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Western and Northern Europe in the late XX - early XXI centuries. The countries of Eastern Europe at the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st century

In the history of mankind, Europe has always had great value. The peoples of Europe founded powerful states that extended their power to all parts of the world. But the situation in the world was changing rapidly. Already in 1900, the United States, which was at the beginning of the 19th century. backward agricultural country, moved to the 1st place in the world in terms of development industrial production. The results of the First World War (1914-1918) contributed to such an accelerated advance of the United States to dominant economic positions, and the Second World War(1939 - 1945) finally ensured the primacy of the United States, which, thanks to the rapid development of its economy, turned into a leading world power. Europe has long been considered the second "center" of the modern world, but this does not suit her. Journalists described the activity of the leaders of the European Union very figuratively: "Europe yearns for independence." We are talking about the creation of a United Europe, which plays a leading role in the world economy and politics. Its occurrence, perhaps, will be the most important event 21st century

European Union (European Union)- the largest regional association aimed at creating a political and monetary and economic union of European states in order to remove all obstacles to the free movement of goods, services, capital and people, as well as to form a common foreign and security policy. The European Union consists of 28 states. A single internal market has been created in the European Union, restrictions on the free movement of goods, capital, and labor between countries have been lifted, and a single monetary system has been formed with a single governing monetary institution.

The main institutions of power in the European Union :

1. European Commission - executive agency European Union, consisting of 25 members (including the president) who are appointed for five years by the national governments, but wholly independent in the performance of their duties. The composition of the Commission is approved by the European Parliament. Each member of the Commission is responsible for a specific area of ​​EU policy and heads the respective Directorate General;

2. The European Parliament is an assembly of 732 deputies directly elected by the citizens of the EU member states for a term of five years. The President of the European Parliament is elected for two and a half years. MEPs study bills and approve the budget. They take joint decisions with the Council of Ministers on specific matters and supervise the work of the EU Councils and the European Commission. The European Parliament holds plenary sessions in Strasbourg (France) and Brussels (Belgium);

3. The Council of Ministers is the main decision-making body in the EU, which meets at the level of ministers of national governments, and its composition varies depending on the issues discussed: the Council of Foreign Ministers, the Council of Ministers of Economics, etc. Within the framework of the Council, the representatives of the governments of the member states discuss EU legislative acts and adopt or reject them by voting;

4. European Court - Judicial authority The EU is the highest authority that regulates disagreements between EU Member States, between EU Member States and the European Union itself, between EU institutions, between the EU and individuals or legal entities;

5. The Court of Accounts (Court of Auditors) is a body of the European Union established to conduct an audit of the EU budget and its institutions;

6. European Ombudsman handles complaints from European private and legal entities on EU institutions and institutions.

European Union(European Union, EU) was legally fixed by the Maastricht Treaty in 1993 on the principles of the European Communities and has been continuously expanding ever since. A united Europe must become an instrument of political centralization. The logic of the EU enlargement is a political logic, i.e. the political consequences of the enlargement are important for the EU. Many European leaders today recognize that Europe needs to be turned into a superpower that would be able to defend its interests on the world stage. The objective basis for the unification of European states is the process of globalization - the economic and political internationalization of the world. “The expansion of Europe is a necessity in a globalizing world,” said one of the leaders of the European Union, R. Prodi (Prime Minister of Italy ( - , May - January ), between two premiers was President of the European Commission ( - )), - and, of course, it gives us huge political advantages. The only way confront the United States and a booming China, and strengthen its world influence is to form a strong united Europe.”

At present, the European Union has already come close to transforming into a deeply integrated association of states with a common supranational system of governance, politics, defense, currency and a single economic and social space. To understand the reasons for creating such an association, it is necessary to take into account the changes taking place in world politics, the features of the historical past and modern international relations countries of Europe. The state of natural, demographic and financial resources these countries.

The integration process in the European Union goes in two directions - in breadth and depth. So, already in 1973, Great Britain, Denmark and Ireland entered the European Economic Community, in 1981 - Greece, in 1986 - Spain and Portugal, in 1995 - Finland, Austria and Sweden, in May 2004 – Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Poland, Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovenia, Slovakia, Malta and Cyprus. Today the EU consists of 28 countries.

The development of integration in depth can be traced on the example of changes in the economic interaction of the countries - members of the European Union:

The first stage (1951 - 1952) is a kind of introduction;

The central event of the second stage (late 50s - early 70s of the XX century) was the creation of a free trade zone, then a customs union was created, a major achievement was the decision to pursue a single agricultural policy, which made it possible to establish market unity and a system of agricultural protection allied countries from competitors from other countries;

At the third stage (the first half of the 70s), currency relations became the sphere of regulation;

The fourth stage (from the mid-1970s to the early 1990s) is characterized by the creation of a homogeneous economic space based on the principles of the "four freedoms" (free circulation of goods, capital, services and labor);

At the fifth stage (from the beginning of the 90s of the 20th century to the present), the formation of an economic, monetary and political union began (the introduction of a single EU citizenship along with a national one, a single currency and a banking system, etc.), a draft Constitution of the European Union was prepared, which must be approved by referenda in all EU member states.

The creation of the European Union was due to a number of reasons., primarily by the fact that it was in Western Europe after the end of the Second World War that the contradiction between global character modern economy and the narrow national-state boundaries of its functioning, which was expressed in the intensive regionalization and transnationalization of this particular region. In addition, until the early 1990s, the desire of Western European countries to unite was explained by the sharp confrontation on the continent of two opposing social systems. An important political reason for integration was the desire of the countries of Western Europe to overcome the negative experience of the two world wars, to exclude the possibility of a military confrontation on the continent in the future. In addition, the countries of Western Europe, to a greater extent and earlier than the countries of other regions, were prepared for a close economic cooperation together. The high dependence of Western European countries on foreign markets, the similarity of their economic structures, territorial and socio-cultural proximity - all this contributed to the development of integration trends. At the same time, the countries of Western Europe, by strengthening trade ties and other forms of interdependence, tried to compensate for the loss of rich colonial possessions. The convergence of the economies of European countries on the basis of links between their companies and markets also pursued the goal of using the effect of integration to strengthen Europe's position in competition with other centers of the world economy. At the same time, the most important was the desire of the Western European countries to strengthen their positions in the world market in the face of the most powerful competitor - the United States of America. Strengthening the unity of the countries of the Western European region is also facilitated by some natural factors, primarily the territory. When characterizing the geographical originality of Europe, three main features are usually noted:

1) the relative compactness of the territory, which makes European countries close neighbors;

2) the coastal position of most European countries, which determines the predominance of a mild and humid maritime climate;

3) the presence of land and sea borders between European countries, which is favorable for the development of international cooperation.

