geographic zoning. Natural complexes on the earth's surface and their structure. Zoning - the main regularity of the geographical shell

The doctrine of geographical zonality. A region in a broad sense, as already noted, is a complex territorial complex, which is delimited by the specific homogeneity of various conditions, including natural and geographical ones. This means that there is a regional differentiation of nature. The processes of spatial differentiation of the natural environment are greatly influenced by such a phenomenon as zonality and azonality of the geographic envelope of the Earth. By modern ideas, geographical zonality means a regular change in physical and geographical processes, complexes, components as you move from the equator to the poles. That is, zoning on land is a successive change geographical zones from the equator to the poles and regular distribution natural areas within these belts (equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical, temperate, subarctic and subantarctic).

AT last years with the humanization and sociologization of geography, geographical zones are increasingly being called natural-anthropogenic geographical zones.

The doctrine of geographical zoning has great importance for regional studies and country studies analysis. First of all, it allows you to reveal the natural prerequisites for specialization and management. And in the conditions of modern scientific and technological revolution, with a partial weakening of the dependence of the economy on natural conditions and natural resources, its close ties with, and in many cases dependency on, nature continue to persist. Clear and persistent important role natural component in the development and functioning of society, its territorial organization. Differences in the spiritual culture of the population also cannot be understood without referring to natural regionalization. It also forms the skills of adapting a person to the territory, determines the nature of nature management.

Geographic zoning actively influences regional differences in the life of society, being an important factor in regionalization, and, consequently, regional policy.

The doctrine of geographic zoning provides a wealth of material for country and regional comparisons, and thus contributes to the clarification of country and regional specifics, its causes, which ultimately is main task regional studies and country studies. For example, the taiga zone in the form of a plume crosses the territories of Russia, Canada, and Fennoscandia. But the degree of population, economic development, living conditions in the taiga zones of the countries listed above have significant differences. In regional studies, country studies analysis, neither the question of the nature of these differences, nor the question of their sources can be ignored.

In a word, the task of regional studies and country studies analysis is not only to characterize the features of the natural component of a particular territory ( theoretical basis it is the doctrine of geographical zonality), but also the identification of the nature of the relationship between natural regionalism and the regionalization of the world according to economic, geopolitical, cultural, civilizational, etc. grounds.

Cycle method

cycle method. The basic basis of this method is the fact that almost all space-time structures are inherent in cyclicity. The method of cycles is among the young and therefore, as a rule, it is personified, that is, it bears the names of its creators. This method has an undoubted positive potential for regional studies. Identified by N.N. Kolosovsky, energy production cycles, unfolding in certain territories, made it possible to trace the regional specifics of their interaction. And it, in turn, was projected onto certain managerial decisions, i.e. to regional politics.

The concept of ethnogenesis L.N. Gumilyov, also based on the method of cycles, allows you to penetrate deeper into the essence of regional ethnic processes.

The concept of large cycles, or "long waves" N.D. Kondratiev is not only a tool for analysis state of the art world economy, but also has a great predictive charge not only in relation to the development of the world economy as a whole, but also its regional subsystems.

Models of cyclical geopolitical development (I. Wallerstein, P. Taylor, W. Thompson, J. Modelski and others) explore the process of transition from one “world order” to another, changes in the balance of power between great powers, the emergence of new conflict zones, centers of power . Thus, all these models are important in studying the processes of political regionalization of the world.

20. Program-target method. This method is a way of studying regional systems, their socio-economic component and, at the same time, an important tool of regional policy. Examples of targeted comprehensive programs in Russia are the presidential program "Economic and social development Far East and Transbaikalia for 1996–2005”, “The Federal Program for the Development of the Lower Angara Region”, adopted in 1999, etc.

The program-target method is aimed at solving complex problems and is associated with the development of long-term forecasts for the socio-economic development of the country and its regions.

The program-target method is actively used to solve the problems of regional policy in most countries of the world. In Italy, within the framework of regional policy, in 1957 the first law on "growth poles" was adopted. In accordance with it, in the south of Italy (this is a region with a strong lag behind the industrialized North), several large enterprises were built, for example, a metallurgical plant in Taranta. Growth poles are being created in France and Spain. The core of Japan's regional programs is the target setting for the development of infrastructure associated with an increase in exports.

