Astrology of love and horoscopes 

overview thematic maps of russia, ussr. Geological maps and sections

special kind geological maps are sets of State geological maps at a scale of 1:200000 (Gosgeolkarta-200), which are compiled and published in a series of sheets according to common legends. In addition to the actual geological maps, each set includes their derivatives and special maps and diagrams: regularities in the distribution of minerals; Quaternary formations; tectonic; geomorphological; forecast of minerals; hydrogeological; ecological and geological conditions, etc.

Currently, in Russia, the compilation of geological maps is managed by the Federal Agency for Subsoil Use of the Russian Federation (RosNedra) through its regional divisions and industry research institutes. The quality control of geological maps is carried out by the Scientific Editorial Council (NRS) for geological mapping of the territory of the Rosnedra Ministry of Natural Resources at the All-Russian Geological Institute (VSEGEI). Abroad, state geological services and private geological companies are engaged in compiling geological maps. The International Geological Congress has a Commission on the Geological Map of the World.

The first geological map of the entire territory of Russia as part of the USSR at a scale of 1:5,000,000 was published in 1937, at a scale of 1:2,500,000 - in 1940 (3rd edition - 1965). In 1964, the compilation of all sheets of the State Geological Map at a scale of 1: 1,000,000 was completed, by the beginning of the 1980s. - 1st edition of the geological map at a scale of 1:200,000 of all economically developed regions. At the end of the XX century. the development of sets of State geological maps of the 2nd edition began. In Russia, geological maps of the continents and the whole world are also compiled; a geological globe was created on a scale of 1:15 000000 (1975), an electronic "Geodynamic Globe" (in the Vernadsky Geological Museum of the Russian Academy of Sciences). Modern geological cartography tends to compile geological maps of diverse content, not only on land and shelf, but also on the bottom of the oceans. There is experience in compiling "geological" maps of the Moon, Mars, Venus and other celestial bodies.

By scale, geological maps are divided into 5 groups:

  • 1) review(1:2,500,000 and smaller) - compiled within arbitrary boundaries into large regions: country, continent, etc.;
  • 2) small scale(1:1000 000) - belong to the category of state, compiled by sheet on topographic tablets 6x4 ° in size;
  • 3) medium scale ( 1:200,000) - belong to the category of state, are compiled by sheets on standard tablets of size Gx40 ";
  • 4) large scale(1:50000) - compiled by sheets or within arbitrary boundaries for areas that are promising for different kinds mineral;
  • 5) detailed(1:10,000 and larger) - compiled in arbitrary boundaries for individual ore objects.

Special maps of geological content are compiled on the basis of geological maps proper, but require special surveys:

  • maps of quaternary formations, which show the age, composition, genetic type and thickness of the cover of Quaternary deposits;
  • geochemical maps reflect spatial distribution chemical elements, zones of their anomalous concentrations, etc.;
  • geophysical maps demonstrate the structure of gravitational, magnetic and other fields;
  • on the ecological and geological maps areas of soil and water pollution, areas with unstable landscape, dangerous man-made and other objects are noted;
  • on the hydrogeological maps show the distribution of aquifers and aquifers, types groundwater and them chemical characteristics, drainage basins and unloading areas, etc.;
  • geotechnical, geocryological and etc.

Derived Geological Content Maps are compiled on the basis of actual geological and special maps in an office way and reflect a higher level of generalization and interpretation of the initial data:

  • placement pattern maps and mineral forecast contain information about minerals and ore formations;
  • tectonic maps show the structure of the area - the morphology of folds, types of faults, the age of tectonic deformations, etc.;
  • formational, facies, lithological, petrographic maps display composition rocks and its changes in area;
  • geomorphological maps reflect the nature of the processes that form the relief, as well as determine its development and the relationship of modern deposits with them.

Most high level generalizations of the initial data correspond geodynamic, paleotectonic, metallogenic and other maps that reveal the most general structural patterns and the history of the development of regions, the confinement of minerals to large structural elements and stages of development earth's crust.

