact of a wind of the same strength, but blowing at an acute angle to the trajectory - 45 ° or less - causes half the deflection of the bullet.

The wind blowing along the trajectory in one direction or another slows down or speeds up the speed of the bullet, which must be taken into account when shooting at a moving target. When hunting, the wind speed can be estimated with acceptable accuracy using a handkerchief: if you take a handkerchief by two corners, then with a light wind it will sway slightly, with a moderate one it will deviate by 45 °, and with a strong one it will develop horizontally to the surface of the earth.

Normal weather conditions are: air temperature - plus 15 ° C, humidity - 50%, pressure - 750 mm Hg. An excess of air temperature above normal leads to an increase in the trajectory at the same distance, and a decrease in temperature leads to a decrease in the trajectory. High humidity leads to a decrease in the trajectory, and low humidity leads to an increase in the trajectory. Recall that Atmosphere pressure varies not only with the weather, but also with altitude - the higher the pressure, the lower the trajectory.

Each "long-range" weapon and ammunition has its own correction tables, which allow taking into account the influence of weather conditions, derivation, relative position of the shooter and target in height, bullet speed and other factors on the bullet's flight path. Unfortunately, such tables are not published for pneumatic weapons, therefore, lovers of shooting at extreme distances or at small targets are forced to compile such tables themselves - their completeness and accuracy are the key to success in hunting or competitions.

When evaluating the results of firing, it must be remembered that from the moment of firing until the end of its flight, some random (not taken into account) factors act on the bullet, which leads to small deviations in the trajectory of the bullet from shot to shot. Therefore, even under "ideal" conditions (for example, when the weapon is rigidly fixed in the machine, external conditions are constant, etc.), bullet hits on the target look like an oval, thickening towards the center. Such random deviations are called deviation. The formula for its calculation is given below in this section.

And now consider the trajectory of the bullet and its elements (see Figure 1).

The straight line representing the continuation of the axis of the bore before the shot is called the shot line. The straight line, which is a continuation of the axis of the barrel when the bullet leaves it, is called the line of throw. Due to the vibrations of the barrel, its position at the time of the shot and at the moment the bullet leaves the barrel will differ by the angle of departure.

As a result of the action of gravity and air resistance, the bullet does not fly along the line of throw, but along an unevenly curved curve passing below the line of throw.

The start of the trajectory is the departure point. The horizontal plane passing through the departure point is called the weapon's horizon. The vertical plane passing through the point of departure along the line of throw is called the shooting plane.

To throw a bullet to any point on the horizon of the weapon, it is necessary to direct the throwing line above the horizon. The angle formed by the line of fire and the horizon of the weapon is called the angle of elevation. The angle formed by the line of throw and the horizon of the weapon is called the angle of throw.

The point of intersection of the trajectory with the horizon of the weapon is called the (table) point of incidence. The horizontal distance from the departure point to the (table) drop point is called the horizontal range. The angle between the tangent to the trajectory at the point of impact and the horizon of the weapon is called the (table) angle of incidence.

The highest point of the trajectory above the weapon's horizon is called the trajectory apex, and the distance from the weapon's horizon to the trajectory's apex is called the trajectory height. The top of the trajectory divides the trajectory into two unequal parts: the ascending branch is longer and gentler and the descending branch is shorter and steeper.

Considering the position of the target relative to the shooter, three situations can be distinguished:

Shooter and target are on the same level.
- the shooter is located below the target (shoots up at an angle).
- the shooter is located above the target (shoots down at an angle).

In order to direct the bullet to the target, it is necessary to give the axis of the bore a certain position in the vertical and horizontal plane. Giving the desired direction to the axis of the bore in the horizontal plane is called horizontal pickup, and giving direction in the vertical plane is called vertical pickup.

Vertical and horizontal aiming is carried out using sighting devices. Mechanical sights rifled weapons consist of a front sight and a rear sight (or diopter).

The straight line connecting the middle of the slot in the rear sight with the top of the front sight is called the aiming line.

Aiming of small arms with the help of sighting devices is carried out not from the horizon of the weapon, but relative to the location of the target. In this regard, the elements of pickup and trajectory receive the following designations (see Figure 2).

The point at which the weapon is aimed is called the aiming point. The straight line connecting the shooter's eye, the middle of the rear sight slot, the top of the front sight and the aiming point is called the aiming line.

The angle formed by the aiming line and the shooting line is called the aiming angle. This aiming angle is obtained by setting the slot of the sight (or front sight) in height corresponding to the firing range.

The point of intersection of the descending branch of the trajectory with the line of sight is called the point of incidence. The distance from the point of departure to the point of impact is called the target range. The angle between the tangent to the trajectory at the point of incidence and the line of sight is called the angle of incidence.

When positioning weapons and targets at the same height the aiming line coincides with the horizon of the weapon, and the aiming angle coincides with the elevation angle. When positioning the target above or below the horizon weapon between the aiming line and the horizon line, the elevation angle of the target is formed. The elevation angle of the target is considered positive if the target is above the weapon's horizon and negative if the target is below the weapon's horizon.