Development and implementation of targeted programs - a characteristic feature of politics European Union. An example of such, for example, are the programs "Lingua", "Erasmus". The purpose of the first of them is to eliminate the language barrier, the second is to expand the exchange of students between the countries of the Union. In 1994–1999 within the framework of the EU, 13 targeted programs were financed - "Leader II" (social development of the countryside), "Urban" (liquidation of urban slums), "Reshar II" (coal industry), etc.

Similar information.

Geographic zoning

(physico-geographical zonality), change in natural conditions from the poles to the equator, due to latitudinal differences in the supply to the Earth's surface solar radiation. Max. energy receives a surface perpendicular to the sun's rays (equatorial latitudes); the greater the slope, the less heating (polar latitudes). Geographic zonality is one of the most universal geographical patterns that has the status of a law. In accordance with this law, the landscape envelope of the Earth is divided into natural zones, repeating in the North. and Yuzh. hemispheres (for example, zones of forests and steppes temperate zone, tropical deserts and etc.).
The idea of geographic zoning began to take shape in ancient times (Herodotus, Evdonis, Posidonius); the foundations of the doctrine of bioclimatic zoning were laid by A. Humboldt. In Russia, the greatest contribution to the doctrine of geographical zonality was made by V.V. Dokuchaev, L.S. Berg, A. A. Grigoriev, M.I. Budyko, I.P. Gerasimov, E. N. Lukasheva, A. G. Isachenko and others.

The law of geographical zoning: I R is the radiation index of dryness; circle diameters are proportional to the biological productivity of landscapes

There are latitudinal, component (climate, soil, vegetation) zonality, sedimentogenesis zonality, exogenous geomorphological processes, hydrological (river runoff characteristics zonality), hydrogeological and complex, or landscape zonality. The differentiation of the geographic envelope into natural (landscape) zones is based on the ratio of heat and moisture. Latitudinal zonality is most clearly manifested on the plains, which have an enormous extent from north to south (Russian and West Siberian Plain). Main form of manifestation of zoning in the mountains - altitudinal zonality. Features latitudinal zonality are characteristic of the surface water masses of the ocean, which is manifested in the temperature of sea water, salinity, oxygen content, bioproductivity, in the vertical and horizontal speed of movement.

Geography. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Under the editorship of prof. A. P. Gorkina. 2006 .

See what "geographic zoning" is in other dictionaries:

The main pattern of differentiation of the geographic envelope of the Earth, manifested in a consistent and definite change of geographical belts and zones, due mainly to the nature of the distribution of the radiant energy of the Sun across latitudes ... ... Ecological dictionary

The main regularity of the distribution of landscapes on the Earth's surface, which consists in the successive change of natural zones, due to the nature of the distribution of the radiant energy of the Sun over latitudes and the unevenness of moisture. Geographic ... ... Financial vocabulary

Differentiation of the earth's surface into zones according to climatic, biogeographical and other features in connection with the predominantly latitudinal distribution solar heat. Ecological encyclopedic Dictionary. Chisinau: The main edition of the Moldavian ... ... Ecological dictionary

See geographic zoning. Geography. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. Moscow: Rosman. Under the editorship of prof. A.P. Gorkina. 2006 ... Geographic Encyclopedia

The pattern of differentiation of the geographic shell of the Earth; manifests itself in a consistent and definite change of geographical belts and zones, due mainly to the nature of the distribution of the radiant energy of the Sun over latitudes (decreases ... Ecological dictionary

geographic zoning- Latitudinal differentiation of the geographic envelope of the Earth, manifested in the successive change of geographical belts, zones and subzones, due to changes in the arrival of the radiant energy of the Sun in latitudes and uneven moistening. → Fig. 367, p. ... ... Geography Dictionary

Geographic, regularity of differentiation of the geographic (landscape) shell of the Earth, manifested in a consistent and definite change of geographical belts and zones (see. Physical geographical zones), due primarily to ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

geographic zoning- geografinė zona statusas T sritis ekologija ir aplinkotyra apibrėžtis atitikmenys: engl. geographic zone vok. geografische Zonierung, f; globale Zonierung,… … Ekologijos terminų aiskinamasis žodynas

This is one of the main regularities of the geographic shell of the Earth. It manifests itself in a certain change in the natural complexes of geographical zones and all components from the poles to the equator. The basis of zoning is the different supply of heat and light to the earth's surface, depending on geographical latitude. climatic factors are reflected in all other components and, above all, soils, vegetation, and wildlife.