Socio-economic characteristics of modern Europe.

Demographic situation in Europe is very difficult. For the period 1913 - 2000. The population of Western Europe increased only 1.7 times, of all developed countries - 2.4 times, and the population of the whole world during this time increased 4.0 times. Low fertility (1.74 children per woman of childbearing age in the UK; 1.66 in France; 1.26 in Germany) is leading to a decline in the population of Western Europe. In some states (for example, in Austria, Germany, Denmark), in some years there was even an absolute reduction in the population (death rate exceeded birth rate). Average annual population growth rates in Western European countries in 1991 - 2000 accounted for 0.4% (including 0.0% in Austria). According to UN calculations, by the middle of the XXI century. the share of Europeans in the world will decrease from 12% (or even 20% in the second half of the 19th century) to 7%. The deterioration of the demographic situation in Europe is usually associated with the abandonment of the traditional way of life of the population. The growth of the spiritual and intellectual potential of various segments of the population, the wide participation of women in social production and socio-economic processes lead to deliberate birth control (this is facilitated by the use of new birth control technologies and the legalization of abortions). Advances in medicine, rising living standards and other factors have led to a reduction in general and infant mortality, which means an increase in life expectancy and an increase in the average age of the population. Over the past 50 years, life expectancy has increased more than in the previous 5,000 years. According to rough estimates, in Great Britain, France and other countries before the industrial revolution of the 17th century. people over 65 years of age accounted for 2-3% of the population, and now in Western European countries they account for 14-15%. Evolution has had a great influence on European demographic resources family relations, which manifested itself in a number of countries already at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. Europe became a pioneer in the development of the phenomenon that demographers called "European marriage" (late marriage, limiting the number of children, a large proportion of divorces, etc.). In the 80s - 90s of the XX century. in many European countries, the number of marriage unions has decreased, and the average age of those entering into marriage has increased. At the same time, the divorce rate (the number of divorces per 100 marriages in a given year), for example, has tripled in France. To all these changes, which are sometimes called family crisis,

AT recent decades in Western European countries are huge changes in financial resources. This process, which is often called the financial revolution, has a great influence on the process of European unification. First of all, it is necessary to note the increase in the role financial activities in the life of the leading European countries. The main reason for this is the industrial and technological progress and the internationalization of the economy. The creation of computers and new means of communication stimulated the development of various financial institutions that formed a short time international securities markets. Huge fortunes arose from intermediary operations with these securities. Whoever owns them (rentiers, speculators, entrepreneurs), financial interests clearly dominate their production interests. The tremendous growth in the importance of finance is also associated with the expansion of trading and "financial engineering" of enterprises, in whose activities new tools have appeared that allow them to expand their securities transactions.

Big changes are taking place in the organization of financial markets. Traditionally, there was a dual structure in Western Europe, including national markets, where transactions were made between local residents, and foreign markets as part of national markets, where foreign or mixed financial institutions functioned. Their common feature was the regulation of the activities of markets by the states on whose territory they were located, control, often tough, by authorized authorities. The development of financial globalization, the growth of international movements of stock values ​​have led to the emergence of so-called pure international markets, i.e. markets completely free from state regulation. The name of the euromarkets stuck behind them. Eurocurrency is any currency that is deposited in a bank outside the country of origin and thus is outside the jurisdiction and control of the monetary authorities of that country. The most important type of euro papers is Eurobonds. As the Eurobond market grows international trade securities of foreign borrowers takes on a multilateral character, thus the national markets for stock values ​​act as international ones. The second type of securities circulating on the European markets is euroshares. They are issued outside the national stock markets and are purchased with the euro currency, and therefore do not fall under the control of national markets.

Today, a huge role in the unification of Europe belongs to the single European currency - Euro. It is turning into a serious competitor to the dollar in the international arena, becoming the second world currency serving trade relations between countries, international capital flows, world financial markets. In European countries, the euro decisively defeated the dollar. Managed to push the dollar and the markets of developing countries, including Latin America. The leaders of the European Union note that it was only with the introduction of the euro that the Americans began to think seriously about the reality of creating a United Europe. The role of the single European currency is determined by the common economic and financial potential of the EU countries. If the euro appreciates, its international use will also grow.

Of great importance for the further development of unification processes in Europe is the commonality of the economic structures of the Western European countries. The "core" of European integration was Germany, France, Italy and the Benelux countries (Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg, which signed an agreement on economic union in 1958). A certain unity of their socio-economic structure played a significant role in the formation and development of the European Union.. The influence of this unity is still felt today, although with the increase in the number of members of the Union and candidates for the EU, the situation is changing and contradictions are growing.

For the countries of Western Europe, and above all those that make up the "core" of the European Union, it has long been characteristic high degree of economic activity of the state. As a result of a long historical development they have developed a combination of such factors as a significant development of state property; high share of the state in total investment and R&D financing; a large volume of public procurement, including military ones; public funding of social spending; wide scale of state regulation of the economy; participation of the state in the export of capital and in other forms of international economic relations.

The countries of Western Europe differ in the size of state ownership. France is called the country of classical nationalization. Here the state has always played an important role in the economy, although the share of its participation is constantly changing. In general, the share of the public sector today accounts for up to 20% national treasure countries. The French mixed economy system is a metered combination of the market and public sectors.

