Differential psychology is the subject of the object and directions of research. What is differential psychology?

For a long time, psychology has sought to identify general patterns in human behavior. In these searches, individuality was often forgotten. After all, no two people are the same. Despite the fact that everyone has something in common, there are many differences that make us unique, unique with our vision and understanding of the world, with our habits, way of thinking and acting. We all perceive the world, react to its manifestations. We may have a common view, a common opinion, but it will always be colored by the nuances inherent in a particular individual.

These small nuances then affect our behavior, habits, aspirations. And, since a person is in society, constantly interacting with other people and groups of people, it is important to understand him deep motivation, try to predict the reaction to a particular event. This allows you to more effectively use the qualities of a person, his talents and abilities in work, everyday life, helps to achieve maximum self-expression.

This problem is solved by a new direction - differential psychology, which appeared in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with the beginning of experiments in psychology and the introduction of tests. Its founders are Galton and Stern. This direction is engaged in the study of individual differences in the psyche of individuals and groups of people, as well as the nature, sources and consequences of these differences.

The task of differential psychology is establishing patterns of how they arise and manifest themselves individual differences in human psyche, development of the theoretical foundations of psychodiagnostic research and appropriate corrective programs.

differential psychology owes its appearance to pedagogical, medical and engineering practices.

Stern characterized the fundamental problem of differential psychology as triune:

The nature of the psychological life of a person and sociological groups, the degree of their differences.
Factors that determine differences and the impact on them.
What are the differences.

The greatest attention in differential psychology is paid to psychological testing. Initially these were individual tests, and then to determine the mental differences resorted to group. Later appeared projective tests, which helped to better understand the interests of people, their attitudes towards life, emotional states and reactions. By processing tests, factors are revealed that reveal the general properties (parameters, measurements) of intelligence or personality. Based on the results obtained, quantitative variations in the characteristics of the psychology of a particular person are determined, which just help to maximize the use of his potential, to reveal his creative abilities.

Currently, differential psychology studies the qualities of a person regarding his individuality, spirituality, general worldview, subject-substantial qualities, features of self-consciousness, a characteristic style of personality and implementation. various kinds activities (professional, educational, communication, etc.). New techniques and approaches, both experimental and mathematical, are being improved and developed.

More and more attention is paid to the study of differences in creative and organizational abilities in overall structure personality, in the motivational sphere.

This area of knowledge has a wide practical application:

Selection and training of personnel.
Diagnostics of the development of inclinations, abilities of individuals.
Choice of profession.
Staff motivation and much more.

The subject of differential psychology

differential psychology - This is a branch of psychological science that studies psychological differences, as well as typological differences in psychological manifestations among representatives of various social, class, ethnic, age and other groups. Differential psychology has 2 tasks: highlighting individual differences and explaining their origin.

Differential psychology has areas of intersection with various other branches of psychological knowledge. Yes, it is different from general psychology in that the latter focuses on the study general patterns psyche (including the psyche of animals). Comparative psychology (once this term was used as a synonym for differential psychology, which is a literal translation of the word) is currently studying the characteristics of the psyche of living beings located at different steps of the evolutionary ladder. She often uses the knowledge of zoopsychology, deals with the problems of anthropogenesis and the formation of human consciousness. Age psychology studies the characteristics of a person through the prism of patterns inherent in the age stage of his development. Social psychology considers the features acquired by a person by virtue of his belonging to a certain social group, large or small. Finally, differential psychophysiology analyzes the individual characteristics of the human psyche from the point of view of their conditioning by the properties of the nervous system.

Currently, differential psychology studies the individual, subject-content and spiritual-worldview qualities of individuality, features of self-consciousness, style characteristics personality and the implementation of various activities.

Stages of development of differential psychology

In its development, psychology, like all other scientific disciplines, went through three stages: pre-scientific knowledge, the natural science paradigm of cognition, and the humanitarian paradigm.

Prescientific knowledge is characterized by the predominance of the method of observation, the accumulation of worldly knowledge and a low level of generalization. The natural science paradigm proclaims the need to establish causal patterns based on experimental data and generalizes these patterns. The dominance of the humanitarian paradigm testifies to the maturity of the scientific discipline and is noted not only in the sciences of society and man, but also in the sciences of nature. Modern psychology allows itself to strive for psychography, knowledge - for understanding and description. Thus, differential psychology naturally emerged from general psychology, within which it existed. long time under the name of the psychology of individual differences.

