The formation and flourishing of the Hanseatic League. Hanseatic League: foundation history, participating cities, significance Hanseatic Trade Union
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Hanseatic League of Cities
The Hanseatic League (or Hansa) is a unique union (one might say, a forerunner of the TNK;))), which united the northern German trading cities in the 14th-16th centuries. He controlled all trade in the Baltic and North Seas and had monopoly privileges elsewhere. Hansa, (the name comes from German Hanse - "partnership"), arose as a result of the agreement between Lübeck and Hamburg in 1241.
At this time, under the influence of the ever-increasing strength of the robber knights and as a result total absence public safety, an alliance of burghers was created, directing all forces against the lawlessness that reigned in order to preserve their capital.
A peculiar feature of this community was that it did not have a permanent organization - neither a central authority, nor a common armed force, nor a fleet, nor an army, nor even a common finance; individual members of the union all enjoyed the same rights, and the representation was entrusted to the main city of the union - Lübeck quite voluntarily, since its burgomasters and senators were considered the most capable of doing business, and at the same time this city assumed the associated costs of maintaining warships. The cities that were part of the alliance were removed from each other and separated by non-alliance, and often even hostile, possessions. True, these cities were for the most part free imperial cities, but nevertheless in their decisions they often depended on the rulers of the surrounding country, and these rulers, although they were German princes, were far from always in favor of the Hansa, and on the contrary, they often treated her unkindly and even hostilely, of course, except when they needed her help. The independence, wealth and power of the cities, which were the focus of the religious, scientific and artistic life of the country, and to which its population gravitated, were a thorn in the eye of these princes. Therefore, they tried to harm the cities as much as possible and often did this at the slightest provocation and even without it.
Thus, the Hanseatic cities had to defend themselves not only against external enemies, since all maritime powers were their competitors and would gladly destroy them, but also against their own princes. Therefore, the position of the union was extremely difficult and it had to pursue a smart and cautious policy towards all interested rulers and skillfully use all the circumstances so as not to perish and prevent the union from disintegrating.
Keep cities, coastal and inland, scattered in the space from the Gulf of Finland to the Scheldt, and from the sea coast to middle Germany, it was very difficult, since the interests of these cities were very different, and meanwhile the only link only common interests could serve between them; the union had only one coercive means at its disposal - exclusion from it (Verhasung), which entailed the prohibition of all members of the union from having any business with the excluded city and should have led to the termination of all relations with it; however, there was no police authority to oversee the implementation of this. Complaints and claims could only be brought to the congresses of the allied cities, which met from time to time, to which representatives from all the cities whose interests required it were present. In any case, against the port cities, exclusion from the union was a very effective means; this was the case, for example, in 1355 with Bremen, which from the very beginning showed a desire for isolation, and which, due to enormous losses, was forced to ask again three years later to be accepted into the union.
Union cities were divided into three districts:
1) Eastern, Vendian region, to which Lübeck, Hamburg, Rostock, Wismar and Pomeranian cities belonged - Stralsund, Greifswald, Anklam, Stetin, Kolberg, etc.
2) The West Frisian-Dutch region, which included Cologne and the Westphalian cities - Zest, Dortmund, Groningen, etc.
3) And finally, the third region, consisted of Visby and cities lying in the Baltic provinces, such as Riga and others.
In 1260, the first general congress of representatives of the Hansa took place in Lübeck.
The union finally took shape in 1367-1370. during the wars of German cities against Denmark, which dominated the trade routes between the North and Baltic Seas. The nucleus of the union was Lübeck, Hamburg and Bremen. Later, it also included coastal cities and cities that were associated with trade along the Oder and Rhine rivers - Cologne, Frankfurt, as well as former Slavic cities, but captured by the Germans - Rostock, Danzig, Stargrad. Number of Hanseatic cities in different time reached 100-160, the scope of the union was never strictly defined. At that time, the Hansa controlled almost all trade in the Baltic and North Seas, Central and Northern Europe. And it was a powerful military and political force that many European states reckoned with.
From the very beginning to the end of the existence of the Hansa, Lübeck was its main city; this is proved by the fact that the local court in 1349 was declared the court of appeal for all cities, including Novgorod. In Lübeck, tags (German: Tag, congress) were convened - meetings of representatives of the Hanseatic cities. "Tags" worked out obligatory statutes. A common flag was adopted, a set of laws (Hanseatic Skra).
In 1392, the Hanseatic cities entered into a monetary union and began minting a common coin.
The Hansa was a product of its time, and the circumstances were especially favorable for it. We have already mentioned the skill and reliability of German merchants, and their ability to adapt to circumstances - qualities that can be observed in all countries today. In those days, these qualities were all the more valuable because the Normans who inhabited England and France treated trade with contempt and had no ability for it; The inhabitants of the current Russian Baltic region, Poles, Livonians, and others, did not have these abilities either. Trade on the Baltic Sea, as at the present time, was very developed and was even more extensive than at present; along the entire coast of this sea there were Hanseatic offices everywhere. To this it must be added that the German coastal cities, and Lübeck at their head, perfectly understood the importance of sea power and were not afraid to spend money on the maintenance of warships.
In the 14-15 centuries. through the mediation of the Hanseatic League, the main trade of Russia with the West was carried out. Wax and furs were exported from Russia - mainly squirrel, less often - leather, flax, hemp, silk. The Hanseatic League supplied salt and fabrics to Russia - cloth, linen, velvet, satin. Silver, gold, non-ferrous metals, amber, glass, wheat, beer, herring, weapons were imported in smaller volumes. In the XV century. Novgorodians and Pskovians tried to actively oppose the predominance of the Hanseatic in the field of foreign trade, and by the end of the 15th century. the order of trade was changed in favor of the Novgorodians. During this period, the center of Russian-Hanseatic trade gradually moved to Livonia. In 1494, in response to the execution of Russian subjects in Reval (Tallinn), the Hanseatic trading office in Novgorod was closed. According to the Novgorod-Hanseatic Treaty of 1514, representatives of the Livonian cities on behalf of the Hansa accepted all the demands of the Novgorodians and the German court in Novgorod was reopened. Formally, the Hanseatic League lasted until 1669, although in fact already from the middle of the 16th century. he ceded the leading role in European trade to Dutch, English and French merchants.