In Germany, there has historically been a situation where many economic facilities are fully or partially owned by the state. Unlike France, in the FRG nationalization of individual industries has never been carried out. AT different periods of its existence, the German state built or bought from a private entrepreneur railways and roads, radio stations, post office, telegraph and telephone, airfields, canals and port facilities, power plants, military installations and big number industrial enterprises, mainly in the extractive and heavy industries. Significant lands were also owned by the state, cash, gold reserves, property abroad. State economic facilities are in the hands of the federal government, state governments and local authorities. Of all state property, two industry complexes play the greatest role in the German economy: infrastructure facilities that provide conditions for expanded reproduction, as well as industrial and energy enterprises, most of which are combined into state concerns. In recent decades, in Germany, as in other European countries, the entrepreneurial functions of the state have been decreasing. The transition to new forms of economic regulation is accompanied by a certain reduction in the public sector - through the sale of shares on the stock markets. But even today, the share of the public sector in the German economy is quite high. In addition, the Federal Republic of Germany is characterized by partial privatization of state-owned enterprises, i.e., their transformation into mixed companies. Similar processes are developing in Italy.

Great Britain, many economists refer to the group of countries of "Anglo-Saxon" capitalism, but, like other EU countries, it is characterized by the practice of public-private partnership. In the 90s of the XX century. in the UK, such partnership projects worth 40 billion dollars were implemented (the construction of a tunnel under the English Channel, the laying of branches of the London Underground, etc.).

In Germany, France, Italy and other Western European countries, various forms of state regulation of the economy. Huge proportions have reached, for example, the volume of state budgets, spending on science. The state acts as one of the main customers and consumers of goods and services, participates in foreign trade, provides comprehensive assistance to the export of private capital. At present, it has already developed (and somewhere else it is developing) state system programming of the economy, which combines the current regulation of economic processes with the long-term coordination of economic development based on the preparation and implementation of national economic programs.

In Western Europe, socio-economic systems have social orientation. The state is doing the largest number social functions. Thus, the “German economic model” made it possible to restore the country completely destroyed as a result of the Second World War, to become one of the world leaders at the end of the 20th century and to provide the highest standard of living for the population of Germany. Germany spends about 30% of its GDP on social needs. In France general level development social system one of the highest in the world. Various social payments make up about a third of the nominal wages hired worker. Among the achievements of France in social sphere an important place is given to family benefits (they were first introduced in 1939). Family allowances are paid to all citizens regardless of family income and whether the child is born in marriage or out of wedlock.

Social security systems also operate in other Western European countries. Italy stands out for its high level of pension provision. Belgium, the Netherlands and Sweden have relatively high living standards. According to the human development index, Belgium and the Netherlands in 2002 ranked 7th-8th in the world. In Sweden, social policy is aimed at reducing unemployment (the average annual unemployment rate is 4%) and equalizing the income level of the population. Taxes in the country account for 56.5% of the national GDP. In Denmark, a socially oriented capitalism with a market-state regulated economy has been formed. In Finland on social goals 25% of the country's GDP is spent. Social politics of the state is aimed primarily at reducing unemployment (in 2002 - 8.5%).

The most important regularity of the economic development of Western Europe at the end of the 20th century is early XXI in. - This transformation of the industrial economy into a post-industrial one, or the service economy ("new economy"). This process is objective. It is based on forward movement productive forces, the results of which are concretized in the constant increase in the productivity of labor and other factors of production. The formation of a modern post-industrial model of the economy occurs due to a structural revolution, i.e. a fundamental redistribution between the primary (agrarian), secondary (industrial) and tertiary (services) sectors of the economy, as well as due to changes within each of the listed sectors: in all developed countries The service sector has become a leading component of the economy. The contribution of the service sector to economic growth began to exceed the contribution of industry. Today, in the developed countries of the world, more than 60% of the total working population is concentrated in the service sector. Service enterprises provide a significant part of world GDP - about 70%. If in the 70s of the XX century. indicators of the average annual growth rates of the totality of service industries exceeded those of agriculture by about 2 times, and industry - by 1.5 times, then at the end of the 20th century these rates increased by 2.5 and 3.5 times, respectively.

The main element of the post-industrial economic model can also be considered the informative revolution, the essence of which is a huge increase in the informatization of the entire life of society. Information is becoming the most important type of resource used by people, therefore modern society is often called information. Not only a high degree of correlation between indicators of economic growth and the level of development of information and communication technologies (ICT) was revealed, but also a tendency to strengthen the role of ICT as a means of economic growth - even the conditions for this growth. Moreover, they talk about the formation of the information sector of the economy (it is called quaternary). The indicators of this process are the widespread computerization of the economy and everyday life, the globalization of communication systems, and the very fact of the emergence of the information community.

The increase in the role of services in all their diversity is closely connected with the technical and technological revolution. The connection between them has a two-way character. On the one hand, the development of technology and advanced technologies serves as the material basis for the growth of the tertiary sector of the economy - the service sector. Without a radical increase in the overall productivity of labor, facilitated by the technical and technological revolution, such a situation, when the cost of services exceeds the cost of an industrial product, would simply be impossible. But on the other hand, the very growth of the service sector is a powerful means of further increasing labor productivity and improving the efficiency of the economy. As a result, costs for all elements of production are reduced, the qualification of the labor force is increased, which contributes to improving the quality of products and increasing the volume of its production (for example, as a result of the development of health care, losses associated with illnesses of workers are reduced). The service sector is becoming the leading force in the development of the modern economy. From now on, it is the central sector of the economy. But at the same time, the service sector is closely connected with the industrial sector. Services become an integral part of the production process.

By the end of the XX century. the combined effect of these and other causes significantly changed the basic proportions of the economy, which meant the formation of a post-industrial economy. Its main features are:

Radical acceleration of technical progress, reduction of the role of material production, expressed, in particular, in a decrease in its share in the total social product,

Development of the service and information sector,

Changing the motives and nature of human activity,

The emergence of a new type of resources involved in production,

Significant modification of the entire social structure.