Directions of differential psychological research. Methods of differential psychology

As Rusalov V.M. , we can distinguish two main areas of research on individual differences, one of which answers the question "What distinguishes people from each other?", The other answers the question "How do these differences manifest themselves and form?". The first direction is connected with the study of the structure of psychological properties. The main task of this direction is to highlight the psychological properties that are most important for further comparative analysis. The solution of this problem is of fundamental nature for differential psychology, within the framework of this direction, the main methodological disputes were conducted, the question of the status of differential psychology as a science was resolved. An example of this is the discussion between supporters of the idiographic approach, the brightest representative of which was G. Allport, and adherents of the nomothetic approach (R. Cattell, G. Eysenck and their followers). The main subject of discussion was Allport's position, according to which personality traits, being an abstraction in themselves, form in each case a unique individual combination, which makes it impossible to compare people with each other. Cattell, objecting to Allport, emphasized that the problem of uniqueness is not a specific feature of personality research, the uniqueness of the subject of study is characteristic of all natural sciences : absolutely identical planets or stars have not been found in astronomy, two cars that have come off the same assembly line can differ significantly from each other, even hydrogen atoms are not identical, etc. The uniqueness of the object, however, did not become an obstacle to the development of astronomy, physics , chemistry, other natural sciences. Cattell, and after him Eysenck, saw the solution to this issue in the consistent application of the natural-science approach in personality studies. The main result of these studies was a variety of models of mental properties: temperament, intelligence, character, as well as the corresponding methods of psychological measurements. The range of issues related to the choice of parameters for describing individual differences is traditionally called the feature problem. The choice of psychological variables for a specific comparative study is determined primarily by the specifics of the personality model within which the researcher works. One of the first attempts to isolate stable individual psychological characteristics to describe features is the study of the biological foundations of individual differences. V. M. Rusalov characterizes this direction in personality psychology in the following way: “Among the many directions in the study of personality and individual differences, the biologically oriented approach is perhaps the most fruitful. Possessing a number of fundamental advantages, it makes it possible to combine in itself not only the objective methods of the natural-science approach and, above all, evolutionary-biological ideas, but also concepts developed in other areas of psychology that study personality. The tradition of a biologically oriented approach to personality, having its origins in ancient Greece, has acquired the status of an independent scientific direction only in our century. Initially, temperament was mainly studied, but over time the scope of research has expanded, and today there is a wide range of biological theories of personality - from structural biochemical and neuropsychological theories of temperament (D. A. Gray, 6; P. Netter, 15) to evolutionary theories mechanisms of behavior (D. Bass). In Russian psychology, this approach is consistently implemented in differential psychophysiology, a scientific school founded by B. M. Teplov and V. D. Nebylitsyn. This direction was based on IP Pavlov's ideas about the types of higher nervous activity. The emphasis in research was on the study of the basic properties of the nervous system. The study of the properties of the nervous system was carried out using involuntary indicators of activity - electroencephalographic conditioned reflexes, parameters of reaction time to stimuli of different intensity and sensory indicators. As a result of the research, it was possible to identify features of nervous activity that are closely related to psychological characteristics. Among the widely used concepts in this direction are the model of G. Eysenck and the model of M. Zuckerman. The latter includes the following characteristics: sociability, emotionality, activity, "impulsive unsocialized search for sensations", "aggressive search for sensations". The severity of the properties included in these personality models is assessed using questionnaires developed by the authors. Another approach to isolating psychological characteristics with pronounced individual differences is the theory of traits. The main hypothesis of the theory of traits is the assumption that psychological characteristics can be described using stable characteristics or traits that manifest themselves in different situations and differ in severity in different people. Most of the psychological traits are identified using the lexicographic method. This approach is based on F. Galton's idea of reflecting the most significant individual psychological differences in the structure of a natural language. One of the first and most common structural models is the 16-factor personality model developed by R. Cattell (16 PF), in which the initial set of personality traits is obtained by analyzing words of English language. When determining the initial set of structure elements, the author used a list of English words denoting stable characteristics of behavior and personality traits. As a result of factorization of L- and Q-data by Cattell, 16 first-order factors were identified, the meaningful analysis of which allowed the author to interpret them as personality traits. As a result of the studies carried out to date, the low reproducibility of the structure of first-order factors proposed by Cattell on different samples has been shown. Another widespread factor model of personality is proposed by W. T. Norman, the so-called "Big Five", which includes five factors: extraversion (extroversion); friendliness (agreableness); conscientiousness, conscientiousness; neuroticism and culture. This model was revised in the studies of American psychologists R. McCray and P. T. Costa (McCrae R., Costa P. T., 1987); they replaced in their Five-Factor Inventory the name of the factor "culture" with "openness" (opennes). The second direction of differential psychological research is connected with the direct analysis of individual and group differences. Within the framework of this direction, groups of people identified according to different grounds, as well as questions about the sources of individual psychological differences. Among the most obvious grounds for distinguishing groups of people is gender. Indeed, in addition to differences between races, ethnic groups and social classes, there is one that is primary in our consciousness and self-image - this is the difference between men and women. Anatomical differences, already evident at birth, increase from childhood to adulthood; in parallel with the anatomical development, a “I-image” is formed, specific for each sex. In any society there is a division of labor depending on gender, there are "male" and "female" professions, fashion, stereotypes of behavior. The universality of the cultural distinction between men and women throughout history has often served as evidence that social differences between the sexes are rooted in genes. It seems almost obvious that differences between the sexes in behavior and social roles are part of the same biological differentiation that allows the obstetrician to determine the sex of the baby born. However, the research results allow us to speak with confidence about the existence of significant differences between the sexes only in some psychological properties: 1. Boys begin to consistently outperform girls in aggressiveness starting from the age of 2. Significantly more high level aggression manifests itself in the most various fields- verbal manifestations, games, fantasies. 2. Emotionality, measured by various methods - from observations of the intensity and duration of emotional reactions in newborns to questionnaire scales of anxiety and emotionality, also demonstrates stable gender differences. Boys and men are more emotionally stable, less prone to fear, less anxious. 3. Starting from the age of 2, girls demonstrate a higher level of verbal abilities - they communicate more with other children, their speech is more correct, the turns used are more complex. Back to top school age these differences are no longer significant; they reappear after completing primary school and are expressed in greater fluency and reading speed in girls. In older women, verbal functions last longer. The listed characteristics do not depend on such parameters as the specifics of the situation, level of education, professional status; in other words, they are sustainable. At the same time, it must be emphasized that, along with the biological conditionality of sex differences, the processes taking place in society play an important role. The recent decrease in the manifestation of sex differences gives reason to assume a strong connection between sex differences and the education and upbringing of children. So, in recent decades, stereotypes have been broken, according to which, for example, technical specialties, mathematics and military affairs were considered “not women's business”. Since the fifties of the XX century. systematic studies of individual psychological differences between representatives of different ethnic groups are being conducted. A fairly large number of studies are devoted to the study of differences in the development of newborns. The American psychologist R. Friedman, comparing newborns from three ethnic groups - immigrants from northern Europe, Asians (Japanese and Chinese) and Navajo Indians, came to the conclusion that newborn Indians and Asians are more adaptable. Children of Europeans are more excitable and active, they calm down longer. In a similar comparative study of black and white babies, it was shown that Africans are characterized by a faster pace of development - they develop motor skills more easily, they start walking earlier. Thus, we can draw the following conclusions: • The first direction of differential psychological research is connected with the study of the structure of psychological properties. The main task of this direction is to highlight the psychological properties that are most important for further comparative analysis; • one of the first attempts to isolate stable individual psychological characteristics to describe features is the study of the biological foundations of individual differences; • Another approach to identifying psychological characteristics that have pronounced individual differences is the theory of traits. The main hypothesis of trait theory is the assumption that psychological traits can be described in terms of stable, manifested in different situations and characteristics or traits that differ in the degree of expression in different people; • The second direction of differential psychological research is connected with the direct analysis of individual and group differences. Within the framework of this direction, groups of people identified for various reasons were studied, and questions about the sources of individual psychological differences were also resolved; • Gender is one of the most obvious grounds for singling out groups of people. Indeed, in addition to differences between races, ethnic groups and social classes, there is one that is primary in our consciousness and self-image - this is the difference between men and women; belonging to a certain social group used by some researchers to explain the causes of gender and racial differences. When analyzing differences between groups with different socioeconomic status, such characteristics as the level of education, professional status, housing conditions, income, nutritional habits, and many others are taken into account.