And, as usual, a selection of links:
http://www.librarium.ru/article_69824.htm and http://www.germanyclub.ru/index.php?pageNum=2434 - Quick reference
History of the Hanseatic League.
German trade union, which for many centuries controlled most trade deals with London, Veliky Novgorod, Riga, and also signed trade documents on behalf of the Roman merchant empire with special conditions for each German city - as you may have guessed, we will talk about the Hanseatic League, the history of which is set out in the article.
Brief historical background
There are not many examples in the history of mankind that demonstrate voluntary and mutually beneficial alliances concluded between countries or corporations. But it should be noted that many of them were based on human self-interest and greed. Consequently, such alliances were short-lived. Any violation of agreements or interests has always led to collapse, but the history of the Hanseatic League is not like all the others.
This union is a community of cities that were the most important force in Northern Europe and equal partners of sovereign countries, but it should be noted that the interests settlements, which were part of the Hansa, differed too much. And not in all cases economic cooperation become military or political. The significance of the Hanseatic League cannot be overestimated, since it was this phenomenon in the world economy that laid the foundations for international trade.
How did the trade union come about?
Let us turn to the study of the question of the emergence and flourishing of the trade association. The establishment of the Hanseatic League dates back to 1267. This was a response of European merchants to the fragmentation of European states in the Middle Ages. This political phenomenon was very risky for business. Robbers and pirates operated on the trade routes, and all the goods that could be saved and brought to the trade counters were heavily taxed by the princes, the church and the specific rulers. Everyone wanted to profit at the expense of the merchant. Consequently, statutory robbery flourished. absurd trading rules allowed to impose a fine for inappropriate depth of the pot or the color of the fabric. But it is worth noting that Germany, using maritime trade routes, achieved some success in development at the beginning of the 11th century. The King of Saxony gave the German merchants good advantages in London.
In 1143, the city of Lübeck was founded - the heart of the Hanseatic League in the future. Soon the sovereign gave way to Lübeck, which became an imperial city. His power was recognized by all the provinces of Northern Germany. A little later, the Lübeck merchant union acquired trading privileges in many states.
In 1158, the imperial city quickly flourished, as it entered the Baltic Sea with trade, and then a German trading company was founded on the island of Gotland. Gotland had a good location on the sea. Thus, ships entered its ports so that the teams could rest and put the ship in order.
100 years later, namely in 1241, the trade unions of Lübeck and Hamburg made a deal to protect the trade routes that ran between the Baltic and North Seas. Thus, in 1256, the first trading group of seaside towns was formed.
Cities of the Hanseatic League
In 1267, a single union of cities that were part of the Hansa was formed:
- Lübeck;
- Hamburg;
- Bremen;
- Cologne;
- Gdansk;
- Riga;
- Lüneburg;
- Wismar;
- Rostock and others.
It is known that in the year of the founding of the Hanseatic League, it included up to 70 cities. The members of the union decided that all representative affairs would be conducted by Lübeck, since its senators and burgomasters were considered more capable of managing commercial affairs. In addition, it was this city that took on its balance the cost of protecting ships.
Advantages and disadvantages
The leaders of the Hanseatic League very skillfully used the positive circumstances in order to seize trade in the North and Baltic Seas. They skillfully made a monopoly out of it. Thus, they had the opportunity to set the price of goods at their own discretion, and they also sought to gain influence in countries where there was an interest for them, as well as various privileges. For example, the right to freely organize colonies and trade; the right to acquire houses and yard places with the representation of jurisdiction.
There were cases when experienced, politically talented and prudent leaders of the union skillfully used weaknesses and the plight of neighboring countries. They indirectly or directly placed the state in a dependent position in order to achieve the desired results.
Union expansion. Three main blocks
Despite all the manipulations that the burgomasters and senators hunted, the composition of the Hanseatic League was steadily expanding. Now other cities have become part of it:
- Amsterdam;
- Berlin;
- Hamburg;
- Frankfurt;
- Bremen;
- Cologne;
- Hanover;
- Koenigsberg;
- Danzig;
- Memel;
- Yuriev;
- Narva;
- Stockholm;
- Volen;
- Pomorye and other cities.
The union has grown. The newly annexed cities had to be divided into groups. Now all the cities that were part of the Hansa were conditionally divided into three districts:
- Eastern: the lands of Lübeck, Hamburg, Stettin, etc.
- Western: territories of Cologne, Dortmund, Groningen.
- Baltic provinces.
Exclusion from the Union
Another effective technique to keep trading partners in the union. The thing is that the seaside, as well as various cities scattered from the Gulf of Finland to Germany, were extremely difficult to keep in a single union. After all, the interests of the partners were very different, and only a common interest could serve as a connecting element between them. The only way to keep a partner was exclusion from him. This entailed a ban on other members of the union from having any business with the exiled city, which inevitably led to the termination of various relations with it.
However, there was no such authority in the union that would monitor the implementation of these instructions. Various claims and complaints were brought only during the congresses of the allied cities, which met on a case-by-case basis. Representatives from each city came to these conventions, whose interests desired it. With port cities, the exclusion method was very effective. So, for example, in 1355 the German Bremen declared a desire for isolation. As a result, with huge losses, he left the union, and three years later he expressed a desire to enter it back.
Additional Hanse ideas
The founders of the union reacted flexibly to the challenges of the time. They expanded their influence very quickly and actively. And a few centuries after its foundation, it included almost two hundred cities. The development of the Hansa was facilitated by a unified monetary system, equality of native languages, as well as equal rights residents of the cities of this union.
It is noteworthy that the Hanseatics spread ideas about a healthy lifestyle. They actively implemented the business etiquette they represented. They opened clubs where merchants exchanged experience and business ideas, and also distributed various technologies for the production of products and goods. Schools for beginner artisans, which opened on the territory of the Hanseatic League, became popular. It is believed that for Medieval Europe it was an innovation. Many researchers note that the Hansa formed a civilized image modern Europe which we are now witnessing.
Trade relations with Russia
This type of relationship began in the 14th century. The Hanseatic League and its connections with Russia benefited everyone. Furs and wax, leather, silk, flax, squirrel skins were exported from Russian lands, and Russian merchants acquired mainly salt and fabrics. Most often they bought linen, satin, cloth and velvet.