There is always an element of elegance in a well-made geologic map, since its compilation is not only a science, but to a large extent an art. As the remarkable geologist M.M. Moskvin: "Correct geological map

always beautiful! This does not mean, however, that a beautiful card is always correct, but an ugly card is definitely wrong! Since the aesthetic component in geological maps is important and even mandatory, the science of their compilation cannot be considered an "exact science" or only a science. At the same time, from the point of view of cartography, the compilation of geological maps is a very precise science, since it imposes very strict requirements precisely on the accuracy of drawing geological boundaries, smoothness of lines, generalization methods, etc. These requirements depend on the scale of the maps.

GEOLOGICAL MAPS (a. geological maps; n. geologische Karten; f. cartes geologiques; and. mapas geologicas) - maps that display geological structure territory or any of its specific features. Compiled on a geographical or topographical basis, divided by scale into overview (1:2,500,000 and smaller) and regional, including small-scale (1:1500000 - 1:500000), medium-scale (1:200000 - 1:100000), large-scale (1:50000 - 1:25000) and detailed (1:10000 and larger).

Actually geological maps - a cartographic result; serve as the basis for all types of geological studies of the area, identifying patterns of placement and design of engineering structures and other work. The basic principles for compiling a geological map, a colorful legend and indices were adopted at the 2nd session of the International Geological Congress in 1881 on the proposals of the Russian delegation, with minor changes they are still used today (see map). On the geological map, certain colors and complementary alphanumeric indices highlight those common in the mapped territory and divided by age in accordance with the general (international) stratified. Intrusive rocks are shown with special colors and indices, which are divided according to composition and time of intrusion. For against the background of a color corresponding to age, their composition is usually shown with the help of stroke marks (speck); stand out as well. The speck is also used to show the genetic types of sediments ( , etc.) or their composition ( , etc.). Various lines indicate various geological boundaries - consonant and discontinuous, faults, etc. On the geological map, if necessary, elements of the occurrence of rocks, places of finds of fossil organic remains and sampling, location, etc. are shown. The fragmentation of subdivisions and the load of geological maps depend on the scale and purpose of the map. Medium- and large-scale geological maps, in addition to the legend, are accompanied by consolidated stratigraphic columns and geological sections of the area, reflecting its structure in depth on vertical sections. Geological maps of the pre-Quaternary formations of the region (with the cover of loose Quaternary or Cenozoic deposits removed) and folded (with the removal of overlying formations), maps of Quaternary deposits, deep geological structure (in a cut at a certain depth from the surface), paleogeological (at a certain moment of the geological past) , shelf zones of seas and oceans, ocean floor and etc.

Other types of geological maps (also using color and line symbols and indices) reveal in more detail any individual geological characteristics of the territory. To reflect the structure of a certain region, the history of its development, the type and age of the structures formed, the nature of those that formed them, paleotectonic maps are also compiled to show the structure of the region, the morphology of the folds, various types, age and the structures they create - structural, structural-geological, facies, recent tectonics, modern vertical movements of the earth's crust, etc. Information about, patterns of placement and development features reflect maps of minerals, metallogenic, bauxite, oil and gas, etc. The composition of deposits and its changes in area are displayed by lithofacies, formational, lithological, petrographic maps. The results of geophysical studies of the territory are shown on maps of gravity anomalies, boundary velocities, seismic, magnetic, petrophysical. Information important for various practical purposes contains geochemical, hydrogeological, and geothermal, engineering-geological, etc. Maps are used mainly detailed geological maps (1: 10000 and larger), which allow solving issues related to the patterns of placement, with the calculation of reserves minerals, mining and industrial and civil engineering opportunities.