The elevation angle of the target and the aiming angle together make up the elevation angle. With a negative elevation angle of the target, the line of fire can be directed below the horizon of the weapon; in this case, the elevation angle becomes negative and is called the declination angle.

At its end, the trajectory of the bullet intersects either with the target (obstacle) or with the surface of the earth. The point of intersection of the trajectory with the target (obstacle) or the surface of the earth is called the meeting point. The possibility of ricochet depends on the angle at which the bullet hits the target (obstacle) or the ground, their mechanical characteristics, and the material of the bullet. The distance from the departure point to the rendezvous point is called the actual range. A shot in which the trajectory does not rise above the aiming line above the target throughout the aiming range is called a direct shot.

From the foregoing, it is clear that before practical shooting the weapon must be shot (otherwise it must be brought to a normal battle). Zeroing should be carried out with the same ammunition and under the same conditions that will be typical for subsequent firing. Be sure to take into account the size of the target, the shooting position (lying, kneeling, standing, from unstable positions), even the thickness of clothing (when zeroing in a rifle).

The line of sight, passing from the shooter's eye through the top of the front sight, the top edge of the rear sight and the target, is a straight line, while the trajectory of the bullet's flight is an unevenly curved downward line. The line of sight is located 2-3 cm above the barrel in the case of an open sight and much higher in the case of an optical one.

In the simplest case, if the line of sight is horizontal, the trajectory of the bullet crosses the line of sight twice: on the ascending and descending parts of the trajectory. The weapon is usually zeroed (adjusted sights) at a horizontal distance at which the descending part of the trajectory intersects the line of sight.

It may seem that there are only two distances to the target - where the trajectory crosses the line of sight - at which a hit is guaranteed. So sports shooting fired at a fixed distance of 10 meters, at which the trajectory of the bullet can be considered straight.

For practical shooting (for example, hunting), the firing range is usually much longer and the curvature of the trajectory has to be taken into account. But here the arrow plays into the hands of the fact that the size of the target (slaughter place) in height in this case can reach 5-10 cm or more. If we choose such a horizontal range of sighting of the weapon that the height of the trajectory at a distance does not exceed the height of the target (the so-called direct shot), then aiming at the edge of the target, we will be able to hit it throughout the firing distance.

The range of a direct shot, at which the height of the trajectory does not rise above the aiming line above the height of the target, is a very important characteristic of any weapon, which determines the flatness of the trajectory.
The aiming point is usually the lower edge of the target or its center. It is more convenient to aim under the edge when the entire target is visible when aiming.

When shooting, it is usually necessary to introduce vertical corrections if:

  • Target size is smaller than usual.
  • the shooting distance is greater than the sighting distance of the weapon.
  • the shooting distance is closer than the first point of intersection of the trajectory with the line of sight (typical for shooting with a telescopic sight).

Horizontal corrections usually have to be introduced during shooting in windy weather or when shooting at a moving target. Usually corrections for open sights are introduced by firing ahead (by moving the aiming point to the right or left of the target), and not by adjusting the sights.

trajectory called a curved line, described by the center of gravity of a bullet (grenade) in flight. A bullet (grenade) when flying in the air is subject to the action of two forces: gravity and air resistance. The force of gravity causes the bullet (grenade) to gradually lower, and the force of air resistance continuously slows down the movement of the bullet (grenade) and tends to overturn it. As a result of the action of these forces, the speed of the bullet (grenade) gradually decreases, and its trajectory is an unevenly curved curved line in shape. Air resistance to the flight of a bullet (grenade) is caused by the fact that air is an elastic medium and therefore part of the energy of the bullet (grenade) is expended on movement in this medium. The force of air resistance is caused by three main causes: air friction, the formation of vortices and the formation of a ballistic wave. The shape of the trajectory depends on the magnitude of the elevation angle. With an increase in the elevation angle, the height of the trajectory and the full horizontal range of the bullet (grenade) increase, but this occurs up to a known limit. Beyond this limit, the trajectory height continues to increase and the total horizontal range begins to decrease. The angle of elevation at which the full horizontal range of the bullet (grenade) becomes the greatest is called the angle of greatest range. The value of the angle of greatest range for bullets of various types of weapons is about 35 °.
Trajectories obtained at elevation angles smaller than the angle of greatest range are called flat. Trajectories obtained at elevation angles greater than the angle of greatest angle of greatest range are called hinged. When firing from the same weapon (at the same initial speeds), you can get two trajectories with the same horizontal range: flat and mounted. Trajectories having the same horizontal range and swarms of different elevation angles are called conjugated. When firing from small arms and grenade launchers, only flat trajectories are used. The flatter the trajectory, the greater the extent of the terrain, the target can be hit with one sight setting (the less impact on the shooting results is the error in determining the sight setting): this is the practical significance of the trajectory. The flatness of the trajectory is characterized by its greatest excess over the aiming line. At a given range, the trajectory is all the more flat, the less it rises above the aiming line. In addition, the flatness of the trajectory can be judged by the magnitude of the angle of incidence: the trajectory is the more flat, the smaller the angle of incidence. The flatness of the trajectory affects the value of the range of a direct shot, struck, covered and dead space.