Hanseatic offices were located in two Russian cities - in Novgorod and Pskov. Overseas merchants were very interested in wax. The thing is that the Europeans did not know how to produce it in the right quantity and quality. And it was also customary for Catholics to sculpt from this material that part of the body that is affected by the disease. Trade in weapons and non-ferrous metals has always been considered a stumbling block in trade relations. It was profitable for the Hanseatic League to sell weapons to Russian lands, and the Livonian Order feared the growth of the power of the Slavs. As a result, he hindered this process. But, as you guessed, the commercial interest most often prevailed over the interests of Levon. For example, a trade deal was witnessed when in 1396 merchants from Revel imported weapons in barrels from fish into Pskov and Novgorod.
Conclusion
Certainly the time had come when the Hanseatic League began to lose its dominance over the cities of Europe. It started in the 16th century. Russia and Spain left the union. The Hansa repeatedly tried to establish relations with these states, but all attempts were unsuccessful, and the war, which lasted for 30 years, ruined the remnants of German power at sea. The collapse of the union is a long process that requires separate consideration.
In the modern history of mankind, there is a New Hanseatic League called the European Union. The experience of the Hansa remained unclaimed for a long time, and the Baltic region is developing very dynamically today and is valued by the fact that these lands have everything that is necessary for mutually beneficial relations between the European Union and Russia. Experts and economists believe that the New Hanseatic League contributes to the development of Russia's relations with the Baltic countries.
Hansa and Russia: trade wars and "military" trade
Hansa - Union of North German Cities and Velikiy Novgorod- two main forces Northern Europe Middle Ages. Their relationship was not easy, but tight: the Hansa sought to isolate Novgorod and Pskov from the rest of Europe, Novgorod sought to break these trade ties. The scales swayed first in one direction, then in the other, but still the Hanseatic people kept these scales on their counter for almost 250 years.
Hansa and Lübeck decide...
"Cities of the German Hansa" - this name becomes official from 1358. But even at the end of the 12th century, Lübeck took the leading role in the Hansa, and therefore the decisions of the "Hansetag" usually began with the words: "Hanse and Lübeck decide ...". The first general convention of the cities of the Hanseatic League took place in Lübeck in 1367. The elected hanzetag (a kind of parliament of the union) distributed laws in the form of charters, reflecting customs and precedents. supreme body authorities in the Hansa was an all-Hanse congress, which considered issues of trade and relations with states. In the intervals between congresses, current affairs were managed by the rat (city council) of Lübeck, headed by the ratman.
The Hansa did not have a permanent armed forces: its own fleet, land army, annual budget. The necessary pressure, the punishment of recalcitrant or delinquent cities and even countries, was achieved by trade embargoes, prohibitions and opposition to trade outside the domestic market, inciting allies or bribery, as well as lobbying influential trading people in the national ruling elite, who in turn put pressure on the dominant face. These methods are successfully used everywhere and now, but the Hanseatic League in Europe was the first to apply the whole set and very successfully. Only one state was beyond the power of the Hanseatics to subjugate - Russia, when Novgorod and Pskov became part of Muscovy, and not commercial profit, but state interest became the dominant direction in politics. However, the Hansa managed to impose its polar commercial view on Novgorod and Pskov, although it was forced to reckon. The subject of the Hansa's constant claims and the basis of its prosperity were trade monopolies, especially raw materials, duty-free trade, which it achieved from Novgorod.
Formally, the Novgorod and Pskov principalities were not part of the Hansa, but they had the closest trade ties, representative offices and trading posts in the Hanseatic cities, like the Hansa in a number of cities of these Russian principalities. In Novgorod and Pskov there were Hanseatic trading quarters - the German and Goth courts, which lived, according to the agreement, by their charter - a kind of city within a city. The Gothic court appeared in Novgorod even earlier than the German (Hanseatic), founded by merchants from the island of Gotland from Visby at the end of the 11th century with the church of St. Olaf, and the German (actually Hanseatic) at the end of the 13th century with the church of St. Peter. The latter was located near Volkhov, on the south side of Yaroslav's Court, since 1402 the Hanseatic merchants became the owners of both courtyards. In Pskov, the Lubeck (Hanse) court was located in Zavelichye - across the Velikaya River. By the beginning of the 14th century, the Hansa had achieved a special privilege in trade with Novgorod and Pskov. Later, the Livonian cities - Riga, Derpt, Revel - joined the cities of the Hansa, but Narva was never part of this union.
The monopoly of trade is the basis of the well-being and prosperity of the Hansa
The Hansa sought the rights to exclusive trade with Novgorod and Pskov through the blockade of the Baltic sea routes: a ban on trade in the Baltic partner cities and attacks on Novgorod trade sea caravans - that is, simply piracy, which involved the privateer and even the navy. And also the bribe that the Hanseatics paid to the influential top of the Novgorod boyars for pushing for special rights for themselves. Of course, in this case it was often necessary to make compromises, but the Hansa achieved the main thing for itself: the German merchants managed to occupy a privileged position in Novgorod. one of the most important privileges of the Hanseatic people and a source of great profits was the almost complete exemption of Hanseatic merchants from paying duties. The Hanseatics, when passing through the Novgorod possessions, paid only one travel duty - to Gostinopolye, the amount of which was determined by the "old times". Mainly through the Hanseatic cities, goods and raw materials from Russia came to Medieval Western Europe.
The intransigence of the Hansa in the matter of independent navigation of the Novgorodians was explained by the desire, and this motive was the main one, to prevent the development of Novgorod's foreign trade, since this development would inevitably lead to the establishment of direct economic ties Novgorod with Western Europe and to undermine the monopoly of the Hanseatic League on intermediary trade between East and West. The monopoly of trade is the basis of the well-being and prosperity of the Hanseatic League. The desire of the Hansa to completely separate Novgorod from Western Europe, to artificially delay its economic and military development (and Livonia was especially interested in this, which was afraid of the strengthening of Novgorod), received its vivid expression in the stubborn unwillingness of the Hanseatic cities to give the Novgorodians a guarantee of a "clean path" on sea.