The largest zonal latitudinal physiographic subdivision of the geographic shell is the geographic belt. It is characterized by the generality of (temperature) conditions. The next step in the division of the earth's surface is the geographical zone. It is distinguished within the belt not only by the commonality of thermal conditions, but also by moisture, which leads to a commonality of vegetation, soils and other biological components landscape. Within the zone, subzones-transitional areas are distinguished, which are characterized by the mutual penetration of landscapes. They are formed as a result of gradual change climatic conditions. For example, in the northern taiga, tundra areas (forest tundra) are found in forest communities. Subzones within zones are distinguished by the predominance of landscapes of one type or another. So, in the steppe zone, two subzones are distinguished: the northern steppe on chernozems and. southern steppe on dark chestnut soils.

Briefly get acquainted with the geographical zones the globe in a direction from north to south.

Ice zone, or zone of arctic deserts. Ice and snow remain almost all year round. In the warmest month - August, the air temperature is close to 0°C. Spaces free from glaciers are bound by permafrost. Intense frosty weathering. Placers of coarse clastic material are widespread. Soils are underdeveloped, stony, of low thickness. Vegetation covers no more than half of the surface. Mosses, lichens, algae and a few flowering species (polar poppy, buttercup, saxifrage, etc.) grow. Of the animals found lemmings, arctic fox, polar bear. In Greenland, in the north of Canada and Taimyr - a musk ox. On the rocky coasts nesting bird colonies.

Tundra zone of the subarctic belt of the Earth. Summer is cold with frosts. The temperature of warm month(July) in the south of the zone +10°, +12°С, in the north +5°С. warm days with an average daily temperature above + 15 ° C almost never happens. There is little precipitation - 200-400 mm per year, but due to low evaporation, moisture is excessive. Almost ubiquitous permafrost; high wind speeds. The rivers are full of water in summer. The soils are thin, there are many swamps. The treeless expanses of the tundra are covered with mosses, lichens, grasses, dwarf shrubs and undersized creeping shrubs.

live in the tundra reindeer, lemmings, arctic foxes, ptarmigan; in summer there are many migratory birds - geese, ducks, waders, etc. In the tundra zone, subzones of moss-lichen, shrubs and others are distinguished.

Temperate forest zone climate zone with a predominance of coniferous and summer-green deciduous forests. Cold snowy winter and warm summer, excessive moisture; the soil is podzolic and swampy. Meadows and swamps are widely developed. AT modern science forest zone northern hemisphere divided into three independent zones: taiga, mixed forests and a zone of deciduous forests.

The taiga zone is formed by both pure coniferous and mixed species. In the dark coniferous taiga, spruce and fir predominate, in the light coniferous taiga - larch, pine, and cedar. They are mixed with narrow-leaved trees, usually birch. The soils are podzolic. Cool and warm summers, severe, long winters with snow cover. The average temperature in July in the north is +12°, in the south of the zone -20°C. January from -10°С in the west of Eurasia to -50°С in Eastern Siberia. Precipitation is 300-600 mm, but this is higher than the evaporation value (except for the south of Yakutia). Great morbidity. Forests are uniform in composition: dark spruce forests predominate on the western and eastern outskirts of the zone. In areas with a sharply continental climate (Siberia) - light larch forests.

The zone of mixed forests is a coniferous broadleaf forests on soddy-podzolic soils. The climate is warmer and less continental than in the taiga. Winter with snow cover but without severe frosts. Precipitation 500-700 mm. On the Far East The climate is monsoonal with annual precipitation up to 1000 mm. The forests of Asia and North America are richer in vegetation than in Europe.

broad-leaved forests the zone is located in the south of the temperate zone along the humid (precipitation 600-1500 mm per year) margins of the continents with their marine or moderate continental climate. This area is especially widespread in Western Europe where several species of oak, hornbeam, chestnut grow. The soils are brown forest, gray forest and sod-podzolic. In the Russian Federation, such forests in their pure form grow only in the very south-west, in the Carpathians.