The formation of a "service economy" is a universal process that is common to all countries, but it is implemented in each of them as internal prerequisites are realized, which directly depends on the level of economic development of the state. In economically underdeveloped countries economic activity and today is reduced mainly to the production of "thing" products. And the higher the level of economic development, labor productivity, the greater the role of labor activity, aimed at the production of intangible products, expressed in the form of services.

The most significant features of European development at the turn of the century include computerization and internetization of the economy, increasing the educational and scientific and technical potential of countries.

Let us dwell on the main areas of development of the post-industrial economy in Europe: the service sector (it employs more than 65% of the working population of European countries, service enterprises provide about 70% of the GDP of the EU countries); trade (significant changes are taking place in the nature of modern trade, which in Western Europe are often called even a commercial revolution); communication (a set of industries designed to transmit and distribute various kinds of information has always been an important element in the life of society, but in modern conditions the role of means of communication is significantly enhanced, the degree of development of means of communication is one of the important indicators of the maturity of the economy); transport (the creation of the European Union contributed to the further modernization of a number of transport sectors, strengthening inter-sectoral and international coordination of transport activities, improving the quality indicators of many transport enterprises in Western Europe, more than 8 million people are employed in the EU transport sector and more than 7% of total GDP is produced).

Consequences of European integration.

Assessing the results of European integration at the present stage, it should be noted first of all its achievements. During the existence of the European Union, a developed mechanism of integration has developed, based on the principle of separation of legislative, executive and judicial functions. Among the important lessons of European integration is the development of an integration strategy for the European Union. A number of European countries have chosen to limit their sovereignty and transfer some of their powers to supranational integration structures. The supremacy of the laws of the European Union was clearly manifested in relation to underdeveloped states Southern Europe Greece, Spain and Portugal. Accession to the common European market has become a powerful stimulus for the development of the economies of these countries. And the achievements of Greece, Spain and Portugal stimulated the desire to join the EU among other relatively poor countries in Europe.

The rapid development of integration processes contributed to radical shifts in the structure of the European economy. The EU accounts for over 90% of European GDP. In terms of GDP (21%), United Europe caught up with the United States. Moreover, in some important indicators, the EU countries have surpassed the level of the United States. More American and European labor market. At the beginning of the XXI century. the total number of employees in the EU countries exceeded 160 million people (in the USA - 137 million people). Western European countries have a very developed banking system. At the same time, the EU lags behind the US in terms of post-industrialization. Thus, the clear superiority in the development of the latest technologies belongs to the United States of America. The EU countries are also still significantly behind the US in terms of the degree of computerization of the economy.

But the economic development of the EU countries is very uneven. Comparison of the development of the EU and the USA in the second half of the 20th century. shows, on the one hand, their convergence economic indicators, on the other hand, a growing trend towards a certain weakening of the EU's position in relation to the United States, which was rapidly developing in the 90s. One of the main obstacles to sustainable economic growth in the EU countries is the decline in labor resources, in particular the aging of the population and its decrease in numbers. Now there are 4 people of working age per pensioner in the EU, and in 2050, according to the forecast of the European Commission, there will be only 2 workers. Finally, the growth of the euro against the dollar worsened the position of European companies in the American and other markets. As a result, the scale of the recession in the European economy has increased, and the improvement of the situation is associated with the solution of many complex problems:

  • financial crisis (for twenty years at the turn of the 20th - 21st centuries, 5 developed and 88 developing countries experienced a systemic financial crisis);
  • stock crisis (decrease in the share price);
  • crisis of the insurance system (a serious danger for the entire world economy is the growing difficulties in the insurance system of many countries, which allows us to speak of a crisis in this area as an integral part of the current financial and economic crisis; in 2002 alone, the insurance business in Western Europe decreased by more than 50 %);
  • banking crisis (in all countries of the world, an increase in the number of overdue loans was noted in hundreds of banks).

Initially, the "new economy" as a combination of the latest information and telecommunications technologies was declared not subject to crises. However, since the beginning of the XXI century. they began to talk about the crisis of the "new economy", and some analysts called it the main structural crisis of the modern world. Since the end of 2000, the overall growth of the US economy and a number of Western European countries began to slow down sharply. The statistical picture of the changes taking place in recent years indicates a slowdown in industrial production growth in the EU countries and even, in some cases, a reduction in its volume. Attention is drawn to the difference in economic dynamics in the "new" and "old" countries of the European Union. In all "new" countries in 2001-2002. there was an increase in industrial production. But its pace, as well as the relatively small volumes of the economies of these states, could not great influence on the general position in the Western European and especially the world economy. The main "culprit" of the deterioration of the overall economic situation is Germany, which has actually stopped the growth of industrial production. The decline in production began in 1996, but in 2003 a particularly difficult situation developed.

Currently, there are serious contradictions in the development of the European Union. The split in the European Union slows down the process of integration of European countries. And this leads to the projects widely discussed during the development and approval of the European Constitution political reforms the weight. The situation is complicated by a number of transatlantic contradictions. The economic power of the United States, their military and political superiority allow the American ruling circles to exert all-round pressure on both the "old" and "new" members of the European Union, trying to pursue their course, which is aimed at weakening European positions.

The unification of Europe is an integral part of the process of comprehensive globalization. The success of European integration has a positive impact on the formation of regional and transcontinental associations around the world.

  • II. Influence of the initial concentration of H2O2 on the half-life. Determining the order of the reaction.
  • A) writing off the final turnovers of accrued income from non-exchange transactions at the end of the reporting period;
  • A) shaping the concept of "accused to socialism" after seeing the unreality of stimulating communism

    • In the Soviet orbit of influence. In the first post-war years, thanks to the support of the USSR, the communists established their undivided power in almost all countries of Eastern Europe. The communist parties of the CSEE countries proclaimed an official course towards building the foundations of socialism. The Soviet model of socio-economic and political development was taken as a model: the priority of the state in the economy, accelerated industrialization, collectivization, the virtual elimination of private property, the dictatorship of the communist parties, the forcible introduction of Marxist ideology, anti-religious propaganda, etc. 1949 Council for Mutual Economic Assistance(CMEA) and in 1955. military-political Warsaw Pact organizations(OVD) the formation of the socialist camp was finally completed.

