Natural sources of conditionally clean drinking water. Water sources on earth

Fresh water.

Water is the basis of life on earth. Our body consists of 75% water, brain - 85%, blood - 94%. The calorie content of water is 0 kcal per 100 grams of product. Water that does not adversely affect human health is called drinking water or uncontaminated water. Water must comply with sanitary and epidemiological standards, it is purified using water treatment plants.

Fresh water.

The main sources of fresh water are rivers and lakes. The largest reservoir is considered to be Lake Baikal. The water of this lake is considered the cleanest. Fresh water is divided into 2 types according to the chemical composition:

OWN FRESH- Fresh water is absolutely pure in nature does not occur. It always contains a small percentage of minerals and impurities.

MINERAL WATER- drinking water, which includes trace elements and mineral salts. Because of unique properties mineral waters, it is used in the treatment of various diseases and prevention. Mineral water is able to maintain the health of the body. Mineral water is divided into 4 groups according to the content of mineral components in it. Mineral medicinal waters with a mineralization of more than 8 g/l, such water should be taken as prescribed by a doctor. Mineral medicinal table waters with mineralization from 2 to 8 g/l. They can be used as a drink, but not in large quantities. Among the popular ones are Narzan and Borjomi. Mineral table water containing 1 - 2 g/l of mineral elements. Table water with a mineralization of less than a gram.

Mineral waters can be classified based on the chemical composition: bicarbonate, chloride, sulfate, sodium, calcium, magnesium and mixed composition;

According to the gas composition and individual elements: carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, bromine, arsenic, ferruginous, silicon, radon:

Depending on the acidity of the medium: neutral, slightly acidic, acidic, strongly acidic, slightly alkaline, alkaline. "Mineral water" on the labels means that it is bottled directly from the source and has not undergone any additional processing. Drinking water is water enriched with minerals artificially.

The label on the bottle should be studied carefully, it should indicate:

• Well number or source name.
• Name and location of the manufacturer, address of the organization authorized to receive claims.
• The ionic composition of water (the content of calcium, magnesium, potassium, bicarbonates, chlorides is indicated)
• GOST or technical conditions.
• Volume, bottling date, expiration date and storage conditions.

GOST guarantees the standards for the safe presence of pollutants such as mercury, cadmium or lead, radionuclides in water are not exceeded, and there is no bacterial contamination.

"Mineral water" on the labels means that it is bottled directly from the source and has not undergone any additional processing. Artesian springs are used for water intake. They are well protected from the effects of industrial, agricultural and bacterial contamination. This water is tested for chemical composition, cleaned using industrial and household filters. Spring water is also used.

Drinking water is water enriched with minerals artificially.

OWN FRESH WATER

It is a natural solvent, it contains in its composition particles of substances surrounding it. It has indicators of acidity and hardness. Water can also have taste, smell, color and transparency. Its indicators depend on the location, the ecological situation, and the composition of the reservoir. Fresh water is considered to be water that contains no more than 0.1% salt. It can be in a variety of states: in the form of liquid, vapor, ice. The amount of oxygen dissolved in water is an important indicator of its quality. Oxygen is necessary for the life of fish, biochemical processes, aerobic bacteria. pH is related to the concentration of hydrogen ions and gives us an idea of ​​the acidity or alkaline properties of water as a solvent. pH< 7 – кислая среда; рН=7 – нейтральная среда; рН>7 - alkaline medium. Hardness is a property of water, due to the content of calcium and magnesium ions in it. There are several types of hardness - general, carbonate, non-carbonate, removable and irremovable; but most often they talk about general rigidity. The lower the hardness of the water, the less harm the liquid does to our body.

SMELL OF WATER

It is due to the presence in it of volatile odorous substances that enter the water naturally or with sewage. By nature, the smell is divided into 2 groups, describing it subjectively according to their feelings. Natural origin (from living and dead organisms, from the influence of soils, aquatic vegetation, etc.) earthy, putrefactive, moldy, peaty, herbaceous, etc. And of artificial origin - such odors usually change significantly during water treatment; petroleum products (gasoline, etc.), chlorine, acetic, phenolic, etc. Evaluate the smell on a five-point scale (zero corresponds to the complete absence of smell):

• VERY WEAK, almost imperceptible smell;
• SMELL WEAK, noticeable only if you pay attention to it;
• THE SMELL IS EASILY NOTICED and causes disapproval of the water;
• SMELL IS DIFFERENT, draws attention to itself and forces to refrain from drinking;
• THE SMELL IS STRONG enough to make the water unfit for drinking.

For drinking water, an odor of no more than 2 points is allowed.

TASTE OF WATER.

Previously, it was believed that a person is able to distinguish 4 tastes: sour, sweet, salty, bitter. Later, umami was added to them - a “meaty” taste, the taste of high-protein substances ... Reacting to light, these receptors caused sensations similar to the taste of water. Scientists called the taste of water 6 taste - Newspaper. Ru /News/. A new study, published in the journal Nature Neuroscience by experts from the California Institute of Technology, could put an end to years of controversy. It turned out that the same receptors react to water as to sour taste. The scientists plan to continue the study. First of all, they will have to find out what mechanisms underlie the work of "acidic" receptors in determining the presence of water.