Steppe zones are common in temperate and subtropical zones of both hemispheres. Currently heavily plowed. The temperate zone is characterized by a continental climate; precipitation - 240-450 mm. Average July temperatures are 21-23°C. Winter is cold with thin snow cover, strong winds. Predominantly grassy vegetation on chernozem and chestnut soils.

The transition zones between the zones are forest-tundra, forest-steppe and semi-desert. On their territory dominates, as in the main zones, their own, zonal type of landscape, which is characterized by alternation of sites, for example: forest and steppe vegetation - in the forest-steppe zone; woodlands with typical tundra - in the lowlands - for the forest-tundra subzone. Other components of nature—soil, wildlife, etc.—alternate in exactly the same way. Significant differences are also noted throughout these zones. For example, the Eastern European forest-steppe is oak, the Western Siberian is birch, the Daurian-Mongolian is birch-pine-larch. The forest-steppe is also widespread in Western Europe (Hungary) and North America.

In the temperate, subtropical and tropical zones are desert geographical zones. They are distinguished by arid and continental climate, sparse vegetation and salinity of soils. The annual amount of precipitation is less than 200 mm, and in super-arid regions it is less than 50 mm. In the formation of the relief of desert zones, the leading role belongs to weathering and wind activity (eolian landforms).

Desert vegetation is drought-resistant semi-shrubs (wormwood, saxaul) with long roots that allow you to collect moisture from large areas and lush flowering ephemera in early spring. Ephemera - plants that develop (bloom and bear fruit) in the spring, that is, in the wettest time of the year. Usually it lasts no more than 5-7 weeks.

Semishrubs are able to tolerate overheating and dehydration, even with water losses of up to 20-60%. Their leaves are small, narrow, sometimes turning into spines; in some plants, the leaves are pubescent or covered with a wax coating, in others - succulent stems or leaves (cacti, agaves, aloe). All this helps plants to tolerate drought well. Among animals, rodents and reptiles predominate everywhere.

In subtropical zones, the temperature of the coldest month is not less than -4°C. Moisture varies by season: the wettest is winter. In the western sector of the continents, there is a zone of evergreen hardwood forests and shrubs of the Mediterranean type. They grow in northern and southern hemispheres approximately between 30° and 40° latitude. In the inland parts of the northern hemisphere, deserts stretched, and in the eastern sectors of the continents with monsoon climate and heavy summer rainfall - deciduous forests (beech, oak) with an admixture of evergreen species, under which yellow and red soils are formed.

Tropical belts are located approximately between 20 and 30 ° N. and yu. sh. Their main features: arid conditions, high temperatures air on land, anticyclones dominated by trade winds, small clouds and light precipitation. Semi-deserts and deserts predominate, they are replaced in the more humid eastern outskirts of the continents by savannahs, dry forests and light forests, and in more favorable conditions, wet tropical forests. The most pronounced zone is the savanna-tropical type of vegetation, combining grassy grass cover with single trees and shrubs. Plants are adapted to tolerate prolonged drought: leaves - hard, strongly pubescent or in the form of thorns, tree bark is thick.

The trees are stunted, with gnarled trunks and an umbrella-shaped crown; some trees store moisture in their trunks (baobab, bottle tree, etc.). Of the animals, large herbivores are found - elephants, rhinos, giraffes, zebras, antelopes, etc.

We all know that the shape of the Earth is spherical. Such a structure is reflected in the distribution of solar radiation over its surface, which naturally decreases from the equator to the poles. This phenomenon is associated with the thermal regime of the Earth's surface, the consistent distribution of landscapes, and the patterns of the spatial state of the components of nature. This well-known global pattern is called geographic zoning.