    Crises and upheavals. Despite relative economic progress, many people in Eastern Europe were dissatisfied with the policies of the communist government. Mass demonstrations of workers engulfed GDR (1953), strikes and riots took place in Poland (1956).

    AT late October 1956. Hungary found itself on the brink of civil war: armed clashes began between workers and law enforcement forces, and cases of reprisals against communists became more frequent. Nagy(Prime Minister of Hungary) announced the government's intention to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact and turn Hungary into a neutral state. Under these conditions, the leadership of the USSR decided on quick and immediate action. Soviet armored units were brought into Budapest to "restore order". These events are called budapest autumn».

    AT 1968 liberal reforms in Czechoslovakia were initiated by the first secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party A. Dubcek. In an attempt to weaken party-state control over all spheres of life, he called for the construction of "socialism with a human face." The leaders of the ruling party and the state essentially raised the question of the rejection of socialism. The ATS countries, led by the USSR, sent their troops to Prague. Dubcek was removed from his post, and the new leadership of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia severely suppressed the activities of the ideological opposition. The events of 1968 were called " prague spring».

    Independent course I. Broz Tito. Of all the countries of the socialist camp, Yugoslavia was practically the only one that was not subject to Soviet influence. I. Broz Tito established communist rule in Yugoslavia, but pursued a course independent of Moscow. He refused to join the WTS and declared neutrality in the Cold War. The so-called Yugoslav model of socialism developed in the country, which included self-management in production and elements of a market economy. There was more ideological freedom in Yugoslavia than in other countries of the socialist camp. At the same time, an unconditional monopoly on power was maintained by one party - the Union of Communists of Yugoslavia.



    Poland's fight for democracy. Perhaps the most problematic ally of the USSR was Poland. Like the Hungarians and Czechs, the Poles also sought greater independence. After the unrest and strikes of 1956, the Polish government carried out some reforms. But dissatisfaction still persisted. The leading force of the Polish opposition was the Roman Catholic Church. In 1980, the whole of Poland swept new wave workers' speeches. Gdansk became the center of the strike movement. Here, with the active participation of Catholic figures and representatives of opposition groups, an intersectoral trade union organization "Solidarity" was created. The new trade union has become an influential political force. Solidarity launched a broad anti-communist agitation and demanded political changes. The authorities declared a state of emergency, banned the activities of Solidarity and arrested its leaders. The Polish leadership, headed by W. Jaruzelski, temporarily stabilized the situation.



    "Velvet Revolutions". Started in the USSR in the late 1980s. perestroika, associated with the new leader of the USSR, M.S. Gorbachev, served as an impetus for the latest series of reforms in Eastern European countries, in which the political initiative passed into the hands of opposition, anti-communist parties and movements.

    AT 1989 Solidarity was legalized in Poland and free parliamentary elections were held for the first time in 50 years. A year later, the leader of Solidarity won the presidential election. L. Walesa. The new leadership began the difficult transition to a market economy. Mass strikes and demonstrations in the fall of 1989 led to the removal from power of the communist governments in the GDR, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, and Romania. The Berlin Wall was destroyed and reunification took place in 1990 German people. The collapse of the socialist state in Hungary ended with democratic elections in the spring of 1990. In Romania, mass demonstrations escalated into armed clashes with casualties. N. Ceausescu, who refused to make concessions, was removed from power and shot without trial or investigation. The rapid change of power and the bloodless nature of events in the former socialist states (with the exception of Romania) gave reason to call them " velvet revolutions».

    Elimination of communist regimes in the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe in 1989-1991. led to the collapse of the socialist system, the restoration of capitalism in the Eastern European states and a change in the balance of power on a global scale. The Department of Internal Affairs and the CMEA ceased to exist.

    In the summer of 1980, workers began to protest in Poland, the reason for which was another price increase. Gradually, they covered the cities of the northern coast of the country. In Gdansk, on the basis of an interfactory strike committee, the trade union association "Solidarity" was formed.

    Under the banner of Solidarity

    Its participants presented "21 demands" to the authorities. This document contained both economic and political demands, including: to recognize free trade unions independent of the state and the right of workers to strike, to stop persecution for their beliefs, to expand the access of public and religious organizations to the media, etc. The head of the All-Polish Commission of the trade union association "Solidarity", an electrical worker L. Walesa was elected.

    The expanding influence of the trade union association and its beginning to develop into a political movement prompted the government to introduce martial law in the country in December 1981. The activities of Solidarity were banned, its leaders were interned (subjected to house arrest). But the authorities could not eliminate the imminent crisis.

    In June 1989 parliamentary elections were held in Poland on a multi-party basis. They won "Solidarity". The new coalition government was headed by the representative of "Solidarity" T. Mazowiecki. In December 1990, L. Walesa was elected president of the country.

    Lech Walesa born in 1943 in peasant family. He graduated from the school of agricultural mechanization, began working as an electrician. In 1967, he entered the shipyard as an electrician. Lenin in Gdansk. In 1970 and 1979-1980. - member of the strike committee of the shipyard. One of the organizers and leaders of the Solidarity trade union. In December 1981 he was interned, in 1983 he returned to the shipyard as an electrician. In 1990-1995 - President of the Republic of Poland. The extraordinary political fate of L. Walesa was generated both by time and by the personal qualities of this person. Publicists noted that he was a "typical Pole", a deeply believing Catholic, a family man. At the same time, it is no coincidence that he was called the "flexible man of iron." He was distinguished not only by his pronounced abilities as a political fighter and orator, but also by his ability to choose his own path, to perform actions that neither opponents nor comrades-in-arms expected from him.

    1989-1990s: big changes

    Panorama of events

    • August 1989- The first Solidarity government in Poland was formed.
    • November - December 1989- mass demonstrations of the population and the displacement of the communist leadership in the GDR, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Bulgaria.
    • By June 1990 as a result of multi-party elections in all countries of Eastern Europe (except Albania), new governments and leaders came to power.
    • March - April 1991- The first parliamentary elections on a multi-party basis in Albania, since June a coalition government has been in power.