WATER COLOR

Perceived color of water. Although small volumes of water appear transparent, as the sample thickness increases, the water takes on a blue tint. This is due to internal properties water for selective absorption and scattering of light. RIVER WATER - the following types are distinguished:

• TRANSPARENT (without color) - near mountain and high mountain rivers;
• YELLOW (yellow-red) - near flat and especially desert rivers;
• DARK or BLACK, which is especially characteristic of rivers flowing in the jungle;
• WHITE (white-gray) - white color is given to the water by air bubbles when the water foams on rapids and waterfalls.
• SEA WATER - the color of the sea depends on the color of the sky, the number and nature of clouds, the height of the sun above the horizon, as well as other reasons.
• ICE - ideal ice is transparent, but any inhomogeneities lead to the absorption and scattering of light and, accordingly, a change in color.

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Life on planet Earth originated from water, and it is water that continues to support this life. The human body is 80% water, it is actively used in food, light and heavy industries. Therefore, a sober assessment of available reserves is extremely important. After all, water is the source of life and technological progress. The reserves of fresh water on Earth are not endless, so ecologists are increasingly reminded of the need for rational environmental management.

Let's deal with ourselves first. Fresh water is water that contains no more than one tenth of a percent of salt. When calculating reserves, they take into account not only liquid from natural sources, but also atmospheric gas and glacier reserves.

world reserves

More than 97% of all water reserves are in the World's oceans - it is salty and unsuitable for human use without special treatment. Slightly less than 3% is fresh water. Unfortunately, not all of them are available:

• 2.15% is accounted for by glaciers, icebergs and mountain ice.
• About one thousandth of a percent is gas in the atmosphere.
• And only 0.65% of the total is available for consumption and is found in freshwater rivers and lakes.

At the moment, it is generally accepted that freshwater reservoirs are an inexhaustible source. This is true, the world's reserves cannot exhaust themselves even with irrational use - the amount of fresh water will be restored due to the planetary circulation of substances. Every year, more than half a million cubic meters of fresh water evaporate from the oceans. This liquid takes the form of clouds and then replenishes freshwater springs with precipitation.

The problem is that readily available supplies can run out. We are not talking about the fact that a person will drink all the water from rivers and lakes. The problem is the contamination of drinking water sources.

Planetary Consumption and Scarcity

Consumption is distributed as follows:

• About 70% is spent on maintaining the agricultural industry. This figure varies greatly from region to region.
• The entire world industry spends about 22%.
• Individual household consumption accounts for 8%.

Available freshwater sources cannot fully meet the needs of mankind for two reasons: uneven distribution and pollution.

Fresh water shortage is observed in the following areas:

• Arabian Peninsula. Consumption exceeds available resources by more than five times. And this calculation is only for individual household consumption. Water in the Arabian Peninsula is extremely expensive - it has to be transported by tankers, pipelines are pulled, desalination plants are built. sea ​​water.
• Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan. The level of consumption is equal to the amount of available water resources. But with the development of the economy and industry, the risk that fresh water consumption will increase, which means that fresh water resources will be depleted, is extremely high.
• Iran uses 70% of its renewable freshwater resources.
• All North Africa is also under threat - fresh water resources are used by 50%.

At first glance, it may seem that the problems are typical for dry countries. However, it is not. The greatest deficit is observed in hot countries with high population density. For the most part, these are developing countries, which means that further growth in consumption can be expected.

For example, in the Asian region, the most big square freshwater reservoirs, and Australia is the smallest on the continent. At the same time, a resident of Australia is provided with a resource more than 10 times better than a resident of the Asian region. This is due to differences in population density - 3 billion inhabitants of the Asian region versus 30 million in Australia.

nature management

The depletion of fresh water resources leads to a pronounced shortage in more than 80 countries of the world. The reduction in stocks affects the economic growth and social well-being of a number of states. The solution to the problem is the search for new sources, since a decrease in consumption will not be able to significantly change the state of affairs. The share of annual depletion of fresh water reserves in the world is, according to various estimates, from 0.1% to 0.3%. This is quite a lot if you keep in mind that not all freshwater sources are available for instant use.

Estimates show that there are countries (mainly the Middle East and North Africa) where reserves are slowly depleted, but water is not available due to pollution - more than 95% of fresh water is not suitable for drinking, this volume requires careful and technologically complex treatment.

It makes no sense to hope for a decrease in the needs of the population - consumption only grows every year. As of 2015, more than 2 billion people were restricted to some extent in consumption, food or household. According to the most optimistic forecasts, with the same consumption of fresh water reserves on Earth, there will be enough until 2025. After that, all countries with a population of more than 3 million people will find themselves in a zone of serious deficit. There are almost 50 such countries. This number shows that more than 25% of states will be in a deficit.

As for the situation in the Russian Federation, there is enough fresh water in Russia, the Russian region will be one of the last to face shortage problems. But this does not mean that the state should not take part in the international regulation of this problem.

Environmental problems

Fresh water resources on the planet are unevenly distributed - this leads to a pronounced shortage in specific regions, along with population density. It is clear that this problem cannot be solved. But you can deal with another - with the pollution of existing freshwater reservoirs. The main impurities-pollutants are salts of heavy metals, products of the oil refining industry, chemical reagents. The liquid contaminated by them requires additional expensive treatment.

Water reserves on Earth are also depleted due to human intervention in hydro circulation. Thus, the construction of dams led to a drop in the water level in such rivers as the Mississippi, Huang He, Volga, Dnieper. The construction of hydroelectric power plants provides cheap electricity, but damages freshwater sources.

The modern strategy for dealing with scarcity is desalination that gets everything greater distribution, especially in Eastern countries. This is despite the high cost and energy intensity of the process. At the moment, the technology fully justifies itself, allowing you to replenish natural reserves with artificial ones. But the process capacity may not be enough for desalination if freshwater depletion continues at the same pace.