But Novgorodians also tried to use their territorial possibilities: since the 13th century, German merchants were forbidden to use the services of their own attendants when passing through Novgorod possessions. On the Neva, on the Luga or in the lower part of the Volkhov, German goods were transshipped onto Russian ships or caravans, and from that moment until the gates of the German Court, they were obliged to use the services of Novgorod boatmen, carters and porters, places of temporary storage of goods - on this , by the way, the Vodskaya pyatina rose, in particular Yam. This rule was very embarrassing for the Germans, but it delivered a good income for the part of the Novgorod population engaged in carting, because pilots, boatmen, porters, using artels, forced overseas merchants to pay high wages for their labor. However, the subsequent profits of the Hanseatics were immeasurably greater. In Novgorod, German merchants also did not have complete freedom of trade: they were forbidden to trade with merchants from other Russian and non-Russian lands. The Germans could conclude trade deals with foreign merchants only through the Novgorodians. In cases of violation of this rule, the Hanseatic people were subjected to severe repressions by the Novgorod authorities, up to the imposition of shackles.
It is clear that no one will trade at a loss or without a calculated interest.
Hanseatic guests: and in winter and summer we come to you
Russia received through the Baltic from the Hanseatic centers silver, iron, copper, lead, dyes, salt mined near Lüneburg for its leather production, Baltic fishermen’s herring, spices, Polish grain and flour (you can’t grow much bread on Novgorod soils), Swedish forest and iron, Rhine wine, bales of wool and cloth from England, France and the Netherlands.
Merchants from the Hansa arrived in Veliky Novgorod in two batches: from autumn to spring - "winter guests" (their status was considered more prestigious), and during the navigation period - "summer guests" who traveled by sea and rivers. From 150 to 200 Hanseatic merchants lived there at a time, paying only two duties to the Novgorod treasury: a travel pass - on the way to Novgorod, to Gostinopolye on the Volkhov, where goods were transshipped from sea ships on river boats and "weighty" for weighing goods on the market.
Furs of the second and first groups were the main item of Novgorod export. The first consisted of cheap varieties, mainly squirrel skins, the second - expensive furs: beaver skins, ermines, weasels, martens, minks and otters. Sable, ermine, marten, ferret were sold in magpies, squirrels - in magpies and thousands of skins. The second article is skin. Leathers of Novgorod dressing were considered the best in Europe. Wax was the main export item of Pskov: local forests abounded with wild bees, Pskovians also set up apiaries. There was not enough wax in Europe, and then he played the role of electricity. The foundation extracted by the beekeepers was melted, cleaned and sold. There were three grades of wax, the highest - white, yellow and gray. Mead (intoxicating drinks) was traded by both of them, as products, Russian blades and bows, superior to Western ones, were very much appreciated. Linen cloth was especially popular in Europe, Russian tubular door locks are one of the most complex and skillful locksmith products. They were known in Hungary, and in Germany, and in the Czech Republic, and even in distant England. In the coinless period (XII-XIV centuries), merchants from Russia paid for large purchases in hryvnias: each such bar of silver cast in Novgorod weighed 204 g, in Kyiv - about 160 g. For one silver hryvnia, you could buy, for example, 50 sheepskin, two pigs, for two - a cow.
And for kolupanie and for giving
Unfortunately, most damage in trade, according to the rights negotiated by the Hanseatics, Russian merchants were exposed. So, when buying furs and wax from Novgorodians - the main items of Hanseatic export from Novgorod: the Hanseatics had the right to inspect the furs, and “peel” the wax, that is, chip off pieces of wax to check its quality. For the purchased fur, the Hanseatics could demand a surcharge, which was compensation for the possible poor quality of the goods. The dimensions of the overhead, as well as the chipped pieces of wax, which, by the way, were not counted against the weight of the purchased wax, were not established legally, but were determined only by a rather extensible "old times". Taking advantage of this, the Hanseatics chipped off very solid pieces of wax, and demanded excessive additions to furs, which the Novgorodians repeatedly complained about. Novgorodians when buying Hanseatic goods such rights did not have.
Cloth, which was in great demand in Novgorod, was sold by the Hanseatics in sets - lakens. Laken of cloth had to be 44 cubits long. But the buyer could check its length only at home, because when buying, it was not allowed to inspect and measure the cloth. Lakens were sold rolled up, in a wrapper, which served as a sample of the contents. There was a seal on the wrapper, certifying the good quality of the goods. However, despite the presence of a seal, the Novgorodians, removing the wrapping at home, often found that the laken did not have the required 44 cubits in length, sometimes they turned out to be sewn from several pieces of cloth. Salt was sold in bags, honey and wine in barrels. Bags of salt, as well as barrels of honey and wine, had to contain a certain weight - 20 Livonian pounds, but they were not subject to weighing or measurement. The Hanseatics did not sell salt by weight, but in bags - of course, the body kit was a frequent occurrence, and the wine was diluted with water, in 1518 low-grade silver was brought to Pskov, however, six years later it was sent back to Dorpat, another time in 1300 "a guest ”brought low-quality fabric to Novgorod and the alderman (Hanseatic elder) forced his merchant to take the marriage back. One can imagine how the Hanseatics abused this circumstance, how they profited from the underweight and underweight of goods. This is long list goods prohibited for sale to Russians (a familiar topic), which included blades, weapons, gold, non-ferrous metals, and a number of other goods, however, cunning Reval merchants circumvented the prohibitions by transporting the same blades in barrels of herring.
Of course, there were deceptions on both sides, although such cases were quite rare on the part of Novgorodians and Slavs. For example, in 1414, a certain merchant of Bruges complained that a Novgorod merchant had put bricks into sold wax to give it weight.
Detours are sometimes closer than direct ones.
Further, the Hanseatics rarely let Russian merchants into Livonia for fear of establishing direct ties. In the same way, they tried to prevent the British, Flemings, Dutch, and French from direct contacts with Novgorod and Pskov. Therefore, navigation for Novgorodians from the Middle Ages was fraught with many dangers in the far Baltic and the North Sea - they were guarded by Hanseatic privateers, while often entering the Baltic ports, if Lübeck and Hansa vetoed, did not bode well, except for the arrest of goods. Novgorod merchant quarters existed since the 13th century in Riga, Reval and Tartu, in Visby on Gotland and the largest center of Sweden - Sigtuna, where the Russians operated Orthodox churches. From the XIV-XV centuries, the Russian church of St. Nicholas is also mentioned in Riga, where trading people from Russia predominated among the parishioners.