The root cause of the formation of geographic zoning is considered to be the uneven distribution of solar radiation over the earth's surface and the unequal production of thermal energy per unit area. The existence of geographic zoning on the Earth's surface is not only the result of an uneven distribution of solar radiation, but also of the inherent properties of the geographic envelope. This is evidenced by the boundaries of geographical zones, which are not located at the same latitude, but vary depending on one or another feature of the geographical shell.
At the end of the 19th century, the famous Russian soil scientist V.V. Dokuchaev, having determined the unity and inseparable connection of the components of the geographic shell, noted that these components regularly change from south to north and create natural (geographical) zones.

The scientist also noticed for the first time that the formation of geographical zones is not only influenced by direct solar radiation, but also depends on the distribution of heat and moisture on the earth's surface, especially on the comparative ratio of the last two factors. This means that although natural zones are strips of landscapes successively located from the equator to the poles, their boundaries are not lines of parallels. Depending on the structure of the Earth's surface, the distribution of moisture, the proximity of sea coasts, and for other reasons, signs of zones sometimes appear inconsistently, intermittently, then appear, then temporarily disappear (for example, deserts and semi-deserts, broad-leaved forests, etc.), and sometimes landscapes are formed not according to the zonal principle, but according to the azonal factors.

Geographic zonality has a huge impact on human economic activity, on its relationship with the environment. For example, from the equator to the poles, a person spends more and more labor to ensure his life (construction, transport, production of clothing, food, etc.), his life support becomes more and more expensive.

Geographic zoning speeds up or slows down the course of the same type natural processes and phenomena. For example, woody plants in the humid tropics and in the taiga grow at different rates; or take the productivity of 1 km2 of tundra pastures, which allows you to get only 800-900 kg of meat per year, while the productivity African savannas reaches 27-30 tons. Thus, it is impossible not to take into account zonality in the use of wildlife resources.

The geographical envelope is a natural complex on a global scale. It is subdivided into natural-territorial complexes of a lower rank (mainland, ocean, country, region, etc.). The natural-territorial complexes of the local level are "tract" and "facies". The main properties of the natural complex are the unity of its components, the continuous exchange of substances between these components, and the directed energy flows inherent in this complex.

According to the law of materialistic dialectics: without knowing the whole, it is impossible to know its parts. Therefore, without knowing the laws of development global system- geographical envelope, it is impossible to fully know the properties of natural complexes of the lowest rank, and based on the study of only one of these latter, it is impossible to identify general patterns development of nature. The revealed regularities for one of the components of the natural environment or on the basis of local territorial studies cannot be extended to all components or ranks of natural-territorial complexes. Environmental problems are multifaceted, diverse, and different in nature. Modern environmental problems take on a global scale, so their resolution must be comprehensive, taking into account the state of all components of the natural environment and the complexity of the problems.

A region in a broad sense, as already noted, is a complex territorial complex, which is delimited by the specific homogeneity of various conditions, including natural and geographical ones. This means that there is a regional differentiation of nature. The processes of spatial differentiation of the natural environment are greatly influenced by such a phenomenon as zonality and azonality of the geographic envelope of the Earth.

According to modern concepts, geographical zonality means a regular change in physical and geographical processes, complexes, components as you move from the equator to the poles. That is, zonality on land is a successive change of geographical zones from the equator to the poles and a regular distribution of natural zones within these zones (equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical, temperate, subarctic and subantarctic).

The reasons for zoning are the shape of the Earth and its position relative to the Sun. The zonal distribution of radiant energy determines the zoning of temperatures, evaporation and cloudiness, salinity of the surface layers of sea water, the level of its saturation with gases, climates, weathering and soil formation processes, flora and fauna, hydro networks, etc. Thus, the most important factors determining geographic zoning are the uneven distribution of solar radiation over latitudes and climate.

Geographic zoning is most clearly expressed on the plains, since it is when moving along them from north to south that climate change is observed.

Zoning is also manifested in the World Ocean, and not only in the surface layers, but also on the ocean floor.

The doctrine of geographical (natural) zoning is perhaps the most developed in geographical science. This is due to the fact that it reflects the earliest patterns discovered by geographers, and the fact that this theory forms the core of physical geography.