A special type is the state geological maps at scales of 1:1000,000, 1:200,000 and 1:50,000, compiled sheet by sheet in single projections for the entire territory, according to the requirements regulated by special instructions. When compiling a geological map, data from the geological interpretation of aerial photographs and satellite images and data obtained using other remote methods are involved. This allows you to speed up the process of compiling geological maps and increase their objectivity and accuracy.

In the USSR, he manages the compilation of geological maps through VSEGEI and the research and production association "Airgeology". VSEGEI has a Coordinating and Methodological Council for Geological Cartography and a Scientific Editorial Council that controls the quality of maps and their compliance with existing requirements. Geological maps are also drawn up in other departments and institutes of the Academy of Sciences of the CCCP and the Union republics.

The first geological map of the entire territory of the CCCP on a scale of 1:5,000,000 was published in 1937, and on a scale of 1:2,500,000 in 1940 (3rd ed., 1965). In 1964, the publication of all sheets of the State Geological Map of the CCCP at a scale of 1:1,000,000 was completed, by the beginning of the 80s. — compilation of a geological map on a scale of 1:200,000 of all economically developed regions (85% of the country's territory). The CCCP also draws up geological maps of the continents and the whole world; the first Geological Globe was created on a scale of 1:15,000,000 (1975). There is the first experience of compiling geological maps of the Moon, Mapca, some satellites of Jupiter, and individual parts of Mercury.

Abroad, the compilation of geological maps is mainly carried out by state geological services, as well as other geological organizations, oil, mining and other companies. the international cooperation: compilation of geological maps by national author groups according to a single legend. Under the leadership of the Commission for the Geological Map of the World at the International Geological Congress, international maps of Europe were compiled and published - geological (1:1500000), tectonic, metallogenic, metamorphic, iron ore deposits, coal deposits (1:2500000). The publication of the Geological Atlas of the World (1:10000000) is nearing completion.

Modern geological cartography is characterized by a tendency to compile geological maps of diverse content not only on land and shelf, but also on the bottom of the oceans, to publish interconnected and complementary sets of maps for the same area, to maximize the use of space and high-altitude survey materials, showing the deep structure of the earth's crust.