To study the trajectory of a bullet, the following definitions are accepted:

Departure point- the center of the muzzle of the barrel. The departure point is the start of the trajectory. Weapon Horizon is the horizontal plane passing through the departure point. elevation line- a straight line, which is a continuation of the axis of the bore of the aimed weapon. Shooting plane- a vertical plane passing through the line of elevation. Elevation angle- the angle enclosed between the line of elevation and the horizon of the weapon. If this angle is negative, then it is called the angle of declination (decrease). Throw line- a straight line, which is a continuation of the axis of the bore at the time of the bullet's departure. Throwing angle Departure angle- the angle enclosed between the line of elevation and the line of throwing. drop point- the point of intersection of the trajectory with the horizon of the weapon. Angle of incidence- the angle enclosed between the tangent to the trajectory at the point of impact and the horizon of the weapon. Total horizontal range- the distance from the point of departure to the point of fall. final speed- the speed of the bullet (grenade) at the point of impact. Total flight time- the time of movement of a bullet (grenade) from the point of departure to the point of impact. Top of the path- the highest point of the trajectory above the horizon of the weapon. Trajectory height- the shortest distance from the top of the trajectory to the horizon of the weapon. Ascending branch of the trajectory- part of the trajectory from the departure point to the top, and from the top to the drop point - the descending branch of the trajectory. Aiming point (aiming)- the point on the target (outside it) at which the weapon is aimed. line of sight- a straight line passing from the shooter's eye through the middle of the sight slot (at the level with its edges) and the top of the front sight to the aiming point. aiming angle- the angle enclosed between the line of elevation and the line of sight. Target elevation angle- the angle enclosed between the aiming line and the horizon of the weapon. This angle is considered positive (+) when the target is higher and negative (-) when the target is below the weapon's horizon. Sighting range- distance from the departure point to the intersection of the trajectory with the line of sight. The excess of the trajectory over the line of sight is the shortest distance from any point of the trajectory to the line of sight. target line- a straight line connecting the departure point with the target. Slant Range- distance from the departure point to the target along the target line. meeting point- point of intersection of the trajectory with the surface of the target (ground, obstacles). Meeting angle- the angle enclosed between the tangent to the trajectory and the tangent to the target surface (ground, obstacles) at the meeting point. The meeting angle is taken as the smaller of the adjacent angles, measured from 0 to 90 degrees.

2.6 Direct shot - a shot in which the top of the bullet's flight path does not exceed the height of the target.

Within the range of a direct shot in tense moments of the battle, shooting can be carried out without rearranging the sight, while the aiming point in height, as a rule, is chosen at the lower edge of the target.

The order of incomplete disassembly of the AK-74:

We disconnect the magazine, remove it from the fuse and distort the bolt carrier, make a control descent, right hand press the spring stop and remove the box cover, disconnect the frame with the piston, remove the bolt from the bolt frame, disconnect the gas tube, disconnect the muzzle brake-compensator, remove the shim.

2.7 The space behind cover that is not penetrated by a bullet, from its crest to the meeting point is called covered space

The part of the covered space in which the target cannot be hit with a given trajectory is called dead space (the more, the higher the height of the shelter)

The part of the covered area in which the target can be hit is called affected space

Derivation(from lat. derivatio- retraction, deviation) in military affairs - deviation of the flight path of a bullet or artillery projectile (this applies only to rifled weapons or special ammunition for smooth-bore weapons) under the influence of rotation imparted by barrel rifling, inclined nozzles or inclined stabilizers of the ammunition itself, that is, due to the gyroscopic effect and the effect Magnus. The phenomenon of derivation during the movement of oblong projectiles was first described in the works of the Russian military engineer, General N.V. Maievsky.

3.1 What charters are included in the ovu of the armed forces of the Russian Federation,

Charter of the internal service of the armed forces of the Russian Federation

Disciplinary charter of the armed forces of the Russian Federation

Charter of the garrison, commandant and guard services of the armed forces of the Russian Federation

Military charter of the armed forces of the Russian Federation

3.2 Military discipline is the strict and precise observance by all military personnel of the order and rules established by law Russian Federation, general military charters of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation (hereinafter referred to as general military charters) and orders of commanders (chiefs).

2. Military discipline is based on the awareness of each serviceman of military duty and personal responsibility for the defense of the Russian Federation. It is built on legal basis respect for the honor and dignity of servicemen.

The main method of instilling discipline among servicemen is persuasion. However, this does not exclude the possibility of using coercive measures against those who are not conscientious in the performance of their military duty.

3. Military discipline obliges each soldier:

be faithful to the Military Oath (obligation), strictly observe the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the laws of the Russian Federation and the requirements of general military regulations;

perform their military duty skillfully and courageously, conscientiously study military affairs, protect state and military property;

unquestioningly carry out the assigned tasks in any conditions, including at the risk of life, endure the hardships of military service;

be vigilant, strictly keep state secrets;

to maintain the rules of relations between military personnel determined by general military regulations, to strengthen the military partnership;

respect the commanders (chiefs) and each other, observe the rules of military greeting and military courtesy;

behave with dignity in public places, prevent oneself and keep others from unworthy acts, contribute to the protection of the honor and dignity of citizens;

comply with the norms of international humanitarian law in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation.