Methods of differential psychology

By the type of experience used, methods are distinguished introspective (based on data from subjective experience) and extraspective (based on an objective, measurable result).

By the activity of the impact, they distinguish observation and experiment .

By the level of generalization of the obtained regularities nomothetic (focused on general, psychology explanations) and idiographic (focused on the singular, psychography, psychology of understanding).

By stability - a change in the phenomenon under study is distinguished ascertaining and formative methods (in which the final state of the studied quality differs from the initial one).

The methods used by differential psychology can be conditionally divided into several groups: general scientific, psychogenetic, historical, and actually psychological.

General scientific methods represent a modification in relation to the psychological reality of those methods that are used in many other sciences.

Observation- a purposeful systematic study of a person, the results of which give an expert assessment. There are several types of observation.

The advantages of the method are that 1) the facts are collected natural behavior of a person, 2) a person is perceived as an integral person, 3) the context of the subject's life is reflected.

The disadvantages are: 1) the confluence of the observed fact with incidental phenomena, 2) passivity: the researcher's non-intervention dooms him to a wait-and-see attitude, 3) the lack of the possibility of repeated observation, 4) fixing the results in a descriptive form.

Experiment- a method of purposeful manipulation of one variable and monitoring the results of its change. The advantages of the experimental method are that 1) it is possible to create conditions that cause the mental process under study, 2) it is possible to repeat the experiment many times, 3) it is possible to maintain a simple protocol, 4) the experimental data are more uniform and unambiguous compared to observation.

The disadvantages include: 1) the disappearance of the naturalness of the process, 2) the absence of a holistic picture of a person’s personality, 3) the need for special equipment, 4) separation from the natural perception of the reality being studied (the experimenter focuses more on the readings of the arrows of instruments, tests, etc.).

Modeling- reconstruction of the psychological reality of various content (situations, states, roles, moods). An example of psychological modeling can be mood induction (changing the background of the subject's mood by telling him emotionally colored stories, awakening memories, etc.).

Psychogenetic methods . This group of methods is aimed at identifying environmental and heredity factors in individual variations of psychological qualities.

Historical methods (document analysis methods) . Historical methods are devoted to the study of outstanding personalities, the characteristics of the environment and heredity, which served as impulses for their spiritual development.