List of maps
1. Conventions
2. Map of tectonic zoning of the Timan-Pechora sedimentary basin, scale 1: 2500000
3. Schematic structural-tectonic map of the basement surface, scale 1: 2500000
Fig. 4. Structural map of the roof of the Ordovician-Silurian-Lower Devonian deposits of different ages, scale 1: 2500000
Fig. 5. Structural map of the base of the Domanic horizon of the Frasnian stage of the Upper Devonian, scale 1: 2500000
Fig. 6. Structural map of the base of the Visean stage of the Lower Carboniferous, scale 1: 2500000
Fig. 7. Structural map of the top of carbonate deposits of the Lower Permian-Carboniferous, scale 1: 2500000
Fig. 8. Structural map of the base of the Triassic deposits, scale 1: 2500000
9. Schematic map of the composition of the foundation, scale 1: 2500000
10. Map of lithofacies of the Lower Ordovician, scale 1: 2500000
11. Map of lithofacies of the Middle-Upper Ordovician, scale 1:2500000
12. Map of lithofacies of the Lower Silurian, scale 1: 2500000
13. Map of lithofacies of the Upper Silurian, scale 1: 2500000
14. Map of lithofacies of the Lower Devonian, scale 1: 2500000
15. Map of lithofacies of the Koiven-Biya horizons of the Eifelian stage of the Middle Devonian, scale 1: 2500000
16. Map of lithofacies of the Kedrovsky-Omrinsky-Kolvinsky horizons of the Eifelian stage of the Middle Devonian, scale 1: 2500000
Fig. 17. Map of lithofacies of the Old Oskol-Yaranian horizons of the Givetian-Franian stages of the Middle-Upper Devonian, scale 1:2500000
Fig. 18. Map of lithofacies of the Dzher horizon of the Frasnian stage of the Upper Devonian, scale 1: 2500000
19. Map of lithofacies of the Timan horizon of the Frasnian stage of the Upper Devonian, scale 1: 2500000
20. Map of lithofacies of the Sargaev horizon of the Frasnian stage of the Upper Devonian, scale 1: 2500000
21. Map of lithofacies of the Domanic horizon of the Frasnian stage of the Upper Devonian, scale 1: 2500000
22. Map of lithofacies of the Upper Frasnian substage of the Upper Devonian, scale 1: 2500000
23. Map of lithofacies of the Lower Zadonsk subhorizon of the Famennian stage of the Upper Devonian, scale 1: 2500000
24. Map of lithofacies of the Upper Zadonsk subhorizon of the Ust-Pechora horizon of the Famennian stage of the Upper Devonian, scale 1: 2500000
25. Map of lithofacies of the Dzhebol superhorizon of the Famennian stage of the Upper Devonian, scale 1: 2500000
26. Map of lithofacies of the Tournaisian stage of the Lower Carboniferous, scale 1:2500000
27. Map of lithofacies of the Kozhim superhorizon of the Visean stage of the Lower Carboniferous, scale 1: 2500000
28. Map of lithofacies of the Oka superhorizon of the Visean stage of the Lower Carboniferous, scale 1: 2500000
29. Map of lithofacies of the Serpukhovian stage of the Lower Carboniferous, scale 1:2500000
30. Map of lithofacies of the Middle Carboniferous, scale 1: 2500000
31. Map of lithofacies of the Upper Carboniferous, scale 1: 2500000
31. Map of lithofacies of the Assel-Sakmarian stages of the Lower Permian, scale 1: 2500000
33. Map of lithofacies of the Artinsk stage of the Lower Permian, scale 1:2500000
34. Map of lithofacies of the Kungur stage of the Lower Permian, scale 1: 2500000
35. Map of lithofacies of the Ufimian stage of the Upper Permian, scale 1:2500000
36. Map of lithofacies of the Kazan-Tatar stages of the Upper Permian, scale 1: 2500000
37. Map of lithofacies of the Lower Charkabozh subformation of the Lower Triassic, scale 1: 2500000
38. Map of lithofacies of the Upper Charkabozh subformation of the Lower Triassic, scale 1:2500000
39. Map of lithofacies of the Kharaley Formation of the Lower Triassic, scale 1: 2500000
40. Map of lithofacies of the Anguran Formation of the Middle Triassic, scale 1: 2500000
41. Map of lithofacies of the Naryan-Mar Formation and its analogues of the Middle-Upper Triassic, scale 1: 2500000
42. Map of lithofacies of the Lower-Middle Jurassic, scale 1:2500000
43. Map of lithofacies of the Callovian stage of the Middle Jurassic, scale 1: 2500000
44. Map of lithofacies of the Oxfordian-Kimmeridgian stages of the Upper Jurassic, scale 1: 2500000
45. Map of lithofacies of the Volgian stage of the Upper Jurassic, scale 1: 2500000
46. ​​Map of lithofacies of the Lower Cretaceous Neocomian, scale 1: 2500000
47. Map of lithofacies of the Aptian-Albian stages of the Lower Cretaceous, scale 1:2500000
48. Paleogeological map to the beginning of the Middle Devonian, scale 1:2500000
49. Paleogeological map to the beginning of the Dzher time, scale 1:2500000
50. Paleogeological map to the beginning of the Visean age, scale 1:2500000
51. Paleogeological map to the beginning Permian, scale 1: 2500000
52. Paleogeological map to the beginning Triassic period, scale 1: 2500000
53. Paleogeological map to the beginning jurassic, scale 1: 2500000
54. Schematic map of manifestations of magmatism, scale 1: 2500000
Fig. 55. Correlation scheme of deposits of the sedimentary cover of the northern part of the TPSB
56. Correlation scheme of deposits of the sedimentary cover of the southern part of the TPSB
57. Geological and geophysical section along profile 15-RS, across the northern part of the TPSB Sosyanskaya-Dzelyadevskaya-Shapkinskaya- Kharyaginskaya-Yaneityvisovskaya-Osoveiskaya-Nyadeyuskaya-V.Saremboiskaya-Labogeiskaya area), scales: mountains. 1:1000000, vert. 1:200000
58. Geological and geophysical section along the line of profiles 22-RS, XXNF, across the southern part of the TPSB (Vychegodsky trough-B. Porogi-Koin-Northern Chibyu-Zap. Tebuk-S. Savinobor-Yugid Vuktyl), scales: mountains. 1:1000000, vert. 1:200000
59. Geological and geophysical section along the line of profile 12-RS, (Varknavtskaya-Khosedayuskaya-Ust-Lemvinskaya area), scales: mountains. 1:1000000, vert. 1:200000