4. Military discipline is achieved:

instilling moral-psychological, combat qualities and conscious obedience to commanders (chiefs) among military personnel;

knowledge and observance by military personnel of the laws of the Russian Federation, other regulatory legal acts of the Russian Federation, the requirements of general military regulations and the norms of international humanitarian law;

the personal responsibility of each serviceman for the performance of duties of military service;

maintaining internal order in the military unit (subdivision) by all military personnel;

a clear organization of combat training and its full coverage of personnel;

everyday exactingness of commanders (chiefs) to subordinates and control over their diligence, respect for the personal dignity of military personnel and constant concern for them, skillful combination and correct application of measures of persuasion, coercion and social influence of the team;

the creation in the military unit (subdivision) of the necessary conditions for military service, life and a system of measures to limit the dangerous factors of military service.

5. The commander and deputy commander for educational work are responsible for the state of military discipline in a military unit (subunit), who must constantly maintain military discipline, require subordinates to observe it, encourage the worthy, strictly but fairly exact from the negligent.

Military discipline must be observed in the unit, it is a necessary condition for the life of the army.

The effectiveness of work to strengthen military discipline in the armed forces largely depends on the activities of the officer in charge, and the state of law and order and discipline among subordinates is the main criterion for evaluating the daily activities of commanders.

28% of the dead comes in number suicidal.

Consistency, and the habit of strict order.

Discipline is a Teaching, a science.

The characteristic features of military discipline are:

    unity of command

    Strict regulation of all aspects of life and activities of military personnel

    Obligation and unconditional performance

    Clear subordination

    The inevitability and severity of coercive measures against violators of military discipline.

To form a team, the essential factors are:

    High performance

    Healthy public opinion (take into account the opinion of the team)

    sense of responsibility

    General optimistic mood of the team

    Willingness to overcome difficulties

Analysis of the state of military discipline:

    Requirements for an officer: must think logically, build reasoning correctly, reason, draw conclusions.

    Master the rules of formal logic

Stages of analytical work on studying the state of military discipline:

    Planning

    Collection of information

    Data processing

    Identification of the causes of violation of military disciplines

3.3 Internal order and how it is achieved. Fire safety measures in V.Ch. and divisions

The internal order is the strict observance of the rules of accommodation, daily activities, life of military personnel in a military unit (subdivision) and serving in a daily outfit determined by military regulations.

Internal order is achieved:

    deep understanding, conscious and precise fulfillment by all military personnel of the duties determined by laws and military regulations;

    purposeful educational work, a combination of the high demands of commanders (chiefs) with constant concern for subordinates and maintaining their health;

    clear organization of combat training;

    exemplary bearing combat duty and daily service;

    exact implementation of the daily routine and regulations of working hours;

    compliance with the rules for the operation (use) of weapons, military equipment and other material resources; creating conditions for their daily activities, life and life in the locations of military personnel that meet the requirements of military regulations;

    compliance with the requirements fire safety, as well as the adoption of measures to protect the environment in the area of ​​activity of the military unit.

Fire safety measures:

    The territory of the military unit must be constantly cleared of debris and dry grass.

    military property must be equipped with lightning protection devices and other engineering systems that ensure its fire and explosion safety in accordance with the requirements of the current rules and regulations.

    Entrances to sources of fire water supply, to buildings and all passages through the territory must always be free for the movement of fire engines. Similarly, passageways within a unit and subdivision must be uncluttered.

It is forbidden to make a fire and keep an open fire closer than 50m from the top. Use defective equipment and use flammable products. Telephone sets must have inscriptions indicating the telephone number of the nearest fire brigade, and on the territory of the military unit for sounding a fire alarm there must be sound alarms. These and other fire safety standards must be checked daily by the duty officer.

An order is an order of the commander-in-chief addressed to subordinates and requiring the obligatory performance of certain actions, compliance with the rules or establishing some kind of order for its delivery. In writing or by technical communication to one or a group of military personnel. Discussion of an order is not allowed. Failure to comply with an order given in the prescribed manner is a crime against military service.

An order is a form of bringing tasks by the head of the task to subordinates on private issues. It is given in writing or orally. It is issued in writing by the chief of staff, is an administrative document and is given on the estate of the unit commander

When giving an order, someone should not abuse official powers. Do not give an order that is not related to the conduct of military service.

The order is formulated clearly and concisely. They are given in order of subordination.

Completed without question and on time.

The soldier answers "yes".

unity of command

It consists in vesting the commander (chief) with full administrative power in relation to subordinates and placing on him personal responsibility for all aspects of the life and activities of a military unit, unit and each serviceman.

determines the construction of the army as a centralized military organism, the unity of training and education of personnel, organization and discipline, and, ultimately, the high combat readiness of the troops. It should be noted that it best ensures the unity of will and actions of all personnel, strict centralization, maximum flexibility and efficiency in command and control of troops. Unity of command allows the commander to act boldly, decisively, to show broad initiative, placing on the commander personal responsibility for all aspects of the life of the troops, and contributes to the development of the necessary commanding qualities in officers. It creates conditions for high organization, strict military discipline and firm order.