Psychological methods. This group constitutes the main content of the differential psychological methods of research.

1) Introspective methods (self-observation and self-assessment) open the object of study directly, which is their main advantage.

2) Psychophysiological (hardware) methods designed to study the psychophysiological foundations of human behavior. They require laboratory conditions and special instruments; are rarely used in practical psychodiagnostics.

3) Socio-psychological methods include surveys and sociometry. Surveys rely on respondents' self-reported data rather than objectively recorded facts. Types of surveys are conversation, interview, questionnaire.

4) Age-psychological methods of "transverse" and "longitudinal" sections.

5) Psychosemantic methods are a group of maximally individual-oriented methods that allow to determine unconsciously acting dimensions (constructs) in relation to the world and oneself.

3. The concept of psychological norm

The main consumer of differential psychological knowledge is psychodiagnostics. In the psychology of individual differences, concepts are born, for the measurement of which methods are then created or selected. Here, an idea arises about the methods for evaluating and interpreting the results obtained. In this regard, the concept of psychological norm is very important, it is very heterogeneous in its content, which is influenced by at least four factors.

1. Norm is a statistical concept. What is considered normal is that which is a lot, which belongs to the middle of the distribution. And its “tail” parts, respectively, indicate the region of low (“subnormal”) or high (“supernormal”) values. To assess the quality, we must correlate a person's indicator with others and thus determine its place on the normal distribution curve. Obviously, the prefixes "sub" and "super" do not give an ethical or pragmatic assessment of quality (after all, if a person has a "supernormal" indicator of aggressiveness, this is hardly good for others and for himself).

Norms are not absolute, they develop and are obtained empirically for a given group (age, social, and others). So, for example, during recent years the masculinity index according to the MMPI questionnaire among girls is steadily increased; however, this does not mean that they are all behaving like young men, but the need to revise outdated norms.

2. Norms are driven by social stereotypes. If a person's behavior does not correspond to the generally accepted in a given society, it is perceived as deviant. For example, in Russian culture it is not customary to put your feet on the table, but in American it is not condemned by anyone.

3. Norms are associated with mental health. Anything that requires a referral to a clinician may be considered abnormal. It should be noted, however, that in psychiatry the evaluative approach is also discussed, and as the most significant indications of a deviation from the norm, a violation of the productivity of activity and the ability to self-regulate is taken. So, for example, when an elderly person, realizing the weakness of his memory, uses auxiliary means (a notebook, laying out the necessary objects in his field of vision), then this behavior corresponds to the norm, and if he, treating himself uncritically, refuses the need to "prosthetic" his living space, then this ultimately leads to an inability to solve tasks and indicates a violation of mental health.

4. Finally, the idea of norms is determined by expectations, one’s own non-generalized experience and other subjective variables: for example, if the first child in the family began to speak at the age of one and a half years, then the second, who had not yet learned to speak fluently by the age of two, is perceived as endowed with signs of lagging.

V. Stern, calling for caution in evaluating a person, noted that, firstly, psychologists do not have the right to draw a conclusion about the abnormality of the individual as a carrier of this property from the established anomaly of a particular property and, secondly, it is impossible to establish an abnormality of the personality reduced to a narrow sign as its only root cause. In modern diagnostics, the concept of "norm" is used in the study of non-personal characteristics, and when it comes to personality, the term "features" is used, thereby emphasizing the deliberate rejection of the normative approach.

So, norms are not a frozen phenomenon, they are constantly updated and changed. The standards of psychodiagnostic methods must also be reviewed regularly.

The interaction of environment and heredity

Determining the sources of individual mental variations is a central problem in differential psychology. It is known that individual differences are generated by numerous and complex interactions between heredity and environment. Heredity ensures the stability of the existence of a biological species, the environment - its variability and the ability to adapt to changing living conditions. Heredity is contained in the genes transmitted by parents to the embryo during fertilization. If there is a chemical imbalance or incomplete genes, the developing organism may have physical abnormalities or mental pathologies. However, even in the usual case, heredity allows a very wide range of behavioral variations resulting from the summation of the norms of reactions of different levels - biochemical, physiological, psychological. And within the boundaries of heredity, the end result depends on the environment. Thus, in every manifestation of human activity, one can find something from heredity, and something from the environment, the main thing is to determine the measure and content of these influences.

In addition, a person has a social inheritance that animals are deprived of (following cultural patterns, transferring accentuation, for example, schizoid, from mother to child through cold maternal education, the formation of family scripts). However, in these cases, rather stable manifestation of features over several generations is noted, but without genetic fixation. “The so-called social heritage cannot really resist the influence of environment”, – writes A. Anastasi.

Regarding the concepts of "variability", "heredity" and "environment" there are several prejudices. Although heredity is responsible for the stability of a species, most hereditary traits are modifiable, and even hereditary diseases are not inevitable. In the same way, it is true that traces of environmental influences can be very stable in the psychological makeup of an individual, although they will not be genetically transmitted to subsequent generations (for example, developmental disorders of a child as a result of birth trauma).