From total water on Earth, fresh water so necessary for humanity is a little more than 2% of the total volume of the hydrosphere or 37526.3 thousand km3 (Table 1).

Table 1

World fresh water reserves

It should be noted that the main part of fresh water (about 70%) is frozen in polar ice, permafrost, on mountain peaks. Waters in rivers and lakes make up only 3%, or 0.016% of the total volume of the hydrosphere. Thus, water suitable for human use is an insignificant part of the total water supply on Earth. The problem is further complicated by the fact that the distribution of fresh water across the globe is extremely uneven. In Europe and Asia, where 70% of the world's population lives, only 39% of river flows are concentrated.

Everything on earth becomes more places where fresh water is sorely lacking. To obtain additional water, deep wells are being drilled, water conduits, aqueducts and new reservoirs are being built.

We get fresh water either from underground aquifers or from surface water bodies, i.e. from natural lakes and rivers or from man-made reservoirs. At the same time, surface water accounted for about 80%, and groundwater for about 20%. This increase in water consumption is mainly determined by the increased needs of industry and the cost of irrigation.

There are other ways to get drinking water. In some industrialized areas, desalination, or desalination, of sea water in some way, such as distillation, can even make ocean water drinkable. Where there is very little water, people collect rainwater in cisterns to use it for their needs. However, the increase in water reserves in such an expensive way is insignificant. In general, people rely entirely on fresh groundwater and surface water for drinking water.

A dam that blocks a river stops the flow of water, forming a reservoir. It allows only as much water to pass through the spillways as will allow it to flow downstream, and retains the water upstream in order to gradually release it later when the flow pressure decreases. The reservoir increases the amount of water available to humans and the environment. Without a reservoir, sustainable use of river resources is not possible, and any city can constantly take the required amount of water from the reservoir without interruption.

Thus, land reservoirs - equalizes the flow of fresh water in time; collecting large masses of it in favorable seasons, it makes water available during times of scarcity. In contrast, aquifers are natural underground reservoirs that hold water until it passes into the surface waters of lakes and rivers. Aquifers can be huge, hundreds of kilometers long; the volumes of water in such horizons are enormous.

The quality of water from surface reservoirs differs from groundwater. Surface waters always contain various suspensions, some of which settle to the bottom, while the other remains in the water. In addition, surface waters tend to contain organic compounds from urban and agricultural runoff. Therefore, if surface water is used for drinking purposes, it must undergo a complete purification cycle. Surface water treatment is necessary to remove unpleasant tastes, colors and odors, as well as to make the water clear and free from dangerous chemicals and pathogens.

Water extracted from aquifers is much cleaner, especially if the aquifer has not been exploited for a long time or has not been severely depleted. In addition, groundwater contains a large amount of dissolved mineral salts. There are no algae in groundwater because it is deprived of sunlight. Water reaches the aquifer, seeping through thick layers of soil, the content of bacteria and viruses in it is much lower than in surface waters. However, groundwater is characterized by the smell of hydrogen sulfide, resulting from the decomposition of organic matter by bacteria, which occurs in the absence of oxygen.

Ground water can be contaminated with chemicals, oil products and microorganisms that are found in significant quantities on the surface of the earth. Since the change of water in aquifers is extremely slow, often taking several centuries, various microorganisms can accumulate in it and concentrate chemical elements. Therefore, groundwater can be an extremely unreliable source of drinking water supply - the ingress of various pollutants into it can make it unsuitable for entire generations. There are two types of reservoirs: single-purpose and multi-purpose. Single-purpose reservoirs perform only one function, such as storing the state's water supply. And this function is relatively simple - to release only the amount of water that is needed. The state water reserve includes water for drinking and household needs, for industrial purposes, as well as for irrigation. Multi-purpose reservoirs can serve various purposes: storage of the state water supply, irrigation and navigation; they can also be used for recreation, for generating electricity, for flood protection and for environmental protection.

Irrigation water is designed to provide crops, its use is often seasonal, with high costs during the hot season. The suitability of rivers for navigation can be maintained by a constant discharge of water throughout the year. Electricity generation requires both constant discharges of water and high water levels. Flood protection requires that the reservoir be maintained as far as possible, but not completely filled. Conservation measures involve the release of water during its low level in order to protect aquatic and semi-aquatic plant and animal species. Such discharges of water dilute wastewater making them less toxic to biota. They also allow for the expulsion of salt water from estuaries, maintaining suitable habitat for purely estuarine species.

The processes in reservoirs used for these diverse purposes are much more complex than those in single-purpose reservoirs, as some of these purposes conflict with each other. Reservoirs can have a significant impact on the environment.

Groundwater performs a more limited set of functions than surface water. In many cities, groundwater is the only source of water supply. In rural areas, where the cost of building and expanding the water distribution system is very high, people rely on wells to meet their water needs. Groundwater is also used for irrigation; this is a common practice in agricultural areas where surface water is scarce or where irrigation canals are prohibitively expensive to build.

Groundwater performs another rather inconspicuous and still unappreciated function. They feed and often keep streams and small rivers from drying up in the summer, which can be used as a source of water.

In fact, in the world's fresh water resources, groundwater resources far exceed surface water resources (Table 1). However, the idea of ​​their unlimited reserves is misleading, because groundwater accumulates very slowly over hundreds and even thousands of years. The rate of groundwater extraction does not match the rate of inflow of new volumes of water; the filling of the aquifer occurs as a result of the same slow constant filtration that has taken place in the past. In addition, groundwater deeper than 0.8 km often contains too many salts to be used for drinking and irrigation.