The basic concepts are presented: periods of a shot, elements of the trajectory of a bullet, a direct shot, etc.

In order to master the technique of shooting from any weapon, it is necessary to know a number of theoretical provisions, without which not a single shooter will be able to show high results and his training will be ineffective.
Ballistics is the science of the movement of projectiles. In turn, ballistics is divided into two parts: internal and external.

Internal ballistics

Internal ballistics studies the phenomena that occur in the bore during a shot, the movement of a projectile along the bore, the nature of the thermo- and aerodynamic dependences accompanying this phenomenon, both in the bore and outside it during the aftereffect of powder gases.
Internal ballistics solves the most rational use the energy of the powder charge during the shot so that the projectile given weight and caliber to report a certain initial speed (V0) while respecting the strength of the barrel. This provides input for external ballistics and weapon design.

Shot is called the ejection of a bullet (grenade) from the bore of a weapon by the energy of gases formed during the combustion of a powder charge.
From the impact of the striker on the primer of a live cartridge sent into the chamber, the percussion composition of the primer explodes and a flame is formed, which through the seed holes in the bottom of the cartridge case penetrates to the powder charge and ignites it. During the combustion of a powder (combat) charge, a large amount of highly heated gases are formed, which create high pressure in the bore on the bottom of the bullet, the bottom and walls of the sleeve, as well as on the walls of the barrel and the bolt.
As a result of the pressure of gases on the bottom of the bullet, it moves from its place and crashes into the rifling; rotating along them, it moves along the bore with a continuously increasing speed and is thrown outward in the direction of the axis of the bore. The pressure of gases on the bottom of the sleeve causes the movement of the weapon (barrel) back.
When fired from automatic weapons, the device of which is based on the principle of using the energy of powder gases discharged through a hole in the barrel wall - sniper rifle Dragunov, part of the powder gases, in addition, after passing through it into the gas chamber, hits the piston and throws the pusher with the shutter back.
During the combustion of a powder charge, approximately 25-35% of the energy released is spent on communicating the bullet forward movement(main job); 15-25% of energy - for secondary work (cutting and overcoming the friction of a bullet when moving along the bore; heating the walls of the barrel, cartridge case and bullet; moving the moving part of the weapon, the gaseous and unburned part of the gunpowder); about 40% of the energy is not used and is lost after the bullet leaves the bore.

The shot occurs in a very short period of time (0.001-0.06 s.). When fired, four consecutive periods are distinguished:

  • preliminary
  • first or main
  • second
  • the third, or period of the last gases

Preliminary period lasts from the beginning of the burning of the powder charge to the complete cutting of the shell of the bullet into the rifling of the barrel. During this period, the gas pressure is created in the barrel bore, which is necessary in order to move the bullet from its place and overcome the resistance of its shell to cutting into the rifling of the barrel. This pressure is called boost pressure; it reaches 250 - 500 kg / cm2, depending on the rifling device, the weight of the bullet and the hardness of its shell. It is assumed that the combustion of the powder charge in this period occurs in a constant volume, the shell cuts into the rifling instantly, and the movement of the bullet begins immediately when the forcing pressure is reached in the bore.

First or main period lasts from the beginning of the movement of the bullet until the moment of complete combustion of the powder charge. During this period, the combustion of the powder charge occurs in a rapidly changing volume. At the beginning of the period, when the speed of the bullet along the bore is still low, the amount of gases grows faster than the volume of the bullet space (the space between the bottom of the bullet and the bottom of the cartridge case), the gas pressure quickly rises and reaches its highest value - a rifle cartridge of 2900 kg / cm2. This pressure is called maximum pressure. It is created in small arms when a bullet travels 4 - 6 cm of the path. Then, due to the rapid speed of the movement of the bullet, the volume of the bullet space increases faster than the influx of new gases, and the pressure begins to fall, by the end of the period it is equal to approximately 2/3 of the maximum pressure. The speed of the bullet is constantly increasing and by the end of the period reaches approximately 3/4 of the initial speed. The powder charge completely burns out shortly before the bullet leaves the bore.

Second period lasts until the moment of complete combustion of the powder charge until the moment the bullet leaves the bore. With the beginning of this period, the influx of powder gases stops, however, highly compressed and heated gases expand and, putting pressure on the bullet, increase its speed. The decrease in pressure in the second period occurs quite quickly and at the muzzle, the muzzle pressure is 300 - 900 kg / cm2 for various types of weapons. The speed of the bullet at the time of its departure from the bore (muzzle velocity) is somewhat less than the initial velocity.

The third period, or the period after the action of gases lasts from the moment the bullet leaves the bore until the moment the powder gases act on the bullet. During this period, powder gases flowing out of the bore at a speed of 1200 - 2000 m / s continue to act on the bullet and give it additional speed. The bullet reaches its greatest (maximum) speed at the end of the third period at a distance of several tens of centimeters from the muzzle of the barrel. This period ends at the moment when the pressure of the powder gases at the bottom of the bullet is balanced by air resistance.