Different theories and approaches differently assess the contribution of two factors to the formation of individuality. Historically, the following groups of theories have stood out in terms of their preference for biological or environmental, socio-cultural determination. 1. In biogenetic theories, the formation of individuality is understood as predetermined by congenital and genetic inclinations. Development is the gradual unfolding of these properties over time, and the contribution of environmental influences is very limited. Biogenetic approaches often serve as the theoretical basis for racist teachings about the original difference between nations. F. Galton was a supporter of this approach, as well as the author of the theory of recapitulation, St. Hall. 2. Sociogenetic theories (a sensationalistic approach that affirms the primacy of experience) argue that initially a person is a blank slate (tabula rasa), and all his achievements and features are due to external conditions (environment). A similar position was shared by J. Locke. These theories are more progressive, but their drawback is the understanding of the child as an initially passive being, an object of influence. 3. Two-factor theories (convergence of two factors) understood development as the result of the interaction of innate structures and external influences. K. Buhler, V. Stern, A. Binet believed that the environment is superimposed on the factors of heredity. The founder of the two-factor theory, V. Stern, noted that it is impossible to ask about any function, whether it is from the outside or from the inside. It is necessary to be interested in what is in it from the outside and what is inside. But even within the framework of two-factor theories, the child still remains a passive participant in the changes taking place in him. 4. The doctrine of higher mental functions (cultural-historical approach) by L. S. Vygotsky argues that the development of individuality is possible due to the presence of culture - the generalized experience of mankind. The innate properties of a person are the conditions for development, the environment is the source of its development (because it contains what a person must master). Higher mental functions, which are peculiar only to man, are mediated by the sign and objective activity, which are the content of culture. And in order for the child to be able to appropriate it, it is necessary that he enter into special relations with the outside world: he does not adapt, but actively appropriates the experience of previous generations in the process of joint activities and communication with adults who are carriers of culture.

The contribution of heredity and environment tries to determine the genetics of quantitative traits, analyzing various types of dispersion of trait values. However, not every trait is simple, fixed by one allele (a pair of genes, among which there are dominant and recessive). In addition, the final effect cannot be considered as the arithmetic sum of the influence of each of the genes, because they can, manifesting themselves simultaneously, also interact with each other, leading to systemic effects. Therefore, studying the process of genetic control of a psychological trait, psychogenetics seeks to answer the following questions: 1. To what extent does the genotype determine the formation of individual differences (ie, what is the expected measure of variability)? 2. What is the specific biological mechanism of this influence (on which part of the chromosome are the corresponding genes located)? 3. What processes connect the protein product of genes and a particular phenotype? 4. Are there environmental factors that change the studied genetic mechanism?

The heritability of a trait is recognized by the presence of a correlation between the indicators of biological parents and children, and not by the similarity of the absolute value of the indicators. Let us suppose that as a result of research, similarities were found between the characteristics of the temperament of biological parents and their children put up for adoption. Most likely, children in foster families will experience the influence of common and different environmental conditions, as a result of which, in absolute terms, they will also become similar to foster parents. However, no correlation will be noted.

At present, the discussion between supporters of heredity and environmental factors has lost its former sharpness. Numerous studies devoted to identifying the sources of individual variations, as a rule, cannot give an unambiguous assessment of the contribution of the environment or heredity. So, for example, thanks to the psychogenetic studies of F. Galton, carried out in the 1920s using the twin method, it was found that biologically determined characteristics (skull size, other measurements) are genetically determined, and psychological qualities (intelligence quotient according to different tests) give a large scatter and are determined by the environment. It is influenced by the social and economic status of the family, birth order, etc.

The current state of affairs in the field of studying the interaction between the environment and heredity is illustrated by two models of environmental influences on intellectual abilities. In the first model, Zajonch and Markus argued that the more time parents and children spend together, the higher the correlation of IQ with the older relative (exposure model). That is, the child, in terms of his intellectual abilities, is similar to the one who brings him up longer, and if for some reason the parents devote little time to the child, he will look like a nanny or grandmother. In the second model, however, the opposite was stated: McAsky and Clark noted that the highest correlation is observed between the child and the relative who is the subject of his identification (identification model). That is, the most important thing is to be an intellectual authority for the child, and then he can be influenced even remotely, and regular joint activities are not at all necessary. The coexistence of two essentially mutually exclusive models shows once again that most of the differential psychological theories are narrowly limited, and so far there are practically no general theories.