Geological map- a map showing the geological structure of a certain section of the earth's crust. The geological map shows the distribution of earth's surface, and sometimes at a certain depth of various geological bodies, rock properties and other data. It is impossible to put all the geological information on one sheet of the map - such a map will be hopelessly overloaded, therefore, for a single territory, depending on the need and available information, many maps of various contents can be compiled.

Readers should be warned against the erroneous opinion that for any point in our country there are all geological maps. This is far from true. If any territory is of national economic interest, dozens of large-scale geological maps of various content could be built for it; it will be characterized only by maps of small scales.

Geological maps are compiled on a topographic basis and have standard scales, for example, 1: 10 OOO OOO, 1: 500 OOO, 1: 25 OOO or 1: 1000. Geological (stratigraphic) maps are divided by scale as follows:

  • overview — ≤ 1:2 500 000;
  • small scale - 1:1,000,000 and 1:500,000;
  • medium-scale - 1:200000 and 1:100000;
  • large-scale - 1: 50,000 and 1: 25,000;
  • detailed - 1: 10000 and larger.

In the literature, one can find slightly different subdivisions of scales, which, however, does not change the essence of the matter, since the name of the scale does not change the content of the map itself.

For the entire territory of our country, only recently a geological map has been compiled at a scale of 1:1000000 (stratigraphic). Larger scale maps were not compiled for all territories. Maps of Quaternary deposits, tectonic, hydro-geological and engineering-geological maps for the entire territory are available only on a scale of 1: 2,500,000.

The field work of compiling geological maps is called a survey, and having maps over a certain area is called covering an area by a survey. Geological survey work is a complex, lengthy and costly undertaking. It must be understood that when we are talking about areas, much increases squared. To build a map at a scale of 1: 200,000, i.e. 5 times larger than the 1: 1,000,000 scale, 25 times more effort and money must be applied. Integrated survey (economically the most reasonable) is the simultaneous work on compiling a set of geological maps of a certain territory.

According to the unified state plan, surveys on a scale larger than 1:1,000,000 covered the territory of the European part of the USSR and Russian Federation. On a scale of 1: 500,000, 1: 200,000, 1: 100,000, 1: 50,000 (by part of the area), the survey was carried out comprehensively, according to sheets assigned in advance, a set of maps was accompanied by explanatory volumes.

For limited in area, but important, significant territories, separate geological surveys were carried out on a large and very large scale. These are the territories of settlements,

mineral deposits, cities, hydroelectric facilities, airports, seaports, large industrial enterprises, highways and railways, power lines, etc. For example, for the territory of Moscow, there are geological maps on a scale of 1: 25,000 and 1: 10,000. To justify the design of structures, detailed engineering and geological maps of the construction site are compiled on a scale of 1: 500 - 1: 2000.

All geological maps are accompanied by symbols. Signs are usually enclosed in small rectangles. The list of symbols is sometimes called a legend. All material used must be deciphered: the dimensions of the rectangles are 1.5 x 0.75 cm in increments of 0.5 or 0.25 cm.