It is known that the hypothesis of latitudinal thermal zones arose in ancient times. But in scientific direction it began to transform only at the end of the 18th century, when naturalists became participants in round-the-world voyages. Then, in the 19th century, a great contribution to the development of this doctrine was made by A. Humboldt, who traced the zonality of flora and fauna in connection with climate and discovered the phenomenon of altitudinal zonality.

However, the doctrine of geographical zones in its modern form originated only at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. as a result of research by V.V. Dokuchaev. He is admittedly the founder of the theory of geographic zonation.

V.V. Dokuchaev substantiated zonality as a universal law of nature, manifesting itself equally on land, sea, and mountains.

He came to understand this law from the study of soils. His classic work "Russian Chernozem" (1883) laid the foundations of genetic soil science. Considering soils as a “mirror of the landscape”, V.V. Dokuchaev, when distinguishing natural zones, named the soils characteristic of them.

Each zone, according to the scientist, is a complex formation, all components of which (climate, water, soil, soil, flora and fauna) are closely interconnected.

L.S. Berg, A.A. Grigoriev, M.I. Budyko, S.V. Kalesnik, K.K. Markov, A.G. Isachenko and others.

The total number of zones is defined in different ways. V.V. Dokuchaev singled out 7 zones. L.S. Berg in the middle of the 20th century. already 12, A.G. Isachenko - 17. In modern physical and geographical atlases of the world, their number, taking into account subzones, sometimes exceeds 50. As a rule, this is not a consequence of any errors, but the result of a passion for too detailed classifications.

Regardless of the degree of fragmentation, the following natural zones are represented in all variants: arctic and subarctic deserts, tundra, forest-tundra, temperate forests, taiga, mixed forests temperate, broadleaf forests temperate climate, steppes, semi-steppes and deserts of the temperate zone, deserts and semi-deserts of the subtropical and tropical belts, monsoon forests subtropical forest, forests of tropical and subequatorial belts, savannah, humid equatorial forests.

Natural (landscape) zones are not ideally correct areas that coincide with certain parallels (nature is not mathematics). They do not cover our planet with continuous stripes, they are often open.

In addition to zonal patterns, azonal patterns were also revealed. An example of it is altitudinal zonality (vertical zonality), which depends on the height of the land and changes in the heat balance with height.

In the mountains, a regular change in natural conditions and natural-territorial complexes is called altitudinal zonality. It is also explained mainly by climate change with height: for 1 km of ascent, the air temperature drops by 6 degrees C, air pressure and dust content decrease, cloudiness and precipitation increase. Formed one system altitudinal belts. The higher the mountains, the more fully expressed altitudinal zonality. The landscapes of altitudinal zonation are basically similar to the landscapes of natural zones on the plains and follow each other in the same order, with the same belt located the higher, the closer the mountain system is to the equator.

There is no complete similarity between natural zones on the plains and vertical zonality, since landscape complexes change vertically at a different pace than horizontally, and often in a completely different direction.

In recent years, with the humanization and sociologization of geography, geographical zones are increasingly being called natural-anthropogenic geographical zones. The doctrine of geographic zoning is of great importance for regional studies and country studies analysis. First of all, it allows you to reveal the natural prerequisites for specialization and management. And in the conditions of modern scientific and technological revolution, with a partial weakening of the dependence of the economy on natural conditions and natural resources, its close ties with nature continue to be preserved, and in some cases even dependence on it. The remaining important role of the natural component in the development and functioning of society, in its territorial organization is also obvious. Differences in the spiritual culture of the population also cannot be understood without referring to natural regionalization. It also forms the skills of adapting a person to the territory, determines the nature of nature management.

Geographic zonality actively influences regional differences in the life of society, being an important factor in zoning, and, consequently, in regional policy.

The doctrine of geographic zoning provides a wealth of material for country and regional comparisons and thus contributes to the clarification of country and regional specifics, its causes, which, ultimately, is the main task of regional studies and country studies. So, for example, the taiga zone in the form of a plume crosses the territories of Russia, Canada, Fennoscandia. But the degree of population, economic development, living conditions in the taiga zones of the countries listed above have significant differences. In regional studies, country studies analysis, neither the question of the nature of these differences, nor the question of their sources can be ignored.