signs of the environment. microsystem. mesosystem. ecosystem. macrosystem

Microsystem: family. The personality of the child is formed by his family, parental attitudes and family atmosphere. If the family is friendly, the child grows up more calm, manageable and friendly. On the contrary, marital conflict is usually associated with inconsistent disciplinary measures and hostility towards children, which generates reciprocal childish hostility. At the same time, it should be taken into account that all relationships are reciprocal, that is, not only adults influence the behavior of children, but also the children themselves, their physical properties, personality characteristics and capabilities - also affect the behavior of adults. For example, a friendly, attentive child often causes positive and calm reactions from parents, while a confused and restless child is often punished and his freedom of action is limited. The family, as an environment, is a very dynamic entity. Even in relation to two twins, we cannot assert the identity of the developmental environment, because they are subject to different requirements, different expectations, since one of them is inevitably assigned to the elder, and the other to the younger. Mesosystem: school, quarter of residence, kindergarten. The mesosystem affects the development of the child not directly, but in tandem with the microsystem - the family. The relationship between parents and children is influenced by the relationship of the baby with kindergarten teachers, and vice versa. If the family and kindergarten teachers are ready to cooperate, make friends and communicate, the relationship between the child and parents, as well as between the child and teachers improves. On the other hand, the situation in the family affects how the school, yard and kindergarten on a child. A child's progress at school depends not only on the situation in the classroom, but also on the situation in the family: academic performance improves if parents are interested in school life and teach the child to do homework. If a brother and sister go to the same school, but the sister is allowed to bring home friends, and the brother is not, the mesosystem of their life will be different. The influence of the mesosystem on a child is refracted not only through the family, but also through the personality of the child himself: children can go to the same school, but at the same time the circle of classmates can be significant for one and indifferent for another, all the important life events of which occur, for example , in the drama club. Exosystem: adults social organizations Exosystem - adult social organizations. These can be formal organizations, such as where the parents work, or the social and health services of the county. Flexible working hours, paid vacations for mothers and fathers, sick leave for parents in case of illness of children - this is how the ecosystem can help parents in raising children and indirectly contribute to development. Support from the exosystem can be informal, for example, carried out by the forces of the parents' social environment - friends and family members help, with advice, friendly communication, and even materially. Usually than more connections families with social organizations, the more favorable it is for the family and the development of the child, and the fewer such ties, the more unpredictable the situation in the family and the development of the child. For example, in isolated families, in families with few personal or formal ties, an overestimated level of conflict and maltreatment of children is more often noted. macrosystem The macrosystem is the country's cultural practices, values, customs, and resources. If a country does not encourage fertility and does not provide parental leave, then the child will grow up in conditions of lack of maternal attention, and micro-, meso- and exo-systems may not be sufficient to compensate for this. On the other hand, regardless of particular external conditions, the main components of the way of life and worldview are preserved in the subculture. In countries where the highest standards are set for the quality of child care, and where special conditions are made in the workplace for working parents, children are more likely to have positive experiences in their particular environment. The rules under which children with developmental delays can study in a mainstream school have a significant impact on the level of education and social development both these children and their "normal" peers. In turn, the success or failure of this pedagogical undertaking may facilitate or, on the contrary, hinder further attempts to integrate lagging children into the mainstream school. Bronfenbrenner believed that the macrosystem has the most significant role in the development of the child, since the macrosystem has the ability to influence all other levels. For example, the American state program of compensatory education "Head Start", aimed at improving the academic performance and development of the intellectual abilities of students from low-income families and national minorities, had, according to Bronfenbrenner, a huge positive impact on the development of several generations of American children.

In ecological systems theory, children are both products and creators of the environment. According to Bronfenbrenner, situations in life can either be imposed on the child or be the result of the child's own activity. As children get older, they change their environment and rethink their experiences. But even here interdependencies continue to work, because how children do this depends not only on their physical, intellectual and personal traits, but also on how they were brought up, what they managed to absorb from the environment.6. Correlation of concepts: individual, individuality, personality.

Heredity and environment

Heredity began to be understood more broadly: these are not just individual signs that affect behavior (for example, properties of the nervous system, as was thought for a long time), but also innate behavioral programs, incl. and social (gracialization, reproductive, territorial behavior, etc.)

concept environments also changed. It is not just a changing series of stimuli to which the individual responds throughout life - from air and food to the conditions of education and the attitude of comrades. It is rather a system of interactions between man and the world.

Individual, individuality

Individual - a separate representative of a social group, society, people. From the moment of birth, a person is an individual, an individual is not "one", but "one of" human society. The concept emphasizes the dependence of a person on society.

Personality - it is a person actively mastering and purposefully transforming nature, society and himself. It has a unique, dynamic ratio of space-time orientations, need-volitional experiences, content orientation, levels of development and forms of implementation of activities that provide freedom of self-determination in actions and a measure of responsibility for their consequences.

Individuality - a person characterized by his social significant differences from other people; the originality of the psyche and personality of the individual, its originality, uniqueness. Individuality is manifested in the traits of temperament, character, in the specifics of interests, qualities of perceptual processes. Individuality is characterized not only by unique properties, but also by the peculiarity of the relationships between them. The prerequisite for the formation of human individuality is the anatomical and physiological inclinations, which are transformed in the process of education, which has a socially conditioned character, giving rise to a wide variability in the manifestations of individuality.

Integral theory of individuality (V.M. Rusalov, B.C. Merlin)

It includes the following five provisions:

1. Biological factors of individuality are not only the bodily, morphofunctional organization of a person, but also behavioral programs created in the process of evolution of the living world. These programs begin their action from the moment of conception, and already in the third month of the life of the embryo, stable forms of individual behavior appear.