On the demo chart, dimensions of 2 x 1 cm are allowed in increments of 1 cm. Signatures for conventional signs are usually started with capital letter, the dash sign is not used.

First of all, the territory is characterized by a stratigraphic geological map with removed Quaternary deposits, showing the distribution of pre-Quaternary rocks on the surface. Simplified, such a map is simply called geological, its feature is that it does not show Quaternary deposits. There are two exceptions to this rule.

  1. Alluvial (fluvial) deposits may be shown, large enough to be displayed on a map at a given scale.
  2. The southern limits of the distribution of Quaternary glacial deposits can be depicted.

The areas of distribution of sedimentary rocks are marked with an index and colored in accordance with the stratigraphic column, the colors in which were specifically assigned for this purpose. All indices are deciphered in the list of conditional designations.

What do you do if there are “not enough” colors? Suppose, on a large scale, the territory of distribution of one stratigraphic department is considered, which is divided in detail into many smaller divisions - stages, suites, horizons, etc. In this case, it is allowed to use the colors of other systems that are not present on this map.

In addition, the publication in the printing house allows you to vary the texture of the print and get many more options for the same color than with the usual use of a pencil or paint.

Igneous and metamorphic rocks are indexed by the letters of the Latin and Greek alphabet, bright colors are used. Stroke marks can indicate not only the composition, but also the age of the rocks.

An example of a geological map. Layout

Medium- and large-scale maps are accompanied by a stratigraphic column and a diagram of the structure of Quaternary deposits. The stratigraphic column reflects the age sequence, thickness and composition of rocks both exposed on the surface and uncovered by mine workings in the area under consideration. For the column, the standard tabular form from vertical graphs.

The scheme of the structure of Quaternary deposits is carried out on a larger scale compared to the map. The scheme is a summary section of alluvial deposits in the area covered by the map. Height, if possible, width, ratio, distribution of terraces, buried alluvium are depicted. A similar drawing has already been given.

A map of Quaternary deposits is built to depict geological bodies of Quaternary age, i.e. predominantly continental rocks occurring directly on the surface. They have a number of features that distinguish them from the underlying pre-Quaternary rocks.

  1. Geological bodies of Quaternary deposits are much smaller in size (in plan and in thickness, which usually amounts to several meters and does not exceed several tens of meters).
  2. Quaternary deposits are mainly of continental origin, while pre-Quaternary deposits are of marine origin. Accordingly, they differ from each other in the form of occurrence, distribution and composition of rocks. The Quaternary is predominantly sandy-clay, while the Pre-Quaternary is more diverse.
  3. Quaternary deposits are much more likely to fall into the area of ​​all kinds of human activity - they serve as soil-forming material, the foundations of structures, canals, ditches, trenches, roadbeds are laid in them, they are used as movable bulk soils.

Quaternary deposits are indicated on maps by a certain color and index. In the index, lowercase Latin letters indicate the origin of the breeds. The colors on these maps also indicate lineage and should not be confused with the colors from the stratigraphic column.

At present, when designating Quaternary deposits, the Latin letter Q is often not written, and the department of the system is denoted by large Roman numerals, for example, in the deposit index of the Moscow glaciation, g II m is obtained instead of gQ II m.

An example of a Quaternary deposits map is shown in the figure below.

Quaternary map example (layout)


Geological and lithological maps and sections are usually compiled for small areas on a large scale on a stratigraphic and topographic basis. In addition to age and origin, they show the composition of rocks. Such maps are compiled for engineering development sites, mineral exploration areas and in other similar cases.

The composition of the rocks is represented by dashed marks.

Symbols for some sedimentary rocks


It should be noted that the signs of rock composition used in different institutions, although similar, may differ from each other - you should always be careful when reading geological documentation, as it may turn out that one (or very similar) signs different breeds are marked. For example, to designate the plant composition of peat, several signs are used that are similar to the designation of varieties of igneous rocks. Recall that geologists distinguish hundreds of varieties of rocks. It seems inappropriate to have such a number of stroke marks, common list characters of this length are not compiled. It happens that different signs are used to designate one breed.