The use of groundwater provides consumers with a number of benefits. First, because groundwater is sometimes located close to its point of use, savings can be made in piping and often in pumping costs. Secondly, it is possible to provide a stable output of water for a long time in both dry and wet seasons. This advantage, however, may be illusory if the aquifer is depleted by successive over pumping. Thirdly, in underdeveloped areas, groundwater is usually not subject to bacterial, viral or chemical contamination.

There are exceptions to these general quality characteristics. Groundwater can be contaminated with chemicals and micro-organisms. If pathogens get into groundwater, they can remain there for many generations, since the change of water in aquifers is extremely slow, often taking several hundred years. Other negative factor, is that, as the wells go deeper, the amount of "tasty" water begins to decrease. The water pumped from great depths is ancient water that has been dissolving mineral salts from the soil, perhaps for thousands of years. We call such waters saturated with mineral salts mineralized waters. If the salt content is high, then the water will not increase yields and may even kill the soil and plants.

How much water can be withdrawn from the aquifer, so as not to damage its reserves? As in the case of reservoirs, this amount depends on the flow of water into the aquifer. The annual withdrawal of water should not exceed the annual replenishment of the aquifer - unless water users want the volume of water in the aquifer to start to decline. In some areas, the rate of water withdrawal exceeds the rate of its replenishment, and the water level in aquifers is decreasing. It is known that in desert areas, rains only occasionally replenish the aquifer. Over the course of many years, most of the water from the surface escapes into the atmosphere as a result of evaporation. Only in particularly wet years is there enough water to replenish part of the aquifer. Because aquifers regenerate very slowly, it would seem wise to avoid any long-term use of groundwater where water is withdrawn at a rate that exceeds its rate of natural replenishment. Irrigated agriculture, which consumes groundwater much faster than it can be replenished, should be actively avoided.

Despite the fact that new sources of water are becoming scarce, it is often possible to meet the growing demand for it even now. One obvious way to do this is to encourage people to conserve water. This can be achieved, in particular, by raising water prices, because then people will look for ways to save water. You can save everywhere: at home, in industry and in agriculture.

There is another way to meet the growing demand for water without creating new sources - this is the connection and sharing of existing systems. Comprehensive use of ground and surface waters is necessary. Since surface water supplies are not as constant as groundwater supplies, i.e. the available amount of the former can change at different times, groundwater can be used to “fill” periods of water shortage. Groundwater compensates for the lack of surface water by stabilizing its supply at a higher level without extensive use of groundwater itself.

In many areas it is often possible to create water supplies without causing significant damage to nature; for this it is necessary to plan the management of water resources, which coordinate the actions of existing reservoirs. Modern engineering science has found methods for managing independent river systems in such a way that the yield of water from such systems was superior to that obtained by their independent use. This means that the reservoirs that form the system are able to sustainably produce more water if the discharge of water from them is synchronized and combined than if each of them was controlled individually. Create integrated systems of the main water sources of the region in order to prevent possible violations in the water supply. If communications were united, then areas with excess water could give part of it to those areas that did not have enough water. The connection of reservoirs into a single system and their unified management are innovations that can save sufficient water supplies for future generations without requiring new sources and new dams.

Many projects have been adopted to increase water supply, which include the construction of new dams to create water reserves and prevent floods, new canals, hydroelectric installations, purification of reservoirs and transfer of water from one area to another. One such step is the construction of small dams on rivers owned by farmers; the resulting ponds can be used as a source of water for irrigation. In areas with porous soil, pond systems can be built on private land using dams. Water, filtering through such soil, will replenish the groundwater supply under the farm. Ditches dug across the direction of flowing surface and groundwater can also be used to recharge groundwater.

A new technology, tested so far only experimentally, is the injection of compressed air into wells in order to "push" water out of the unsaturated zone down below the water table. This water, held in the upper unsaturated zone by capillary forces, usually seeps down to the aquifer very slowly.

The legislative basis for the water fund of the Republic of Kazakhstan is the Water Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan, let's consider some provisions.

Article 6. Water resources

Water resources of the Republic of Kazakhstan are reserves of surface and ground waters concentrated in water bodies that are used or can be used. Article 13. Groundwater bodies

Groundwater bodies include:

1. aquifers, horizons and rock complexes;

2. groundwater basin;

3. deposits and areas of groundwater;

4. natural outlet of groundwater on land or under water;

5. flooded subsoil areas.

Article 34 State management in the field of use and protection of the water fund, water supply and sanitation is based on the following principles:

1. state regulation and control in the field of use and protection of the water fund, water supply and sanitation;

2. sustainable water use - a combination of careful, rational and integrated use and protection of waters;

3. creating optimal conditions for water use, maintaining environmental sustainability environment and sanitary and epidemiological safety of the population;

4. basin management;

5. separating the functions of state control and management in the field of the use and protection of the water fund and the functions of the economic use of water resources.