The muzzle velocity of a bullet and its practical significance

initial speed called the speed of the bullet at the muzzle of the barrel. For the initial speed, the conditional speed is taken, which is slightly more than the muzzle and less than the maximum. It is determined empirically with subsequent calculations. The value of the initial velocity of the bullet is indicated in the firing tables and in the combat characteristics of the weapon.
The initial speed is one of the most important characteristics combat properties of weapons. With an increase in the initial speed, the range of the bullet, the range of a direct shot, the lethal and penetrating effect of the bullet increases, and the influence of external conditions on its flight also decreases. The muzzle velocity of a bullet depends on:

  • barrel length
  • bullet weight
  • weight, temperature and humidity of the powder charge
  • shape and size of powder grains
  • loading density

The longer the trunk topics more time powder gases act on the bullet and the greater the initial velocity. With a constant barrel length and constant weight powder charge, the initial velocity is greater, the lower the weight of the bullet.
Powder charge weight change leads to a change in the amount of powder gases, and consequently, to a change in the maximum pressure in the bore and the initial velocity of the bullet. How more weight powder charge, the greater the maximum pressure and muzzle velocity of the bullet.
With an increase in the temperature of the powder charge the burning rate of gunpowder increases, and therefore the maximum pressure and initial speed increase. When the charge temperature drops initial speed is reduced. An increase (decrease) in initial velocity causes an increase (decrease) in the range of the bullet. In this regard, it is necessary to take into account range corrections for air and charge temperature (charge temperature is approximately equal to air temperature).
With increasing moisture content of the powder charge the speed of its burning and the initial speed of the bullet are reduced.
Shapes and sizes of gunpowder have a significant effect on the burning rate of the powder charge, and consequently, on the initial velocity of the bullet. They are selected accordingly when designing weapons.
Loading density is the ratio of the weight of the charge to the volume of the sleeve with the inserted pool (charge combustion chamber). With a deep landing of a bullet, the loading density increases significantly, which can lead to a sharp pressure jump when fired and, as a result, to a rupture of the barrel, so such cartridges cannot be used for shooting. With a decrease (increase) in the loading density, the initial velocity of the bullet increases (decreases).
recoil is called the movement of the weapon back during the shot. Recoil is felt in the form of a push to the shoulder, arm or ground. The recoil action of the weapon is about as many times less than the initial velocity of the bullet, how many times the bullet is lighter than the weapon. The recoil energy of hand-held small arms usually does not exceed 2 kg / m and is perceived by the shooter painlessly.

The recoil force and the recoil resistance force (butt stop) are not located on the same straight line and are directed in opposite directions. They form a pair of forces, under the influence of which the muzzle of the weapon barrel deviates upward. The amount of deflection of the muzzle of the barrel this weapon the more than more shoulder this pair of forces. In addition, when fired, the barrel of the weapon makes oscillatory movements - it vibrates. As a result of vibration, the muzzle of the barrel at the moment the bullet takes off can also deviate from its original position in any direction (up, down, right, left).
The magnitude of this deviation increases with improper use of the firing stop, contamination of the weapon, etc.
The combination of the influence of barrel vibration, weapon recoil and other causes leads to the formation of an angle between the direction of the axis of the bore before the shot and its direction at the moment the bullet leaves the bore. This angle is called the departure angle.
The departure angle is considered positive when the axis of the bore at the time of the bullet's departure is higher than its position before the shot, negative - when it is lower. The influence of the departure angle on shooting is eliminated when it is brought to normal combat. However, in case of violation of the rules for laying weapons, using the stop, as well as the rules for caring for weapons and saving them, the value of the departure angle and the weapon’s combat change. In order to reduce the harmful effect of recoil on the results of shooting, compensators are used.
So, the phenomena of a shot, the initial velocity of a bullet, the recoil of a weapon have great importance when shooting and affect the flight of the bullet.

External ballistics

This is a science that studies the movement of a bullet after the action of powder gases on it has ceased. The main task of external ballistics is the study of the properties of the trajectory and the laws of bullet flight. External ballistics provides data for compiling shooting tables, calculating weapon sight scales, and developing shooting rules. Conclusions from external ballistics are widely used in combat when choosing a sight and aiming point depending on the firing range, wind direction and speed, air temperature and other firing conditions.

Bullet trajectory and its elements. Trajectory properties. Types of trajectory and their practical significance

trajectory called the curved line described by the center of gravity of the bullet in flight.
A bullet flying through the air is subjected to two forces: gravity and air resistance. The force of gravity causes the bullet to gradually descend, and the force of air resistance continuously slows down the movement of the bullet and tends to knock it over. As a result of the action of these forces, the bullet's flight speed gradually decreases, and its trajectory is an unevenly curved curved line in shape. Air resistance to the flight of a bullet is caused by the fact that air is an elastic medium and therefore part of the energy of the bullet is expended on movement in this medium.

The force of air resistance is caused by three main causes: air friction, the formation of vortices and the formation of a ballistic wave.
The shape of the trajectory depends on the magnitude of the elevation angle. As the elevation angle increases, the height of the trajectory and the total horizontal range of the bullet increase, but this occurs up to a certain limit. Beyond this limit, the trajectory height continues to increase and the total horizontal range begins to decrease.