Symbols for some igneous and metamorphic rocks


Often there is a need to display on the section some additional information regarding the composition or properties of rocks. For example, it is required to show rock fissuring, sand size, thin interbedding or small interlayers of one rock within another. Graphics allows you to do this.

Some conventional signs for depicting features of the petrographic composition of rocks


If necessary, any feature of the composition and properties of rocks can be displayed on the section using the appropriate symbol.

Geomorphological maps characterize the relief of the earth's surface in terms of its age, genesis, history of development, appearance and modern relief-forming processes. For one territory, a set of geomorphological maps can be compiled. Depending on the scale, geomorphological maps change in content.

Tectonic maps can be made up as a set. They reflect the history of tectonic movements and the modern tectonic structure of the territory, show, first of all, the boundaries and age of tectonic structures of various orders. In for Depending on the scale of the map, large, medium or small tectonic structures — lithospheric plates, platforms, shields, fold belts, syneclises and anteclises, regional faults. They show the depth of the crystalline basement, the axes of the folds, the angles of dip of the layers, uplifts and deflections, the direction and speed of tectonic movements.

An example of a geological and lithological map (layout)


For example, a tectonic map of modern vertical movements of the Russian platform is given. As you can see, the area is very heterogeneous, the pattern has a mosaic character, but general pattern is as follows: in the south-west, uplift prevails, and in the north-east, lowering.

Hydrogeological maps are built on a geological basis. The main maps are the distribution of aquifers in Quaternary and pre-Quaternary deposits. Hydrogeological maps show absolute marks, direction of movement, costs, depths, chemical composition, reserves, pollution and many other characteristics of groundwater.

The content of the map varies greatly depending on the area it covers. If the territory is considered gion or group of regions, maps will show the general patterns of occurrence, distribution, composition and properties of groundwater, if the territory of a separate locality, — much attention will be paid to the observed features. Hydrogeological maps are considered in more detail in Part II "Hydrogeology".

An example of a geomorphological map (scheme of geomorphological zoning of the Baltic Shield


Engineering-geological maps. Small scale maps cover significant territories and show general patterns. An example of such a map is given in the figure below (map of the central regions affected by landslide processes).

Schematic tectonic map of modern vertical movements of the earth's crust of the Russian platform


Large-scale maps are usually built on the basis of geological-lithological maps and maps of Quaternary deposits, if necessary, using data on older rocks. For their compilation, additional exploration and survey work may be carried out.

Map of the territory affected by landslide processes in the Central Federal District


Detailed maps can provide information about the properties of soils and geological processes both modern and those that took place in the past, capable of being activated or reappearing, especially under the influence of the anthropogenic factor.

Other maps (mineral deposits, paleo-geographic, geoecological, geocryological, geophysical, soil, etc.) are compiled depending on the practical need.

An example of an engineering-geological map for drawing up a district planning scheme


Geological section - a vertical section of the earth's crust from the surface to the depth. The section shows the occurrence of geological bodies. Sections are compiled according to a geological map with a topographic basis, outcrops and clearings of rocks on slopes, boreholes, pits, other workings and geophysical data.

The horizontal scale of the section is usually taken according to the geological map. In the case of horizontal occurrence of rocks, the vertical scale of the section has to be increased by 20, 50 or even 100 times. The reason is that the dimensions of the rock layers hundreds and thousands of times more horizontally than vertically. If you do not make an increase in the vertical scale, the layers will simply not be possible to depict or consider in the drawing.

An example of a detailed engineering-geological map of a construction site


On an enlarged vertical scale, almost all the sections in the figures in this study guide(similarly in other books on geology). An increase in the vertical scale is considered unacceptable only when the rocks are folded, since in the drawing this changes the angles of inclination of the layers.