Article 35

1. analysis and assessment of water supply to economic sectors, the state of water supply and sanitation of settlements, identification of shortcomings and determination of measures to eliminate them;

2. determination of the available volumes of water resources, their quality and the availability of rights to use them;

3. development of the main directions for improving technologies in the field of water supply, sanitation and water protection;

4. forecast and organization of measures to increase the volume of available water resources and their rational redistribution for

covering water shortages;

5. establishment of the structure of water use with the distribution of water resources according to the priority of meeting the need for water, depending on the water content of the year;

6. limiting water use and discharge of return waters based on scientifically based standards;

7. planning and compliance with environmental requirements;

8. control over the quantitative and qualitative conditions of water bodies and the regime of water use;

9. effective management of water bodies and water facilities that are in state ownership;

10. development of the market for water management services;

11. joint management with neighboring states in the field of use and protection of transboundary waters;

12. development and implementation of sectoral (sectoral) and regional programs for land reclamation;

13. ensuring the safety of water management systems and structures;

14. control over the state of water management systems and structures, as well as their compliance with the requirements of the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

Article 53

1. Production control in the field of use and protection of the water fund is carried out on the basis of the rules for the primary accounting of waters approved by the authorized body, in agreement with the authorized state body in the field of environmental protection, the authorized body in the field of sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population, the authorized state body in the region industrial safety.

2. Production control in the field of use and protection of the water fund is provided by individuals and legal entities exercising the right of special water use.

3. Production control in the field of use and protection of the water fund is carried out on the basis of water meters certified in the manner prescribed by the Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan "On technical regulation.

Article 54

1. In the field of use and protection of the water fund, the following types of state expertise are carried out:

1.1 state expertise of activities affecting the state of the water body;

1.2 state expertise of pre-project and project documentation for the construction and reconstruction, operation, conservation and liquidation of economic and other facilities that affect the state of water bodies;

1.3 state expertise of groundwater reserves and geological information on groundwater bodies;

1.4 state examination of the compliance of water management and industrial hydraulic structures with the requirements of emergency situations;

1.5 state sanitary-epidemiological and ecological expertise.

2. State expertise of activities affecting the state of a water body is carried out to assess the impact of this activity on the environment and the management and economic decisions made. State expertise of activities affecting the state of a water body is mandatory.

3. The state examination of pre-project and project documentation for the construction and reconstruction, operation, conservation and liquidation of economic and other facilities that affect the state of water bodies is carried out in order to verify its compliance with the initial data, specifications and requirements of regulatory documents approved by the authorized state body for affairs of architecture, urban planning and construction and the authorized body in the field of sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population.

4. State examination of groundwater reserves and geological information on groundwater bodies is carried out by the authorized body for the study and use of subsoil.

5. State examination of the compliance of water management and industrial hydraulic structures with the requirements of emergency situations is carried out by the authorized body in the field of emergency situations and the authorized body in the field of industrial safety.

6. State sanitary and epidemiological and environmental expertise shall be carried out by the authorized body in the field of sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population and the authorized state body in the field of environmental protection, respectively.

7. The procedure for conducting state expertise is determined by the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

Article 55. Environmental requirements for the use of water bodies and water facilities

1. Placement of enterprises and other objects (buildings, structures, their complexes, communications) affecting the state of water bodies is carried out in compliance with environmental requirements, conditions and rules, subsoil protection, sanitary and epidemiological, industrial safety, reproduction and rational use of water resources , as well as taking into account the environmental consequences of the activities of these facilities.

2. Construction, reconstruction (expansion, modernization, technical re-equipment, reprofiling), operation, conservation, liquidation (post-utilization) of objects that affect the state of water bodies are carried out in the presence of a positive conclusion of the authorized state body in the field of environmental protection, the authorized body for the study and the use of subsoil, the authorized body in the field of sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population and the authorized body in the field of industrial safety.

3. When performing construction work, measures are taken for land reclamation, reproduction and rational use water resources, improvement of territories and improvement of the environment.

Article 56. Requirements to reduce the discharge of pollutants into water bodies:

1. The use and protection of water resources are based on the rationing of pollutants at discharge points, on the cumulative rationing of the water management activities of all organizations within the corresponding basin, watercourse or site.

2. The requirements for the degree of purification and quality of discharged waters are determined by the directions of the possible intended use of the water body and are justified by calculations, and must take into account the actual state of the water body, technical and economic possibilities and the timing of achieving the planned indicators.

3. The authorized body together with the authorized body for the study and use of subsoil and the authorized state body in the field of environmental protection for the basin of each water body are required to develop target indicators of the state and criteria for water quality.

4. The timing of the phased transition to the target indicators of the state of water bodies within the basin is determined by the basin administrations and territorial bodies of the authorized body for the study and use of subsoil and the authorized state body in the field of environmental protection based on the methodology approved by the authorized body together with the authorized state body in the field of protection environment and the authorized body for the study and use of subsoil.

Article 64. Types of water use, emergence of the right to use water

1. Water use is divided into general, special, isolated, joint, primary, secondary, permanent and temporary.

2. The right of general water use for a citizen arises from the moment of his birth and cannot be alienated under any circumstances.

3. The right of special water use arises from the moment of obtaining a permit issued in the manner prescribed by the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

Chapter 16

Article 90

1. For drinking and domestic water supply, surface and underground water bodies and water facilities protected from pollution and clogging are provided, the water quality of which complies with established state standards and hygienic standards.

2. In order to provide the population with water suitable for drinking water supply, in case of natural and man-made emergencies, drinking water supply sources are reserved on the basis of underground water bodies protected from pollution and clogging. On reserved sources of water supply, a special regime of protection and control over their condition is established in accordance with the water and other legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

3. The safety of surface and ground waters for drinking and domestic water supply is determined by the authorized body in the field of sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population.