However, if the Hanseatics imposed any kind of ban on trade, this was successfully used by the Swedes (Swedes) and the Danes, who imported part of the prohibited goods to Novgorod and Pskov through second hands: buying as if for themselves, but reselling at a premium to Russian merchants, who also used this channel, buying up part of the goods through Sweden, moving on their ships to the other side of the bay. Detours are sometimes closer than straight lines - trade flows are not easy to stop, although the Hanseatic people tried their best to stop such trade channels, punishing both Novgorodians and Western trade rivals. Between the Hansa and Novgorod with Pskov there were real long-term trade wars.
Hansa and Russia: trade wars and "military" trade-2
Trade between the German Hanseatic cities and Novgorod-Pskov Rus, which included our city, was never polished and smooth, just as it was not an absolute good for Russia, as is sometimes imagined. These were frequent trade wars with the application of sanctions of the entire spectrum: the Hansa tried with all their might to separate Northern Russia from Europe - to become the only mediator between them. But, as history has shown, this could not continue for long.
The Hanseatic court in Novgorod was ruled by elected officials - aldermans on the rights of full autonomy
The German and Gothic courtyards in Novgorod - the courtyard of St. Peter's Church represented a state within a state. The Hanseatic merchants and their servants had great privileges in the field of civil law in Novgorod - the inhabitants of the German Compound enjoyed complete freedom in matters of internal life: the Hanseatics were sued and governed by their own authorities, according to their own laws. They were subject to the jurisdiction of the authorities of Novgorod only in cases of clashes with the Novgorodians. In Novgorod, German merchants enjoyed complete freedom in matters of domestic life. The Hansa was characterized by detailed regulation of all aspects of trade relations - from the transportation and loading of goods to their exchange.
The elders of the church of St. Peter's took an oath from the merchants to comply with all the regulations of the secret (charter). Elders of living quarters were elected, in the office, in addition to administrative, there were other officials. The main figure among them was the priest, who conducted divine services, wrote official and private letters. The office had a translator, silver linings, examiners (inspectors) of cloth, wax and wine, a tailor, a baker, and a brewer. Until the 15th century, beer was brewed by the merchants themselves. chief legislature office was general meeting merchants under the chairmanship of the elders of the courtyard and the church of St. Peter or the manager who replaced them. The meeting discussed all the most important matters of the office.
The Hanseatic court in Novgorod was ruled by elected officials - aldermans with full autonomy. The German court had its own charter - a skru that regulated inner life German court, as well as the terms of trade between Germans and Russians. The courtyard on the "German coast" operated until the start of the Livonian War, in 1562 it was destroyed by fire. The German court in Pskov was restored only after the end of the Livonian War, in the 1580s across the Velikaya River, opposite the Kremlin. In the same place, in 1588, a farmstead of the capital of the Hansa - Lubeck arose. But this is a different era, when the Hansa ceded dominance in the Baltic to Sweden
“Who drinks too much, breaks glasses, overeats and jumps from barrel to barrel” - those on the bench
According to the 4th edition of the skry (1370-1371), "summer" and "winter" merchants from the Hanseatic centers who came to Novgorod were forbidden many things: to keep weights and steelyards outside the walls of the temple. In order to avoid fires, it was forbidden to bring a candle into the temple without a candlestick and leave burning candles in residential premises for the night, make loud noise and sing, interfering with the rest and business of other merchants. It was forbidden to spoil the countertop and other pieces of furniture with a knife, play dice, and place a bet higher than half-ferning in other games of chance. For any, even a minor violation of the rules, the perpetrator paid a fine, usually in the amount of 10 marks. The servants of the Hanseatic merchants were allowed to trade in residential cages only for small goods like gloves. By the way, in the Hansa trade mission in Novgorod and the trading post in Pskov, German youths who lived and worked here were forbidden to marry.
All work and behavior of the Hanseatic was strictly regulated: from how to train apprentices and hire a skilled craftsman to production technology, trade ethics and prices. The rules of conduct in foreign trading posts of the Hansa required very strict etiquette: in the clubs that abounded in the cities of the Hanseatic League, they often reprimanded those who threw plates on the floor, grabbed a knife, drank "ruff", played dice. Young people “who drink too much, break glasses, gobble themselves up and jump from barrel to barrel” were reproached. Betting was also not welcome - it was not Hanseatic: this is how the community condemned the behavior of one of the German merchants, who pawned ten guilders on a bet that he would not comb his hair for a year. Apparently, he walked around with a “mop” on his head, if it came to censure by the entire Hanseatic trading post.
Communicating with the Hanseatic merchants in Novgorod and Pskov, traveling to the Baltic countries, Novgorod and Pskov merchants felt the taste of German beer and Rhine wine. From time immemorial, drinks made from honey have been used in Russia, first of all, full, bread rye kvass and locally brewed beer. Homemade beer (half-beer) was brewed in earthenware pots, most often not from malt (sprouted grain) and hops, as in Germany and other European countries, but from sour dough obtained from barley flour. Therefore, the Russian beer drink contained practically no alcohol and tasted more like kvass. But in the XIV - XV centuries in Novgorod the Great, under the Hanseatic influence, both light and strong (overvar) beer were already brewed. If before in Novgorod and Pskov there was not a single drunken staggering, except for visiting merchants from Europe and mercenaries from the Varangians-Goths, Normans or Vikings, now Novgorodians and Pskovians began to get drunk at the tables, however, they tried not to show their noses on the street - this is pretty condemned and suppressed.
Eternal peace did not come out
German and Novgorod merchants on a personal level closely cooperated and even became friends with each other. However, their intensive, mutually beneficial activity proceeded against the backdrop of a preventive economic war between the Hansa and the Novgorod Republic. This war was hidden from prying eyes, and its battles were rarely revealed to outsiders. Nevertheless, the stakes in this struggle were very high, many times exceeding the trophies of some famous conquerors of foreign lands.
With other neighbors - the Swedes - the Novgorodians developed trade relations much easier and freer than with the Germans, since there were no intermediaries between them. To some extent, thanks to the unmediated Novgorod-Swedish commerce, the Hansa was ultimately unable to completely monopolize all Baltic trade.