    In less than two years, power has changed in eight Eastern European countries. Why did it happen so? This question can be asked for each country separately. One might also ask: why did this happen in all countries at almost the same time?

    Let's consider specific situations.

    German Democratic Republic

    Dates and events

    1989

    • October- massive anti-government demonstrations in different cities, their dispersal, arrests of participants, the rise of a social movement for the renewal of the existing system.
    • November 9- The Berlin Wall fell.
    • By the end of November more than 100 political parties and social movements emerged in the country.
    • the 1st of December- Article 1 of the Constitution of the GDR (on leadership Socialist Unity Party of Germany).
    • December- the mass exit of SED members from the party, by January 1990, out of the previous 2.3 million, 1.1 million people remained in the party.
    • December 10-11 and 16-17- Extraordinary Congress of the SED, its transformation into the Party of Democratic Socialism.


    Fall of the Berlin Wall

    1990

    • March- parliamentary elections, the victory of the conservative bloc "Alliance for Germany" led by the Christian Democratic Union.
    • April- A “grand coalition” government was formed, half of the posts in which were occupied by representatives of the CDU.
    • July 1- the agreement between the GDR and the FRG on economic, monetary and social union came into force.
    • October 3 The German Unification Treaty entered into force.

    Czechoslovakia

    Events named afterwards « velvet revolution» , began on November 17, 1989. On this day, students organized a demonstration in Prague in connection with the 50th anniversary of the anti-Nazi speech of Czech students during the years of German occupation. During the demonstration, demands were made for the democratization of society and the resignation of the government. Law enforcement forces dispersed the demonstration, detained some of the participants, and several people were injured.


    November 19 a protest demonstration took place in Prague with anti-government slogans, calls for a strike. On the same day, the Civil Forum was established - social movement, which put forward demands to remove a number of leaders of the country from their posts, and the Socialist Party (dissolved in 1948) was also restored. Supporting the public outcry, Prague theatres, including the National Theatre, have canceled performances.

    20 November in Prague, a 150,000-strong demonstration took place under the slogan “End of the rule of one party!”, demonstrations began in various cities of the Czech Republic and Slovakia.

    The government had to enter into negotiations with representatives of the Civil Forum. Parliament repealed articles of the constitution on the leading role of the Communist Party in society and the defining role of Marxism-Leninism in upbringing and education. On December 10, a coalition government was created, which included the Communists, representatives of the Civil Forum, the Socialist and People's Parties. Some time later, A. Dubcek became the chairman of the Federal Assembly (parliament). V. Havel was elected President of the country.


    Vaclav Havel born in 1936. Received an economic education. In the 1960s he began working in the theater and became known as a playwright and writer. Member of the "Prague Spring" in 1968. After 1969, he was deprived of the opportunity to practice his profession, worked as a laborer. Between 1970 and 1989 he was imprisoned three times for political reasons. Since November 1989 - one of the leaders of the Civil Forum. In 1989-1992 - President of the Czechoslovak Republic. Since 1993 - the first president of the newly formed Czech Republic (he held this post in 1993-2003).

    Romania

    While serious changes had already taken place in neighboring countries, in Romania on November 20-24, 1989, the XIV Congress of the Communist Party was held. Five hour report Secretary General the party of Nicolae Ceausescu about the successes achieved was under an endless standing ovation. The slogans "Ceausescu and the people!", "Ceausescu - communism!" sounded in the hall. With stormy joy, the congress greeted the announcement of the election of Ceausescu to his post for a new term.

    From publications in Romanian newspapers of that time:

    “To the imperialist forces, which are stepping up efforts to undermine and destabilize socialism, speaking of its “crisis”, we respond with deeds: the whole country has turned into a huge construction site and a flowering garden. And this is because Romanian socialism is the socialism of free labor, and not of the “market”, it does not leave the cardinal problems of development to chance and does not understand improvement, renewal, perestroika as the restoration of capitalist forms.”

    “The unanimous commitment to the decision to re-elect Comrade N. Ceausescu to the post of General Secretary of the RCP is a political vote for the continuation of the tried and tested constructive course, as well as recognition of the heroic example of a revolutionary and patriot, the leader of our party and state. Together with the entire Romanian people, writers, with a sense of full responsibility, join the proposal to re-elect Comrade N. Ceausescu to the post of head of our party.

    A month later, on December 21, at an official rally in the center of Bucharest, instead of toasts, shouts of “Down with Ceausescu!” were heard from the crowd. The actions of the army units directed against the demonstrators soon stopped. Realizing that the situation was out of control, N. Ceausescu and his wife E. Ceausescu (a well-known party leader) fled Bucharest. The next day they were arrested and put on trial by a tribunal held in strict secrecy. On December 26, 1989, the Romanian media reported on the court that sentenced the Ceausescu couple to death (they were shot 15 minutes after the verdict was announced).

    Already on December 23, Romanian television announced the creation of the Council of the National Salvation Front, which assumed full power. Ion Iliescu, once a member of the Communist Party, who was repeatedly removed from party posts in the 1970s for opposition sentiments, became the Chairman of the Council of the Federal Tax Service. In May 1990, I. Iliescu was elected president of the country.

    The overall result of the events of 1989-1990. was the fall of communist regimes in all countries of Eastern Europe. Communist parties collapsed, some of them were transformed into parties of the social democratic type. New political forces and leaders came to power.

    At a new stage

    The “new people” in power were most often liberal politicians (in Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Czech Republic). In some cases, for example in Romania, these were former members of the communist parties who had gone over to social democratic positions. The main activities of the new governments in the economic sphere provided for the transition to a market economy. Privatization (transfer to private hands) of state property began, price controls were abolished. Significantly reduced social spending, "frozen" wages. The breaking of the previously existing system was carried out in a number of cases by the most severe methods in the shortest possible time, for which it was called “shock therapy” (this option was carried out in Poland).