4. The assignment of a water body to sources of drinking water supply is carried out taking into account its reliability and the possibility of organizing sanitary protection zones in the manner established by the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

5. In the territory where there are no surface water bodies, but there are sufficient groundwater reserves drinking quality, local executive bodies of the region (city of republican significance, the capital), in agreement with the authorized body, the authorized body in the field of sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population, the authorized body for the study and use of subsoil, may, with appropriate justification, allow the use of these waters for purposes not related to drinking and household water supply.

6. Water supply in city districts, cities of district significance, settlements, auls (villages) of the aul (rural) district is organized by the akims of these territories.

Article 91. Centralized drinking and household water supply of the population

1. Centralized drinking and domestic water supply of the population is carried out by legal entities that have an appropriate network of water pipes.

2. Legal entities that carry out centralized drinking and domestic water supply are obliged to organize accounting for the water they take, conduct regular monitoring of the state of water in sources and water supply systems, immediately inform the local representative and executive bodies of the region (city of republican significance, the capital), the authorized body , the authorized body in the field of sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population, the authorized state body in the field of environmental protection, the authorized body for the study and use of subsoil on the deviation of water quality in sources and water supply systems from the established state standards and hygiene standards.

Article 92

1. In case of non-centralized drinking and domestic water supply of the population, individuals and legal entities have the right to take water directly from surface and underground water bodies if there is a positive conclusion of the authorized body in the field of sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population as a whole for these water bodies with its mandatory registration in local executive bodies of the region (city of republican significance, the capital) in the manner prescribed by the authorized body in the field of use and protection of the water fund. Decentralized drinking and domestic water supply of the population does not require a permit for special water use when taking water from water bodies in the amount of up to fifty cubic meters per day.

2. Water intake from surface and groundwater bodies for non-centralized drinking and household water supply of the population is carried out in accordance with the rules approved by the local representative bodies of the region (cities of republican significance, the capital), on the proposal of local executive bodies of the region (cities of republican significance, the capital ), in agreement with the authorized body and the authorized body in the field of sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population.

Article 93

1. water bodies, whose resources have natural medicinal properties, as well as favorable for therapeutic and prophylactic purposes, belong to the category of recreational and are used for the purposes of rehabilitation in accordance with the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

2. The list of water bodies for recreation purposes, upon the proposal of the authorized body in the field of healthcare, the authorized body, the authorized state body in the field of environmental protection, the authorized body for the study and use of subsoil, is approved:

2.1 of republican significance - by the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan;

2.2 of local significance - by local executive bodies of regions (cities of republican significance, capitals).

2.3. Provision for use of water facilities for health purposes is carried out in accordance with this Code and the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

Article 95

1. The use of water bodies for the needs of agriculture is carried out in the order of general and special water use.

2. Primary water users, on the basis of water use plans of secondary water users, draw up annual applications for receiving volumes of water. The authorized body, taking into account the predicted water content of the year and on the basis of applications from primary water users, establishes water use limits for them. The volumes of water supplies for secondary water users are determined by agreements concluded between primary and secondary water users, taking into account the established limits.

3. Individuals and legal entities that have water facilities for the accumulation of melt, storm and flood waters in order to use them for agricultural needs are required to have a permit from the authorized body.

4. The use of surface and underground water bodies for watering pastures is carried out in the order of special water use.

5. The use of water bodies for watering livestock is allowed outside the sanitary protection zone and in the presence of watering sites and other devices that prevent pollution and clogging of water bodies in the order of general water use.

6. Individuals running a personal subsidiary plot, engaged in horticulture and horticulture, are provided with water for irrigation in the manner of special water use in accordance with the established limits. In the absence of sufficient water resources, water for irrigation can be allocated by redistributing the limits of other water users.

7. Irrigation, drainage, leaching of saline soils and other land reclamation work should be carried out in conjunction with environmental protection measures. Monitoring and assessment of the ameliorative state of irrigated lands are carried out by specialized state institutions at the expense of budgetary funds.

The main source of fresh water is atmospheric precipitation, but two other sources can also be used for consumer needs: groundwater and surface water.

Underground springs

Approximately 37.5 million km 3, or 98% of all fresh water in liquid state falls on groundwater, and about 50% of it lies at depths of no more than 800 m. However, the volume of available groundwater is determined by the properties of aquifers and the power of pumps pumping water. Groundwater reserves in the Sahara are estimated at about 625 thousand km3. Under modern conditions, they are not replenished at the expense of surface fresh waters, but are depleted during pumping. Some of the deepest underground waters are never included in the general water cycle at all, and only in areas of active volcanism do such waters erupt in the form of steam. However, a significant amount of groundwater still penetrates the earth's surface: under the influence of gravity, these waters, moving along impermeable sloping rock layers, emerge at the foot of the slopes in the form of springs and streams. In addition, they are pumped out by pumps, and are also extracted by plant roots and then enter the atmosphere through the process of transpiration.

Fig.1. The exit of the underground source to the surface

The groundwater table represents the upper limit of available groundwater. In the presence of slopes, the groundwater table intersects with the earth's surface, and a source is formed. If groundwater is under high hydrostatic pressure, then artesian springs are formed in the places where they come to the surface. With the advent of powerful pumps and the development of modern drilling technology, the extraction of groundwater has become easier. Pumps are used to supply water to shallow wells installed in aquifers. However, in wells drilled to a great depth, to the level of pressure artesian waters, the latter rise and saturate the overlying groundwater, and sometimes come to the surface. Groundwater moves slowly, at a speed of several meters per day or even per year. They are usually found in porous pebbly or sandy horizons or relatively impermeable shale layers, and only rarely are they concentrated in underground cavities or in underground streams. For the correct choice of a well drilling site, information about the geological structure of the territory is usually required.