2. There are two types of simultaneously acting laws. As a result of the action of some, the subject-substantive characteristics of the psyche (motives, intellect, orientation) are formed, as a result of others, the formal-dynamic features of individual behavior are formed.

3. 3. The generalization of innate programs goes in three directions. The first direction is the dynamic-energetic characteristics of behavior (endurance, plasticity, speed). The second is emotional characteristics (sensitivity, lability, dominant mood). The third is preferences (stimulus environment, cognitive style). Thus, resilience, sensitivity, the desire for diversity or monotony are stable properties that practically do not change throughout a person’s life.

4. Formal properties (traditionally united under the general term "temperament") do not exist in isolation, but are included in more highly organized personality structures.

5. Formal-dynamic characteristics not only act as prerequisites and conditions for activity, but also affect its dynamics, originality and style, i.e. can determine the final results of the activity.

differential psychology

- (from lat. differentia - difference) - a branch of psychology that studies psychological differences both between individuals and between groups of people, the causes and consequences of these differences. A prerequisite for the emergence of D. p. was the introduction into psychology of the experiment, as well as genetic (see) and mathematical methods. D. p. developed under the direct influence of practice - pedagogical, medical and engineering. Its development was started by F. Galton, who created a number of techniques and instruments for studying individual differences, including for their statistical analysis (see). The term D. P." was introduced by the German psychologist W. Stern in his work “On the Psychology of Individual Differences” (1900). First major representatives a new direction were A. Binet, A. F. Lazursky, J. Kettel and others. The main method of D. p. steel (see) - first individual, and then group, - used to determine mental differences, and with the invention projective tests- to measure interests, attitudes, emotional reactions. By processing tests with methods factor analysis factors that indicate general properties(parameters, measurements) of intelligence or personality. On this basis, quantitative variations in the psychological properties of individual individuals are determined. In foreign psychology, the most famous are:

1) the theory of two factors by Ch. Spearman, according to which in each type of activity there is both a general factor for any of them and a specific one, necessary only for this type of activity (for example, for solving mathematical problems, literary creativity etc.);

2) multifactorial theories (L. Thurstone, J.

Gilford and others), denying common factor and those who believe that there is a wide range of primary mental abilities (speed of perception, associative, etc.). No matter how improved the tests and their statistical processing, they alone are not able to explain the causes of psychological differences. The question of these causes throughout the history of D. p. is the subject of heated discussions. In foreign D. p. for a long time the belief in the biological predetermination of the abilities and character of a person dominated. In this case, decisive importance was attributed to heredity and the maturation of the organism, and the dependence of individual psychological characteristics on the lifestyle of the individual, the socio-economic and cultural conditions of its development was ignored. At present, D. p. is characterized by the intensive development of new approaches and methods, both experimental and mathematical. Along with the differences between individuals in mental terms, differences in creative and organizational abilities, in the general structure of the personality, and in the motivational sphere are widely studied. An important place is given to identifying correlations between psychological properties, on the one hand, and physiological and biochemical properties, on the other. The facts and conclusions obtained by D. p. importance for solving many practical problems (and personnel, diagnostics and prognosis of the development of individual properties, inclinations, abilities of individuals, etc.).

Brief psychological dictionary. - Rostov-on-Don: PHOENIX. L.A. Karpenko, A.V. Petrovsky, M. G. Yaroshevsky. 1998 .

differential psychology Etymology.

Comes from lat. differentia - difference, Greek. psyche - soul + logos - teaching.

Author.

The term was introduced by V. Stern in 1900.

Category.

Section of psychology.

Specificity.

Engaged in the study of individual psychological differences. The object of study can be both specific individuals and different social, class, ethnic, age groups. Most often, the focus of the study is the personal and intellectual characteristics of the individual.

Psychological Dictionary. THEM. Kondakov. 2000 .

DIFFERENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY

(English) differential psychology) is a branch of psychology that studies between people. The term D. p. was introduced by him. psychologist AT.Stern(1900). D. p. studies both the psychological differences of specific individuals and the typological differences in psychological manifestations among representatives of different social, class, ethnic, age, and other groups. comparative study most often exposed to the personal and intellectual characteristics of the individual, studied in the experiment, determined using observations,tests or analysis of results introspection. One of the important tasks of modern psychosocial psychology, previously often limited to describing the nature and range of individual psychological manifestations, is to identify the most significant parameters of the organization of mental activity (measurements, factors) on which the individual typological characteristics of the subject depend. To understand the causes and conditions for the emergence of individual psychological differences, it is important to study their neurophysiological factors in the form of the main properties n.With.; this study is now being carried out within the framework of the differential psychophysiology, resulting from the work B.M.Teplova and his staff (cf. Nebylitsyn V.D.) based on the concept of types and properties n. With. And.P.Pavlova.

Modern D. p. widely uses a developed mathematical and statistical apparatus, including the methods of correlation, regression, discriminant, and factor analyzes. D. p.'s data are of great practical importance for the practice of training, education, psychiatric and psychotherapeutic influences, determining professional suitability,professional selection and career guidance.