In a word, the task of regional studies and country studies analysis is not only to characterize the features of the natural component of a particular territory (its theoretical basis is the doctrine of geographical zonality), but also to identify the nature of the relationship between natural regionalism and the regionalization of the world according to economic, geopolitical, cultural and civilizational nym, etc. grounds.

Cycle method

The basic basis of this method is the fact that almost all space-time structures are inherent in cyclicity. The method of cycles is among the young and therefore, as a rule, it is personified, that is, it bears the names of its creators.

Known, for example, are the methods of energy production cycles by N.N. Kolosovsky, natural resource cycles I.V. Komar (1960–1970s), natural and social cycles Yu.G. Saushkina (1970–1980s) and others.

All these cycles, identified by scientists, include certain technological chains. But at the same time, they also have a rather pronounced spatial, regional aspect, since they are deployed in a certain territory. The regional specificity of the interaction of cycles, of course, has access to regional policy, is a factor in the justification of certain management decisions. So, N.N. Kolosovsky, on the basis of his concept, carried out in the late 1940s. regionalization of the country, highlighting 30 regional production-territorial combinations and identifying possible prospects for their development.

The method of cycles was used in his concept of ethnogenesis by L.N. Gumilev. After analyzing the history of more than 40 superethnoi, he compiled a “curve” of ethnogenesis, highlighting its seven cycles (phases, stages): rise, akmatic, break, inertial, obscuration, regeneration, relic. For each cycle of ethnogenesis, scientists determined periods of development (from 150 to 300 years), character traits passionary tension of the ethnic system, on which the behavior of the ethnos depends. The concept of L.N. Gumilyov, has an undoubted methodological potential in the study of regional ethnic processes.

In socio-economic geography, economic sciences, geopolitics, the concept of N.D. Kondratiev, which is called the concept of large cycles, or "long waves".

The concept of N.D. Kondratiev is closely connected with the theory of the world economy. A lot was written about the cyclicity in its development even before N.D. Kondratiev, including K. Marx. But at the same time, small and medium cycles were meant.

An analysis of the development of the world economy was given by N.D. Kondratieff in the 1920s to the conclusion about the existence of long, approximately half a century cycles of conjuncture. Their change, according to Kondratiev, is determined by three main elements - scientific and technological progress, the introduction of new forms of organization of production and the corresponding geographical and territorial shifts.

The first big cycle is 1790–1840. - was directly associated with the industrial revolutions of that time, primarily in England. Subsequent radical changes in production laid the foundations for the second (1840–1890) and third (1890–1940) great cycles. Continuing this line, the fourth cycle (1940–1980) scientists, followers of N.D. Kondratiev, were associated with the scientific and technological revolution, and the fifth (since 1980) with the transition of the most advanced countries to the post-industrial stage of development.

Each of its cycles N.D. Kondratiev divided into two large phases, approximately 25 years each - the growth phase and the stagnation phase. Therefore, their graphic representation really resembles peculiar waves.

"Long waves", or big cycles, N.D. Kondratieff manifest themselves in one way or another in all countries, cover not only production, but also other areas human activity. Therefore, his concept is not only a tool for analyzing the current state of a particular society, country, region, but also has a great prognostic charge.

After the opening of N.D. Kondratiev of long-term cycles of development of the world economy, many researchers began, by analogy, to develop the theme of cycles of world political development.

Thus, I. Wallerstein (modern geohistorian, sociologist) defined three cycles of hegemony, each of which must pass through three phases - world war, the hegemony of one of the great powers, the decline. The first, according to Wallerstein, cycle of hegemony - the Dutch - lasted from 1618 to 1672, the second - British - from 1792 to 1896, the third - American - began in 1914.

The British scientist P. Taylor also agrees with the presence of cyclicity in the geopolitical world process. According to Taylor, the world hegemony of any one country is a rare phenomenon: it was only three times - the hegemony of the Netherlands in the 17th century, the British hegemony in the middle of the 19th century, the hegemony of the USA in the middle of the 20th century. True geopolitical hegemony, according to this scientist, does not consist in the conquest of colonial spaces, but in a global monopoly in production, trade, and the financial sector.