In some parts of the world, the growing demand for groundwater is having serious consequences. The pumping out of a large volume of groundwater, incomparably greater than their natural replenishment, leads to a shortage of moisture, and lowering the level of these waters requires large expenditures on expensive electricity used to extract them. In places where the aquifer is depleted, the earth's surface begins to subside, and the restoration of water resources in a natural way is complicated there.

In coastal areas, excessive abstraction of groundwater leads to the replacement of fresh water in the aquifer with salt water, and thus the degradation of local fresh water sources occurs. Gradual deterioration of groundwater quality as a result of salt accumulation can have even more dangerous consequences. Salt sources can be both natural (for example, the dissolution and removal of minerals from soils) and anthropogenic (fertilization or excessive watering with water with a high salt content). Rivers fed by mountain glaciers usually contain less than 1 g/l of dissolved salts, but the salinity of water in other rivers reaches 9 g/l due to the fact that they drain areas composed of salt-bearing rocks for a long distance.

The indiscriminate release or disposal of toxic chemicals causes them to seep into aquifers that provide drinking or irrigation water. In some cases, just a few years or decades are enough for harmful chemical substances got into groundwater and accumulated there in tangible quantities. However, if an aquifer was once polluted, it would take 200 to 10,000 years for it to naturally clean itself.

surface sources

Only 0.01% of the total volume of fresh water in the liquid state is concentrated in rivers and streams and 1.47% in lakes. Dams have been built on many rivers to store water and provide it continuously to consumers, as well as to prevent unwanted floods and generate electricity. The Amazon in South America, the Congo (Zaire) in Africa, the Ganges with the Brahmaputra in South Asia, the Yangtze in China, the Yenisei in Russia, and the Mississippi with the Missouri in the USA have the highest average water consumption and, consequently, the highest energy potential.

Fig.2. Freshwater Lake Baikal

Natural freshwater lakes, containing about 125 thousand km 3 of water, along with rivers and artificial reservoirs, are an important source of drinking water for people and animals. They are also used for irrigation of agricultural land, navigation, recreation, fishing and, unfortunately, for the discharge of domestic and industrial wastewater. Sometimes, due to the gradual filling with sediments or salinization, the lakes dry up, but in the process of evolution of the hydrosphere, new lakes are formed in some places.

The water level even in "healthy" lakes can decrease during the year as a result of water flow through the rivers and streams flowing from them, due to water infiltration into the ground and its evaporation. The restoration of their level usually occurs due to precipitation and the inflow of fresh water from rivers and streams flowing into them, as well as from springs. However, as a result of evaporation, salts that come with river runoff accumulate. Therefore, after millennia, some lakes can become very salty and unsuitable for many living organisms.

Springs (water)