The unequal trade conditions imposed on trade relations for Pskovians and Novgorodians have already been discussed in the previous article. But at the end of the 13th century, German merchants were also robbed more than once on Pskov and Novgorod lands, including in Vodskaya Pyatina, and cloth and other goods stolen by robbers were sold, passing off as their property, by local merchants, although there were robberies in the vicinity of Yam. a rare occurrence- the robbers were afraid of a strong permanent garrison. Novgorodians, on the other hand, often lost their goods as a result of attacks by Hanseatic and Polish-Swedish pirates in the Baltic. And although under the terms of trade agreements, as compensation for the lost, it was forbidden to take goods from others who were not involved in robberies or defrauding the merchants' partner, in practice this provision was often violated by both parties, which gave rise to new conflicts. Among the Novgorod and Pskov merchants there were also swindlers and adventurers. Along with petty tricks, such as filling circles of wax with peas, acorns, fat, tar, resin, stones, they sometimes made robbery attacks, but this was not the rule. Conflicts caused mutual bans on trade, as was the case, for example, in 1385-1391: the seven-year trade war between Novgorod and Hansa ended in 1392 with the signing of a new peace treaty - the “eternal” Niebuhr peace, named after the Lübeck Ratman Johannes Niebuhr, who signed treaty in Novgorod. But this only temporarily smoothed out the contradictions between the Hanseatic and Novgorod merchants, who continued to clash. One of the reasons for the clashes was the desire of the Hanseatic people, because of competition, to prevent the appearance of Russian merchants in the markets of German and Baltic shopping centers.
Already in the first years of the 15th century, the Novgorod government presented a number of demands to the Hanseatic people, aimed at changing the existing order of trade between Novgorodians and Hanseatics in Novgorod. In February 1402, a congress of Livonian cities was held in Dorpat (Tartu), the ambassadors of Novgorod and Pskov filed complaints about violations by German merchants of the established size and weight of goods: the cloth sold by the Germans was short, bags of salt were too small, barrels of honey and sweet wine also smaller than the prescribed size, and honey and wine of poor quality - diluted with water. The ambassadors complained that the Germans, when buying wax, “peel” it too much, and when buying furs, they demand large sums for them. The congress of Livonian cities refused all proposals and wishes of the Novgorod ambassadors. In 1407, repressions against German merchants in Novgorod were intensified. By order of the Novgorod authorities, it was announced at the auction that none of the Novgorodians would trade with the Germans. The authorities of the German court resorted to countermeasures - they forbade their merchants from trading with the Novgorodians. Only in 1409 was a treaty ended the hostility and restored the conditions for the continuation of trade. But already in 1416 in Lübeck a ban was imposed on trade with Novgorodians: German merchants were forbidden not only to travel to Novgorod, but also to trade in Pskov. The Hanseatic League resorted to an extreme measure - an economic blockade, in order to force Novgorod to abandon the decrees directed against the Hanseatic merchant class. A new war broke out.
End of the Hansa monopoly
During periods of particularly acute conflicts, the Hanseatic merchants closed the church and courtyards, took away their property, valuables, treasury, office archives and left Novgorod. They handed over the keys to the courtyards for safekeeping to the Novgorod archbishop and archimandrite of the Yuriev Monastery as the highest local church hierarchs - especially trusted persons. Novgorodians, in turn, sought to detain the Hanseatic in the city until their demands were met. The point in Novgorod-Hanse relations was put by Ivan III in 1494, when the Hanseatic office in Novgorod was closed by his decree, 49 Hanseatic merchants were arrested, and their goods worth 96 thousand marks were confiscated and sent to Moscow. This happened in response to the execution in Revel of two Novgorod merchants: one was burned, the second was boiled in a cauldron for bestiality, which had never happened in Russia. Ivan III's patience snapped, and he decided to put an end to complex relationships Hansa with Russia. Nevertheless, the parties tried to resolve the conflict: in February 1498, negotiations were held in Narva. The Russian side linked the restoration of normal relations with a number of demands: the improvement of the situation of Russian churches and the inhabitants of the Russian ends in the Baltic cities. The claims filed by the Russian delegation cited the facts of the prohibition for Russians to consecrate churches and live in houses near churches. The negotiations ended in vain, and after they ended, Russia dealt another blow to Hansa: the import of salt into Russian cities was banned. Trade was interrupted for 20 years, and after that many of the old ties were already broken.
The Hansa was powerless against Russia united under the leadership of Moscow. Despite its commercial and military successes, the conservative Hansa created difficulties for itself. Its rules required that the inheritance be divided among numerous children, and this prevented the accumulation of capital in one hand, without which the business could not expand and endless strife began between the heirs. Keeping guild handicrafts from coming to power, the wealthy merchants pushed the burghers to revolt. The eternal striving for monopoly aroused indignation in other countries, where national feeling grew. Western “partners” began to attack the Hanseatic League: first of all, England, which defeated them at sea, the Netherlands, and later France, not to mention the eternal enemies - Denmark and Sweden. among foreign, but also among the south and middle German princes.
Two more circumstances were of great importance: starting from 1425, the annual movement of herring to the Baltic Sea stopped: it went to southern part North Sea, which contributed to the flowering of the Netherlands. In addition, the Hanseatics, due to stinginess, missed their chance with Holland: when an uprising broke out there against Spanish rule, the Dutch turned to the Hanseatic merchants for help, they refused - this was not forgiven. In addition, in 1530, a flea-borne plague ravaged one German city after another. A quarter of the entire population died from her breath, and the ensuing Thirty Years' War finally buried the remnants of German dominance at sea and all German shipping. Finally, the strengthening of Muscovy under Ivan III and Ivan IV the Terrible put an end to the Hanseatic monopoly in trade with Russia and in general in the Baltic.
The policy of the Hanseatic League has lost its original foresight and energy. And because of the German merchant stinginess, the Hanseatic fleet was kept in insufficient numbers. The last congress of the Hansetag took place in 1669, after which the Hanseatic Trade Union finally disintegrated. The union of German cities that made up the Hansa, after 270 years of brilliant existence, ceased to exist: it erected kings on thrones and overthrew them, played leadership in northern Europe. But the Hansa did not revive again.