The angle of elevation at which the full horizontal range of the bullet is at its greatest is called the angle of greatest range. The value of the angle of greatest range for bullets of various types of weapons is about 35 °.

Trajectories obtained at elevation angles smaller than the angle of greatest range are called flat. Trajectories obtained at elevation angles greater than the angle of greatest angle of greatest range are called mounted. When firing from the same weapon (at the same initial speeds), you can get two trajectories with the same horizontal range: flat and mounted. Trajectories having the same horizontal range and swarms of different elevation angles are called conjugated.

When shooting from small arms, only flat trajectories are used. The flatter the trajectory, the greater the extent of the terrain, the target can be hit with one sight setting (the less impact on the shooting results is the error in determining the sight setting): this is the practical significance of the trajectory.
The flatness of the trajectory is characterized by its greatest excess over the aiming line. At a given range, the trajectory is all the more flat, the less it rises above the aiming line. In addition, the flatness of the trajectory can be judged by the magnitude of the angle of incidence: the trajectory is the more flat, the smaller the angle of incidence. The flatness of the trajectory affects the value of the range of a direct shot, struck, covered and dead space.

Trajectory elements

Departure point- the center of the muzzle of the barrel. The departure point is the start of the trajectory.
Weapon Horizon is the horizontal plane passing through the departure point.
elevation line- a straight line, which is a continuation of the axis of the bore of the aimed weapon.
Shooting plane- a vertical plane passing through the line of elevation.
Elevation angle- the angle enclosed between the line of elevation and the horizon of the weapon. If this angle is negative, then it is called the angle of declination (decrease).
Throw line- a straight line, which is a continuation of the axis of the bore at the time of the bullet's departure.
Throwing angle
Departure angle- the angle enclosed between the line of elevation and the line of throwing.
drop point- the point of intersection of the trajectory with the horizon of the weapon.
Angle of incidence- the angle enclosed between the tangent to the trajectory at the point of impact and the horizon of the weapon.
Total horizontal range- the distance from the point of departure to the point of fall.
final speed- the speed of the bullet (grenade) at the point of impact.
Total flight time- the time of movement of a bullet (grenade) from the point of departure to the point of impact.
Top of the path- the highest point of the trajectory above the horizon of the weapon.
Trajectory height- the shortest distance from the top of the trajectory to the horizon of the weapon.
Ascending branch of the trajectory- part of the trajectory from the departure point to the top, and from the top to the drop point - the descending branch of the trajectory.
Aiming point (aiming)- the point on the target (outside it) at which the weapon is aimed.
line of sight- a straight line passing from the shooter's eye through the middle of the sight slot (at the level with its edges) and the top of the front sight to the aiming point.
aiming angle- the angle enclosed between the line of elevation and the line of sight.
Target elevation angle- the angle enclosed between the aiming line and the horizon of the weapon. This angle is considered positive (+) when the target is higher and negative (-) when the target is below the weapon's horizon.
Sighting range- distance from the departure point to the intersection of the trajectory with the line of sight. The excess of the trajectory over the line of sight is the shortest distance from any point of the trajectory to the line of sight.
target line- a straight line connecting the departure point with the target.
Slant Range- distance from the departure point to the target along the target line.
meeting point- point of intersection of the trajectory with the surface of the target (ground, obstacles).
Meeting angle- the angle enclosed between the tangent to the trajectory and the tangent to the target surface (ground, obstacles) at the meeting point. The meeting angle is taken as the smaller of the adjacent angles, measured from 0 to 90 degrees.

Direct shot, hit and dead space most closely related to issues of shooting practice. The main task of studying these issues is to obtain a solid knowledge in the use of a direct shot and the space to be struck to perform fire missions in combat.

Direct shot its definition and practical use in a combat situation

A shot in which the trajectory does not rise above the aiming line above the target for its entire length is called direct shot. Within the range of a direct shot in tense moments of the battle, shooting can be carried out without rearranging the sight, while the aiming point in height, as a rule, is chosen at the lower edge of the target.

The range of a direct shot depends on the height of the target, the flatness of the trajectory. The higher the target and the flatter the trajectory, the greater the range of a direct shot and the greater the extent of the terrain, the target can be hit with one sight setting.
The range of a direct shot can be determined from tables by comparing the height of the target with the values ​​​​of the greatest excess of the trajectory above the line of sight or with the height of the trajectory.

Direct sniper shot in urban environments
The installation height of optical sights above the bore of the weapon is on average 7 cm. At a distance of 200 meters and the sight "2", the greatest excesses of the trajectory, 5 cm at a distance of 100 meters and 4 cm - at 150 meters, practically coincide with the aiming line - the optical axis of the optical sight. The height of the line of sight at the middle of the distance of 200 meters is 3.5 cm. There is a practical coincidence of the trajectory of the bullet and the line of sight. A difference of 1.5 cm can be neglected. At a distance of 150 meters, the height of the trajectory is 4 cm, and the height of the optical axis of the sight above the horizon of the weapon is 17-18 mm; the difference in height is 3 cm, which also does not play a practical role.