Big psychological dictionary. - M.: Prime-EVROZNAK. Ed. B.G. Meshcheryakova, acad. V.P. Zinchenko. 2003 .

Philosophical encyclopedia - a section of psychology that studies individual psychological differences. The term differential psychology itself was introduced in 1900 by V. Stern. The object of study can be both specific individuals and different ... ... Psychological Dictionary

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Posted on http://www.allbest.ru

Psychology differential

Psychology differential- a branch of psychology, the subject of which is the study of differences that manifest themselves in representatives of different social, class, ethnic, age and other groups. A prerequisite for the formation of differential psychology was the introduction of experimental practice, genetic and mathematical methods into psychology. The development of the concept of differential psychology was initiated by Francis Galton, who created a number of techniques and instruments for the study and statistical analysis of individual differences. The term "differential psychology" appeared in 1900 thanks to the work of the German psychologist William Stern "On the Psychology of Individual Differences". The main method of differential psychology is testing, which was first carried out as an individual, and then moved to a group form, which made it possible to establish mental differences. Invention projective tests solved the problem of measuring interests, attitudes and emotional reactions. For a long time, foreign differential psychology has attributed a decisive role in shaping the abilities and character of a person biological factor- while the socio-economic and cultural conditions were completely ignored. On the present stage differential psychology has a number of tools that allow you to explore both the mental relationships between individuals and the differences in creative and organizational abilities in the general structure of the personality, the motivational sphere. Thanks to the data obtained in the process of studying differential psychology, it becomes possible to solve many practical tasks in related areas - for example, in the selection and training of personnel. differential psychology testing

differential psychology- a branch of science that studies the individual differences in the psyche of individuals and groups of people, as well as the nature, sources and consequences of these differences. This is the science of the laws of mental variation.

Individualization is a property of all living things.

Individual differences in the psyche are inherent not only to people, but also to the entire animal world, and often intraspecific differences exceed interspecific ones. So, for example, the smartest rat can act more effectively in the same learning situation than the stupidest monkey, standing above the rat on the evolutionary ladder.

Man appears first of all as an individual.

In every person there is something that is common to all people, something that makes him related to some of them, and something that is inherent only to him alone.

AT Everyday life we often encounter the phenomena of individual differences, carrying out everyday psychodiagnostics of the people with whom we interact.

Until recently, psychology, like every young science, sought to identify the general patterns of the mental, to develop problems from a common position. And in the search for the common, as a rule, the originality of the individual was lost. However, each researcher came across individual variations of the mental, which were first considered as a source of observational errors, and then the problem of the variability of human mental manifestations began to arise from this source of errors. And the very logic of the development of science led to the allocation of a differential-psychological aspect.

Tasks of differential psychology are to

establish patterns of occurrence and manifestation of individual differences in the human psyche,

develop theoretical basis psychodiagnostic studies and psychocorrection programs.

Today, this is a field of knowledge that is maximally deployed to the needs of practice and therefore is developing very rapidly.

Differential psychology has areas of intersection with various other branches of psychological knowledge. Differences:

differs from general psychology the fact that the latter focuses on the study of the general laws of the psyche (including the psyche of animals).

Comparative psychology(once this term was used as a synonym for differential psychology, which is a literal translation of the word) is currently studying the characteristics of the psyche of living beings located at different steps of the evolutionary ladder. She often uses the knowledge of zoopsychology, deals with the problems of anthropogenesis and the formation of human consciousness.

Age-related psychology studies the characteristics of a person through the prism of patterns inherent in the age stage of his development.

Social Psychology considers the features acquired by a person by virtue of his belonging to a certain social group, large or small.

Finally, differential psychophysiology analyzes the individual characteristics of the human psyche from the point of view of their conditionality by the properties of the nervous system.

At present, differential psychology studies the individual, subject-content and spiritual-ideological qualities of individuality, features of self-consciousness, style characteristics of the individual and the implementation of various types of activities (professional, educational, communication, etc.).

The most general content of the subject of differential psychology is the differences between people and groups of people. However, this is too general definition. Therefore, psychologists considered it expedient to reveal the content of the subject of differential psychology in specific tasks solved by researchers of individual differences. There are four such tasks:

1. Identification of the most significant, informative psychological characteristics of a person, the study of their structure.

2. The study of the limits in which psychological signs change (inter-individual variability).

3. Exploring differences between groups of people.

4. Identification of factors underlying individual psychological differences.

The development of differential psychology is inextricably linked with the development of measurement procedures. Of the entire arsenal of psychodiagnostic methods, the greatest value for scientific description personalities are psychological tests, including questionnaires, projective methods and objective methods. It is psychological tests that constitute the main measuring instruments of differential psychology. The choice of the method of a particular differential psychological study is entirely determined by the tasks it is aimed at solving. One of distinctive features tests is a quantitative assessment of the measured trait, which makes it possible to use statistical methods in the analysis of the data obtained.

Hosted on Allbest.ru

...

Differential psychology is the subject of the object and directions of research. What is differential psychology?

3. The concept of psychological norm

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Similar Documents