Acquisition of land ownership outside the city, etc.From the 13th century in the German lands adjacent to the Baltic and North Seas, a system of city unions is formed, which eventually merge into a large Hanseatic League. In the early period, Cologne enjoyed the greatest influence, uniting more than 70 cities around itself, but in 1355 the hegemony in the union passed to Lubeck. In 1241, the city authorities of Lübeck and Hamburg entered into an agreement between themselves on the overland transportation of goods from one city to another and, consequently, from one sea to another, in order to avoid attacks by pirates when ships with cargo passed through the narrow Sound Strait. Ships en route from Novgorod, Riga, Danzig and other cities on the Baltic Sea were unloaded in Lübeck, goods were transported by the shortest dry route to Hamburg, reloaded there on ships and then transported to the markets of Western European countries. In the same way, goods were transported in the opposite direction. The Hansa was not a political union. It did not have a union administration, all-union taxes and a common treasury. The members of the union had the freedom to withdraw from it, but entry into the union was possible only with the general consent of the participants. The unity of the union was sealed by the annual congresses of merchants in Lübeck, which settled disputes and made decisions that were valid for the coming year. The unification of the merchants of the Hanseatic cities saw its task in acquiring the greatest trade benefits and privileges for its members in foreign territory. In all cities and countries where the Hanseatic traded, they sought for themselves preferential duties or complete freedom from them, the right to conduct profitable retail trade, which was usually a privilege of the local merchants, protection from arbitrariness and extortion from the local administration. The union ensured the safety of merchant ships at sea and fought for the free passage of ships through the strait. Taking advantage of its exclusive position in foreign markets, the Hansa did not allow merchants from cities that were not members of the union to their markets. The Hanseatic trade was of an intermediary and mainly wholesale character. The ships went in caravans, escorted by a convoy to protect them from pirates. In the XV century. the total Hanseatic fleet consisted of 800-900 ships with a total carrying capacity of 90 thousand tons. The last congress of the Hanseatic League took place in Lübeck in 1669. The most significant of the achievements of the merchants of the Hanseatic League was the ability to negotiate, cooperate, and act together.
6. Revolution in trade in the era of geographical discoveries.
Price revolution
The first consequence of the WGO was price revolution: because a flood of cheap gold and silver poured into Europe from overseas lands, the cost of these metals fell sharply, and the prices for goods increased accordingly. First of all, the price revolution affected those countries that directly plundered new lands - Spain and Portugal. Spanish and Portuguese goods became so expensive that they were no longer bought: they preferred cheaper goods from other countries. As prices rise, so does production costs. Consequences: 1. gold from these countries quickly went abroad to the countries whose goods were bought; 2. handicraft production fell into decay, because. The products were not in demand. The flow of gold from these countries quickly sailed abroad. As a result, the flow of gold did not enrich Spain and Portugal, but dealt a blow to their economy, because feudal relations still dominated in these countries. The price revolution strengthened England and the Netherlands, countries with developed commodity production, whose goods went to Spain and Portugal. The price revolution was an economic blow to the feudal estate (the peasants paid them the same rent, but this money cost 2-3 times less).
The second consequence of the VGO was revolution in European trade. Maritime trade develops into ocean trade, and in connection with this, the medieval monopolies of the Hansa and Venice are collapsing: it was no longer possible to control ocean roads. Winners in this respect were England and the Netherlands - producers and owners of goods. Antwerp became the center of world trade, where goods from all over Europe were collected. The volume of trade increased as the flow of oriental goods increased tenfold. And the Europeans themselves, in exchange for these goods, had to produce much more of their goods than before. The growth of trade required new forms of its organization. Commodity exchanges appeared (the first in Antwerp). On such exchanges, merchants entered into trade transactions in the absence of goods.
The third consequence of the VGO was the birth of the colonial system. Europe plundered and exploited the colonies. The colonies were at first objects of robbery, sources of primitive accumulation of capital. The first colonial powers were Spain and Portugal.
In general, the VGO accelerated the decay of feudalism and the transition to capitalism in European countries.
7. Holland is the leading country of merchant capitalXVIIin.
Already by the beginning of the 16th century, the Netherlands was called the "country of cities", because half of the population were citizens. But in terms of their economic development, the northern and southern parts of the Netherlands differed significantly. The most developed was the southern part - the linen and cloth industry, it developed in the countryside, because. in the cities it was held back by guild restrictions. The northern part - Holland - lagged behind in economic development. Fishing and shipbuilding were developed mainly. In the north, the workshops were not developed, which provided the best conditions for the development of manufactories. Although manufactory production arose later, it developed faster and the manufacturers of the south are gradually moving to the north.
Netherlands in the 16th century were part of the Spanish possessions, subordinate to the Spanish king. By the middle of the XVI century. the situation deteriorated sharply. The Spanish king increased taxes from the inhabitants of the Netherlands so much. This caused a bourgeois revolution, which took the form of a national liberation war against the state of Spain. The war ended with the formation of an independent bourgeois republic in the north of the Netherlands. The Dutch Republic=Holland experiences a rapid short economic takeoff after this. Holland begins active colonial expansion. At the beginning of the XVII century. the Dutch take over some of the Spanish and Portuguese colonies and create their own colonial empire.
After the victory of the bourgeois revolution in the economy of Holland, in addition to shipbuilding and fishing, the textile industry develops, and the tobacco and sugar industries also develop using colonial raw materials.
On the main roll and Holland had not industrial, but commercial capital. Holland became the world center of trade. She owned 60% of the world merchant fleet. She controlled most of the trade in the North and Mediterranean seas.
The main wine warehouses, timber warehouses were located in Holland. Holland became the world's trading heir, all countries traded through Holland on Dutch ships. Holland became the richest country, the banker country. In Holland it was more money than in the rest of Europe.
But since the beginning of the XVIII century. Holland is gradually losing world importance. This was due to the fact that its commercial dominance did not match the industrial potential. The textile industry, which occupied a leading place in Holland, depended on foreign raw materials, for example, woolen - on English wool. When England began to process all the wool itself, the Dutch manufactories were left without work. In the XVIII century. special meaning heavy industry acquires in the economy, but for its development in Holland there was neither iron ore nor hard coal. But most importantly, Holland transported other people's goods on its ships, and when the owners of these goods began to transport them themselves, having built their own merchant ships, the Dutch had nothing to transport.
In short, the capital accumulated in Holland remains in the sphere of accumulation, in trade, has not spilled over into industry, and therefore Holland has been defeated in the competition with England, has lost its leadership.