At a distance of 80 meters from the shooter, the height of the trajectory of the bullet will be 3 cm, and the height of the sighting line will be 5 cm, the same difference of 2 cm is not decisive. The bullet will fall only 2 cm below the aiming point. The vertical spread of bullets of 2 cm is so small that it is of no fundamental importance. Therefore, when shooting with division "2" of the optical sight, starting from 80 meters of distance and up to 200 meters, aim at the bridge of the nose of the enemy - you will get there and get ± 2/3 cm higher lower throughout this distance. At 200 meters, the bullet will hit exactly the aiming point. And even further, at a distance of up to 250 meters, aim with the same sight "2" at the enemy's "top", at the upper cut of the cap - the bullet drops sharply after 200 meters of distance. At 250 meters, aiming in this way, you will fall 11 cm lower - in the forehead or bridge of the nose.
The above method can be useful in street battles, when the distances in the city are about 150-250 meters and everything is done quickly, on the run.

Affected space, its definition and practical use in a combat situation

When firing at targets located at a distance greater than the range of a direct shot, the trajectory near its top rises above the target and the target in some area will not be hit with the same sight setting. However, there will be such a space (distance) near the target in which the trajectory does not rise above the target and the target will be hit by it.

The distance on the ground during which the descending branch of the trajectory does not exceed the height of the target, called the affected space(the depth of the affected space).
The depth of the affected space depends on the height of the target (it will be the greater, the higher the target), on the flatness of the trajectory (it will be the greater, the flatter the trajectory) and on the angle of the terrain (on the front slope it decreases, on the reverse slope it increases).
The depth of the affected space can be determined from the tables of the excess of the trajectory above the aiming line by comparing the excess of the descending branch of the trajectory by the corresponding firing range with the height of the target, and if the target height is less than 1/3 of the trajectory height, then in the form of a thousandth.
To increase the depth of the space to be struck on sloping terrain, the firing position must be chosen so that the terrain in the enemy's disposition coincides, if possible, with the aiming line. Covered space its definition and practical use in a combat situation.

Covered space, its definition and practical use in a combat situation

The space behind a cover that is not penetrated by a bullet, from its crest to the meeting point is called covered space.
The covered space will be the greater, the greater the height of the shelter and the flatter the trajectory. The depth of the covered space can be determined from the tables of excess trajectory over the line of sight. By selection, an excess is found that corresponds to the height of the shelter and the distance to it. After finding the excess, the corresponding setting of the sight and the firing range are determined. The difference between a certain range of fire and the range to cover is the depth of the covered space.

Dead space of its definition and practical use in a combat situation

The part of the covered space in which the target cannot be hit with a given trajectory is called dead (not affected) space.
Dead space will be the greater, the greater the height of the shelter, the lower the height of the target and the flatter the trajectory. The other part of the covered space in which the target can be hit is the hit space. The depth of the dead space is equal to the difference between the covered and affected space.

Knowing the size of the affected space, covered space, dead space allows you to correctly use shelters to protect against enemy fire, as well as take measures to reduce dead spaces by right choice firing positions and firing at targets with weapons with a more trajectory.

The phenomenon of derivation

Due to the simultaneous impact on the bullet rotary motion, giving it a stable position in flight, and air resistance, tending to tip the bullet head back, the axis of the bullet deviates from the direction of flight in the direction of rotation. As a result, the bullet encounters air resistance on more than one of its sides and therefore deviates from the firing plane more and more in the direction of rotation. Such a deviation of a rotating bullet away from the plane of fire is called derivation. This is a rather complex physical process. The derivation increases disproportionately to the flight distance of the bullet, as a result of which the latter takes more and more to the side and its trajectory in plan is a curved line. With the right cut of the barrel, the derivation takes the bullet to the right side, with the left - to the left.

Distance, m Derivation, cm thousandths
100 0 0
200 1 0
300 2 0,1
400 4 0,1
500 7 0,1
600 12 0,2
700 19 0,2
800 29 0,3
900 43 0,5
1000 62 0,6

At firing distances up to 300 meters inclusive, derivation has no practical significance. This is especially true for the SVD rifle, in which the PSO-1 optical sight is specially shifted to the left by 1.5 cm. The barrel is slightly turned to the left and the bullets go slightly (1 cm) to the left. It is of no fundamental importance. At a distance of 300 meters, the derivation force of the bullet returns to the aiming point, that is, in the center. And already at a distance of 400 meters, the bullets begin to thoroughly divert to the right, therefore, in order not to turn the horizontal flywheel, aim at the enemy’s left (away from you) eye. By derivation, the bullet will be taken 3-4 cm to the right, and it will hit the enemy in the bridge of the nose. At a distance of 500 meters, aim at the left (from you) side of the enemy's head between the eye and ear - this will be approximately 6-7 cm. At a distance of 600 meters - at the left (from you) edge of the enemy's head. Derivation will take the bullet to the right by 11-12 cm. At a distance of 700 meters, take a visible gap between the aiming point and the left edge of the head, somewhere above the center of the epaulette on the shoulder of the enemy. At 800 meters - adjust the flywheel for horizontal corrections by 0.3 thousandth (set the grid to the right, middle point hits move to the left), at 900 meters - 0.5 thousandth, at 1000 meters - 0.6 thousandth.