    By the mid-1990s, the economic and social costs of the reforms became apparent: a decline in production and the ruin of hundreds of enterprises, mass unemployment, rising prices, the stratification of society into the few rich and thousands of people living below the poverty line, etc. The governments responsible for the reforms and their consequences, began to lose the support of the population. In the elections of 1995-1996. in Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, representatives of the socialists won. Strengthened the position of the Social Democrats in the Czech Republic. In Poland, as a result of a change in public sentiment, L. Walesa, the most popular politician in the early 1990s, lost the presidential election. In 1995, the Social Democrat A. Kwasniewski became the President of the country.

    Changes in the foundations of the social system could not but affect national relations. Formerly tough centralized systems connected each state into a single whole. With their fall, the road was opened not only for national self-determination, but also for the actions of nationalist and separatist forces. In 1991 -1992 the Yugoslav state collapsed. The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia retained two of the six former Yugoslav republics - Serbia and Montenegro. independent states became Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia. However, the state demarcation was accompanied by an aggravation of ethno-national contradictions in each of the republics.

    Bosnian crisis. An intractable situation has developed in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Serbs, Croats and Muslims historically coexisted here (the concept of “Muslims” in Bosnia is considered as a definition of nationality, although we are talking about the Slavic population that converted to Islam after the Turkish conquest in the 14th century). Ethnic differences were supplemented by religious ones: in addition to the division into Christians and Muslims, the Serbs belonged to the Orthodox Church, and the Croats belonged to the Catholic Church. In a single Serbo-Croatian language, there were two alphabets - Cyrillic (among the Serbs) and Latin (among the Croats).

    Throughout the 20th century strong central authority in the Yugoslav kingdom, and then in the federal socialist state, kept national contradictions in check. In the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which broke away from Yugoslavia, they manifested themselves with particular severity. The Serbs, who made up half of the population of Bosnia, refused to recognize secession from the Yugoslav federation, and then proclaimed the Serbian Republic in Bosnia. In 1992-1994 flared up armed conflict between Serbs, Muslims and Croats. It led to numerous casualties not only among those who fought, but also among the civilian population. In the camps for prisoners, in settlements, people were killed. Thousands of residents left their villages and cities and became refugees. To contain the internecine struggle, UN peacekeeping troops were sent to Bosnia. By the mid-1990s, military operations in Bosnia were stopped by the efforts of international diplomacy.

    In 2006, Montenegro seceded from Serbia following a plebiscite. The Republic of Yugoslavia ceased to exist.

    AT Serbia after 1990, a crisis arose associated with the autonomous province of Kosovo, 90% of the population of which were Albanians (Muslims by religion). The limitation of the province's autonomy led to the self-proclamation of the "Republic of Kosovo". An armed conflict broke out. At the end of the 1990s, with international mediation, a negotiation process began between the leadership of Serbia and the leaders of the Kosovo Albanians. In an effort to put pressure on Serbian President S. Milosevic, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization - NATO intervened in the conflict. In March 1999, NATO troops began bombing the territory of Yugoslavia. The crisis has grown to a European scale.

    The peoples have chosen a different way of settling national problems Czechoslovakia. In 1992, as a result of a referendum, a decision was made to divide the country. The division procedure was thoroughly discussed and prepared, for which the publicists called this event "a divorce with a human face." On January 1, 1993, two new states appeared on the world map - the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic.


    The changes that took place in the Eastern European countries had significant foreign policy consequences. In the early 1990s, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance and the Warsaw Pact ceased to exist. In 1991, from Hungary, East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia were withdrawn Soviet troops. The economic and military-political organizations of Western European countries, primarily the European Union and NATO, have become the center of gravity for the countries of the region. In 1999 Poland, Hungary and the Czech Republic joined NATO, and in 2004 another 7 states (Bulgaria, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia) joined NATO. In the same 2004, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and the Czech Republic became EU members, and in 2007 - Romania and Bulgaria.

    At the beginning of the XXI century. in most countries of Central and Eastern Europe (as the region began to be called), left and right governments and state leaders were replaced in power. So, in the Czech Republic, the center-left government was supposed to cooperate with President W. Klaus, who occupies the right positions (elected in 2003), in Poland, the leftist politician A. Kwasniewski was replaced as president of the country by the representative of the right forces L. Kaczynski (2005-2010). It is noteworthy that both the “left” and “right” governments, one way or another, solved the general tasks of accelerating the economic development of countries, bringing their political and political economic systems in line with European standards, settlement of social problems.

    References:
    Aleksashkina L. N. / General History. XX - the beginning of the XXI century.

    Topic № 2.3 Countries of Central and Eastern Europe in the late 20th early 21st century.

    Eastern Europe in the second half of the 20th century

    Most of the countries of modern Eastern Europe - Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary - appeared on the political map of the world after the First World War. These were mainly agrarian and agrarian-industrial states, moreover, they had territorial claims against each other. In the interwar period, they became hostages of the relations between the great powers, a "bargaining chip" in their confrontation. Ultimately, they became dependent on Nazi Germany.

    The subordinate, dependent nature of the position of the states of Eastern Europe did not change after the Second World War.

    Eastern Europe in the orbit of influence of the USSR

    After the defeat of fascism, coalition governments came to power in almost all Eastern European countries. They were represented by anti-fascist parties - communists, social democrats, liberals. The first transformations were of a general democratic nature and were aimed at eradicating the remnants of fascism, restoring the destroyed
    economy war. Agrarian reforms were carried out, aimed at the elimination of landownership. Part of the land was transferred to the poorest peasants, part was transferred to the state, which created large farms.

    With the aggravation of contradictions between the USSR, the USA and Great Britain and the beginning of the Cold War, polarization of political forces took place in the countries of Eastern Europe. In 1947-1948. all who did not share communist views were ousted from governments.