American political scientists J. Modelsky and W. Thompson proposed the concept of long world political cycles. They are defined by them as a sequence of rise and fall of great powers. Global economic processes, according to scientists, are associated with long political cycles - "leadership cycles". The change of such cycles periodically changes the structure of the world political structure, contributing to the promotion of new great powers and geographic zones of their influence. At the core global leadership, in accordance with the concept of long cycles of development of world geopolitics by J. Modelski and W. Thompson, are factors such as mobile military forces, an advanced economy, an open society, and a response to world problems with the help of innovations. J. Modelski and W. Thompson believe that there must be a deep internal connection between the Kondratiev cycles and the long cycles of world politics they have identified. They do not speak about the rigid determination of politics from the economy, but they pay attention to the possibility of the existence of self-organizing mechanisms of two types of world development cycles.

The logical development of the ideas of Modelski and Thompson allows us to conclude that the states playing the role of world leader also serve as the initial sources of Kondratiev waves, i.e. global political leadership is closely linked to economic leadership.

I. Wallerstein also emphasizes the connection of “their own” hegemonic cycles with the Kondratieff cycles of the world economy. In the textbook V.A. Kolosov and N.S. Mironenko considers the dual Kondratiev-Wallerstein model, analyzing which the authors draw a number of conclusions, including the fact that "geopolitical processes are inextricably, although not strictly determined, connected with world economic processes."

As can be seen, all models of the cyclicity of geopolitical development explore cyclic modifications in the geopolitical system of the world, the process of transition from one "world order" to another, changes in the balance of power between the great powers, the emergence of new zones, regions of conflicts, centers of power. Thus, all these models are important in studying the processes of world political regionalization.

Balance Methods

Balance methods are a set of mathematical calculations that make it possible to investigate, first of all, the processes of functioning and development of complex socio-economic, socio-political systems - dynamic systems, with steady flows of resources and products ("cost-output", "production-consumption", "import-export", natural resources-population density, radicalism-conservatism, etc.).

These methods occupy an intermediate position between statistical methods and modeling.

In economic sciences, socio-economic geography, the method is used to draw up balances of labor resources, fuel and energy, cash income and expenditures of the population, foreign trade, etc.

A special place in the sciences mentioned above is occupied by intersectoral and interdistrict balances. The first characterizes the production and distribution of the total social product by industry, the second characterizes the ratio of production, consumption and territorial distribution of the product by regions.

In our country, the model of intersectoral balance of production and distribution of products was substantiated in the 1930s. Leningrad scientists-economists V.V. Novozhilov and L.V. Kantorovich. In world practice, such a model is known under the name "input-output" by V. Leontiev, laureate Nobel Prize, in the past of our compatriot (in the 1920s, V. Leontiev emigrated to the USA).

Balance models are well integrated with other types of economic and mathematical models. They, according to Yu.N. Gladky and A.I. Chistobaev, built in more than 80 countries and suitable for short-term and long-term forecasting.

The balance of power is a key concept in the theory of political realism. According to realists, the most effective means of maintaining peace is precisely the balance of power, which arises not only from a collision national interests but also from the unity of cultures, mutual respect for each other's rights and agreement on basic principles. This school of international relations studies distinguishes between a simple balance of power, known as a bipolar system, and a complex one involving multiple centers of power (a multipolar or multipolar system).

HELL. Voskresensky, inclined to believe that the theories of "balance of power" and "balance of power" in principle still belong to the past, proposes to analyze the dynamics of interstate relations on the basis of a balance of interests and from the point of view of multifactorial equilibrium. That is, the concept of multifactorial equilibrium developed by him in international relations also relies on the principles of the balance method (See: Political science in Russia: intellectual search and reality, pp. 413–440).

The balance method is widely used in demography. It allows you to choose the optimal ratio between the various structures of the demographic complex. For example, the ratio between the number of labor resources and the development of labor-intensive industries, the ratio between jobs and the number of unemployed, between the presence of natural resources, necessary for normal life people (water, energy, etc.) and population density, etc.

The balance method underlies the internal policy of any state aimed at ensuring political stability and stability: they are impossible without maintaining a balance of political, confessional, national-ethnic, regional, social, etc. interests both in the country as a whole and in its individual regions.