8. Protectionism in England. "Navigation Act" by O. Cromwell.
In England, it was primarily the woolen industry that passed into the manufacturing stage. She first grabbed the rural areas, because in the city at first there were shop restrictions. Then, in addition to wool, other industries began to develop: metallurgical, coal, shipbuilding.
The development of manufactory production in England was facilitated by the trade policy of the English government - an increase in import duties on manufactured goods. The goal of the policy is to achieve an active balance of foreign trade and the inflow of gold and silver into the country, i.e. increasing the wealth of the country.
Over time, the policy has changed. Now the goal is not to accumulate gold, but to promote the development of industry. And the method remains the same - increasing import duties. By limiting duties on the import of foreign goods, the government creates a relative shortage and raises prices. This leads to an increase in the profits of industrialists and accelerates the development of industry.
In 1648, a bourgeois revolution took place in England. A significant part of the feudal lords turned out to be on the side of the revolution. Therefore, the revolution ended with an agreement between the bourgeoisie and the bourgeois feudal lords. The main act of the bourgeois revolution is the solution of the agrarian issue - it was resolved in favor of the feudal lords - the land remained their property.
One of the first actions of the agrarian revolution was "Navigation act"- the law, according to the cat. goods of any country were allowed to be brought into England only on English ships or ships of that country, and goods from English colonies export only on English ships. This law gave the English bourgeoisie advantages over the bourgeoisie of other countries (primarily the Dutch) and further contributed to the fact that England became a major maritime power.
9. MercantilismXVIIin. in France (activities of Colbert).
Mercantilists focused on money as a symbol of wealth. Int. trade did not create capital, and foreign trade was considered the main source of capital formation in the country and the growth of wealth. The export of finished goods prevails - active trade balance. Encouragement of exports and restraint of imports is the main direction of policy. In the 16th century - the first half of the 17th century. - fiscal interests - the interests of the treasury (duties, taxes, etc.). In England, the policy of mercantilism is manifested in the ban on foreign merchants to take money out of the country. The era of mercantilism (16-17 centuries) is the era of increased economic activity of the state. (control over consumer prices, over social sphere). Gradually, the policy of protectionism emerged from this policy; policies to support domestic producers. 16th century in England, a fish day was established, 17th century. introduced the custom of burying in woolen clothes. These measures were called protectionist, and the policy - protectionist policies. Mercantilism received its most complete forms in France under Richelieu (17th century). But this policy was carried out especially persistently under Colbert (1661-1683), the main "controller". This policy was aimed at replacing imports with exports of domestic goods. Colbert supported the manufacturing industry, and also planted industries that satisfy external and internal demand. Under Colbert, the silk-weaving industry flourished, the production of chocolate, lace began, and new industries appeared, such as the production of mirrors, lamps, umbrellas. All measures were aimed at crowding out, both in quality and quantity of imported goods, and at France's entry into international markets. New industries supported as in cash, and by labor force, domestic producers also defended themselves from competition. In 1667 a customs tariff was introduced on the list of goods that were subject to duty. Since duties on certain types of goods have become very high, their price has increased significantly. Raw material exports were limited, Colbert introduced several dozen regulations = standards for various industries (length, width, color, etc.). This ensured an increase in the quality of goods not only in France but also in Europe as a whole, because. standards emerged. Colbert also sought to establish internal trade, a powerful infrastructure was created (canals, roads, etc. were built), and a merchant fleet was also built. Under Colbert, the expansion of the colonial possessions of France began. 1668 - the first settlements in India, the organization of the French East India Company. The French army became the most numerous (which increased the possibilities in the colonial division), and, consequently, huge funds were required for its maintenance. Finance Minister Colbert became the "father" of the state budget. Constantly looking for ways to replenish the budget, but it still became scarce. A system of state taxes was built: direct tax (from the land)
but the main income came from indirect taxes (sales taxes). Colbert sought to reduce direct taxes by raising indirect taxes. In France at that time there was no state financial apparatus for collecting taxes. There was a system of ransoms, i.e. the farmer, a wealthy official, bought from the state the right to collect taxes from the population for a price equal to the necessary budget. Colbert, as a private individual and a subordinate of the king, had to provide the entire amount of taxes collected, from which the kings, at their discretion, kept the court, the army, spent it on ensuring the conduct of wars, and with all this, the budget still remained in deficit. In 1685 Louis 14 abolished the "Kautsky Edict", which had previously given rise to numerous religious wars and called for religious tolerance, which unleashed a war with the Huguenots. Prussia, England, Holland became countries of emigration for the Huguenots.
The French government initiated the practice of borrowing from other countries. The policy of mercantilism dealt a serious blow to the French economy. In response to France's import restrictions, other countries did the same by raising duties. Goods could not be sold, due to high duties, they became uncompetitive in the foreign market. Conclusion: as a result, all countries fell into decline due to the primacy of merchant capital.
10 Enclosures In EnglandXVI- XVIIIcenturies
In the XVI-XVII centuries. England began to develop along the capitalist path. For the development of capitalist production, capitals are needed, i.e. large sums of money sufficient for the organization of the enterprise. Without capital there is no capitalist. Workers are also needed.
The main reason for the ruin of the peasants and their transformation into workers in England was sheep breeding, a cat. The British considered such an important part of their economy. As a result of the price revolution, sheep farming became especially profitable, because the price of wool increased even more than other goods. And vice versa, it became completely unprofitable to continue the feudal exploitation of the peasants, because the real value of the fixed feudal rent has sharply decreased. And so the English bourgeois feudal lords, in order to increase pastures for sheep, drive out dependent peasants from their feudal estates, demolishing entire villages, turning them into pastures for sheep. This process is called fencing because the land was fenced off.
The feudal lords drove the peasants from their land, but the feudal lord has no right to take away the land from the peasant, he can only receive rent from him: the peasant is the same owner of the land as the feudal lord. Feudal law provided for two owners of land: the peasant and the feudal lord. But the English feudal lords by this time already considered their ownership of land not as feudal, but as bourgeois, i.e. complete.
They drove the peasants off the land in another way. In England at that time, commodity lease relations were already widely developed. Unlike rent, rent could be increased. And it rose to such an extent that the peasant tenants went bankrupt.
The mass of peasants found themselves without housing, without sources of livelihood.