    The transition of power to the communists took place peacefully, without a civil war. A number of circumstances contributed to this. On the territory of most Eastern European countries were Soviet troops. The authority of the communists, won by them during the years of the struggle against fascism, was quite high. They established close cooperation with other left parties, in a number of countries they managed to unite with the Social Democrats. The electoral blocs created by the communists received from 80 to 90% of the votes in the elections (including in Albania and Yugoslavia, on the territory of which there were no USSR troops). The anti-communist parties and their leaders had no opportunity to challenge the results of these elections. In 1947, the King of Romania, Mihai, abdicated, in 1948, the President of Czechoslovakia, Eduard Benes, was forced to resign. He was replaced by Klement Gottwald, leader of the Communist Party.

    The pro-Soviet regimes in Eastern European countries were called "people's democratic". Many of them retained the remnants of a multi-party system. Political parties in Poland, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, which recognized the leading role of the communists, were not dissolved, their representatives were given seats in parliaments and governments.


    The Soviet path of development was taken as the basis for the transformation model. By the beginning of the 1950s. banks and most of the industry passed into the ownership of the state. Small business, and even then on an extremely limited scale, survived only in the service sector. Everywhere (except Poland and Yugoslavia) the socialization of agriculture was carried out. In those Eastern European countries where industry was poorly developed, the most important task was to carry out industrialization, primarily the development of energy, mining and heavy industry.

    Using the experience of the USSR, cultural revolution- Illiteracy was eliminated, universal free secondary education was introduced, higher educational institutions were created. The system of social protection (medical, pension provision) was developed.

    The USSR provided great assistance to the states of Eastern Europe with food, equipment for plants and factories. This has led to tangible economic successes. By 1950, the volume of GDP production in the countries of Eastern Europe, both in absolute terms and per capita, had doubled compared to 1938. By this time, most of the countries of Western Europe had only restored the pre-war level of development.

    The dependence of the Eastern European countries on the USSR increased after the Information Bureau of the Communist and Workers' Parties (Informburo or Kominform) was created in 1947. It included the ruling parties of the countries of Eastern Europe, as well as the communist parties of France and Italy. They were managed centrally. In resolving any issues, the position of the USSR played a decisive role. I.V. Stalin was very negative about any manifestations of independence on the part of the ruling parties of the Eastern European countries. He was extremely dissatisfied with the intention of the leaders of Bulgaria and Yugoslavia - Georgy Dimitrov and Josip Broz Tito to conclude a Treaty of Friendship and Mutual Assistance. It was supposed to include a clause on counteracting "any aggression, no matter from which side it comes." Dimitrov and Tito came up with a plan to create a confederation of Eastern European countries. The Soviet leadership saw this as a threat to its influence on the countries liberated from fascism.

    In response, the USSR severed relations with Yugoslavia. The Information Bureau called on the Yugoslav communists to overthrow the Tito regime. Transformations in Yugoslavia proceeded in the same way as in neighboring countries. The economy was controlled by the state, all power belonged to the communist party. Nevertheless, the regime of I. Tito, right up to the death of Stalin, was called fascist.

    In 1948-1949. a wave of massacres swept through the countries of Eastern Europe over everyone who was suspected of sympathizing with the ideas of Tito. At the same time, as earlier in the USSR, representatives of independent-minded intelligentsia, communists, who did not please their leaders in any way, were classified as “enemies of the people”. In Bulgaria, after the death of G. Dimitrov, a hostile attitude towards Yugoslavia also took root. AT socialist countries all dissent was eradicated.

    After the end of hostilities, all the countries of Eastern Europe began to very actively return to peaceful tracks: economic reforms, during which, all the property of the Nazis was confiscated, legal acts were issued, some transformations took place in the political system.

    Eastern Europe in the post-war period

    The fact that mainly the Red Army participated in the liberation of the Eastern European states, the communists consolidated their positions in the government of most countries, which determined the further paths of development. However, after the death of Joseph Stalin, in many states, the rejection of leftist forces intensified. The first states that refused to build world socialism were the GDR, Poland and Hungary.

    However, totalitarian socialism was not thoroughly liquidated, but only acquired a certain liberal character: in Poland, after mass protests, private property and granted the right to engage in small business.

    Strengthening totalitarianism

    Despite the democratic gestures on the part of the communists, in many Eastern European states a protest of the population against the socialist regime was brewing. In 1968, the people of Czechoslovakia experienced a kind of renaissance for six months: with the support of opposition forces, communist party in this state was on the verge of collapse.

    However, in August of the same year, Soviet armed forces were introduced into the country, which, after several fierce battles, completely eliminated all centers of democracy in the republic.

    The "Prague Spring" became an excuse for Eastern European communists to tighten totalitarian socialism. All rights and freedoms that were previously granted to the people were eliminated. Violent persecution of dissidents began.

    Nicolae Ceausescu came to power in Romania, whose reign was compared by contemporaries with the Stalinist regime. In the Eastern European states, the Soviet model of building socialism was widely used - labor camps were created, freedom of conscience of religions was completely abolished, and the personality cult of the leader was in effect.

    By the end of the 70s, the states of Eastern Europe were on the verge of revolution: the economy was irreversibly collapsing, state budgets were dependent solely on loans from the USSR, the USA and Western European states. Despite this, the communists were in no hurry to carry out either economic or social reforms, continuing to "feed" the population with the idea of ​​a proletarian revolution.

    The collapse of socialism

    The first challenge to the communist authorities in Eastern Europe was made in the early 1980s. The center of freedom was the state, which initially began the political division of the continent - Germany. Residents of the GDR, despite the bans, increasingly traveled to the territory of the capitalist FRG. Contrasts in the economic situation of the people caused violent protests from the population of both countries.

    In 1980, a trade union movement was created in Poland, which was led by opposition forces. The resistance of the official authorities could not stop the growth of the number of this organization, which by the end of the year had become approximately 12 million of the country's able-bodied population. Busy with the Afghan adventure Soviet government did not pay due attention to the protection of the communist Eastern European governments.

    The end of democratic reforms in Eastern Europe was the start of perestroika in the USSR. The communists, deprived of the support of the Soviet Union, surrendered their positions to the democrats without a fight. After the fall of the Berlin Wall, the life of Eastern Europe came new stage, in a short time the states were able to "catch up" in their political and economic development Western Europe.