keys, or springs,- are waters that directly emerge from the bowels of the earth to the day surface; they are distinguished from wells, artificial structures, with the help of which they either find soil water, or take over the underground movement of spring waters. The underground movement of spring waters can be expressed in extremely diverse ways: either this is a real underground river flowing along the surface of the impervious layer, then it is a barely moving stream, then a stream of water breaking out of the bowels of the earth in a fountain (griffin), then these are individual drops of water gradually accumulating in the pool key. The keys can come out not only on the surface of the earth, but also at the bottom of lakes, seas and oceans. cases last kind key outputs have long been known. Regarding lakes, it can be noted that the accumulation of some mineral sediments (lake iron ores) at the bottom of Lake Ladoga. and Finnish Hall. compels us to admit the exit at the bottom of these pools-keys, mineralized with known substances. In the Mediterranean, the Anavolo key is remarkable, in the hall. Argos, where a column of fresh water up to 15 m in diameter beats from the bottom of the sea. The same keys are known in the Gulf of Tarentum, in San Remo, between Monaco and Menton. IN Indian Ocean there is a spring rich in fresh water, beating in the middle of the sea at a distance of 200 km from the city of Chittagonta and 150 km from the nearest coast. Of course, such cases of fresh water escaping in the form of springs from the bottom of the seas and oceans are a rarer phenomenon than on land, since a significant force of escaping fresh water is needed to show up on the surface of the sea; in most cases, such jets mix with sea water and disappear for observation without a trace. But some sediments of the ocean (the presence of manganese ores) are also capable of suggesting that I can also be exposed at the bottom of the oceans. and from the presence in rocks cracks that change the direction of water movement, then initially, to get acquainted with the keys, it is necessary to analyze the question of their origin. Already by the very form of the key's exit to the day surface, one can distinguish whether it will be descending or ascending. In the first case, the direction of water movement goes down, in the second, the jet beats up, like a fountain. True, sometimes an ascending spring, meeting an obstacle to its direct exit to the day surface, for example. in the overlying aquifers, may move along the slope of the aquifers and be exposed somewhere below in the form of a descending key. In such cases, they can be mixed with each other if the immediate exit point is masked by something. In view of the opinions above, here, when meeting with I., one can introduce, as a classifying principle, the very method of their origin. In that last respect all known I. can be divided into several categories: 1) I., feeding on the water of rivers. Such a case is observed when a river flows through a valley formed by loose, easily permeable material for water. It is clear that the water of the river will penetrate into this loose rock, and if a well is laid somewhere at a certain distance from the river, then it will find river water at a certain depth. In order to be completely sure that the water found is really the water of the river, it is necessary to make a series of observations on the change in the water level in the well and in the neighboring river; if these changes are the same, then we can conclude that the water of the river was found in the well. It is best for such observations to choose the moments when the rise in the water level in the river was caused by rainfall somewhere in the upper reaches of the river. and if at that time there was an increase in the water level in the well, then you can get. firm belief that the water found by the well is river water. 2) I., originating from the concealment of rivers from the surface of the earth. For their formation, one can imagine, theoretically, a twofold possibility. A stream or a river may meet on the way of its course either a crack or loose rocks, where they will hide their waters, which may somewhere further, in lower places, again be exposed to the surface of the earth in the form of I. The first of these cases has a place where rocks are developed on the surface of the earth, broken by cracks. If such rocks are easily soluble in water, or if they are easily eroded, then the water prepares an underground bed for itself and somewhere, in lower places, is exposed in the form of I. Such cases are represented by a significant surface of the coast of Estonia, the island of Ezel, etc. . terrain. For example, you can point to the Erras stream, a tributary of the river. Isengoff, which is originally a stream abundant in water, but as it approaches Erras Manor, it gradually becomes poorer in it and, finally, one has to see a stream bed free from water, filled only in high water. At the bottom of this free bed, holes have been preserved in the limestone, with the help of which one can be convinced that there is a movement of water underground, which is again exposed to the day surface to the bank of the river. Isenhof - a mighty source. The same example is provided by the Ohtias stream on the island of Ezele, originally a rather abounding stream, which, not reaching 3 km from the sea coast, hides in a crack and is already exposed on the very coast of the sea with ample water. Carinthia is an extremely interesting country in this respect, where, thanks to numerous cracks and extensive cavities in the rocks, fluctuations in the level of surface waters are surprisingly diverse. For example, we can point to Lake Zirknicko, which is up to 8 km long and about 4 km wide; it often completely dries up, i.e., all its water goes into the holes located at its bottom. But it is only necessary for rain to fall in the neighboring mountains for the water to come out of the holes again and fill the lake with itself. Here, obviously, the bed of the lake is connected by holes with extensive underground reservoirs, in case of overflow of which the water again comes out to the surface of the earth. The same concealment of streams and rivers can be caused by their encountering significant accumulations of loose, easily permeable rocks, among which the entire supply of water can seep and in this way disappear from the surface of the earth. As an example of the last kind of key formation, one can point to some Altai keys. Here, often on the shore of a salt lake, one can find a fresh spring abundant with water, either in the shore, or sometimes near the shore, but from the bottom of the salt lake. It is easy to see that from the side where the I. are exposed, a valley opens to the lake from the mountains, to the mouth of which you have to climb along a wide wedge-shaped embankment, and only after climbing it you can see a number of individual jets heading towards the lake and getting lost in loose material, obviously inflicted by the river itself and blocking its mouth with it. Further up the valley, a real and often high-water stream is already visible. 3) I., feeding on the water of glaciers. The glacier, descending below the snow line, is influenced by a higher temperature, and its firn or ice, gradually melting, gives rise to numerous I. Such ice sometimes runs out from under the glacier in the form of real rivers; as an example of this, see pp. Rhone, Rhine, some rivers running down Elbrus, like Malka, Kuban, Rion, Baksan and friend. 4) Mountain I. have been a subject of controversy for a long time. Some scientists put them in exclusive dependence on volcanic forces, others - on special huge cavities located inside the earth, from where, under the influence of pressure, water from them is delivered to the surface of the earth. The first of these opinions was held for a long time in science, thanks to the authority of Humboldt, who observed on the top of the Tenerife peak I., which came from water vapor escaping from two peak openings; due to the rather low temperature of the air at the top of the mountain, these vapors turn into water and feed the I. The studies of Arago in the Alps have quite clearly proved that there is not a single I. on the very peaks, but there is always above them either a supply of snow, or generally significant surfaces , collecting atmospheric water in sufficient quantities to feed I. The dependence of I. on the overlying lakes is Lake Dauben in Switzerland, lying at an altitude of about 2150 m and feeding many I., leaving in the underlying valleys. If we imagine that the rock mass on which the lake lies is broken up by cracks reaching the underlying valleys and capturing the bottom or shores of the lake, then water can seep down through these cracks and feed I. There may be another case: when this massif is formed by rocks layered, among which there are rocks that are permeable to water. When such a permeable layer lies obliquely and comes into contact with the bottom or with the shores of the lake, then here too there is a full opportunity for water to seep through and feed the underlying springs. It is just as easy to explain the periodicity in the activity of mountain springs, fed by overlying lakes. Cracks or a permeable layer can come into contact with the water of the lake somewhere near its level, and in the event of a decrease in the latter, for example. from drought, the power to the underlying keys is temporarily interrupted. In the event of rain or snow on the mountains, the water level in the lake rises again and the possibility of feeding the underlying springs opens. Sometimes you can observe the exits of I. on the mountains from under the snow cover - as a direct result of the melting of snow reserves. But especially interesting are the cases when there are no reserves of snow on the mountains, but where the I. who run out at the foot of these mountains owe their food, in any case, to snow accumulations. Such a case is presented by I. of the southern coast of Crimea. The chain of the Crimean or Tauride Mountains is entirely composed of layered rocks that have an inclined position, falling from the south to the north. This position of the layers causes the groundwater to drain in the same direction. However, in the south On the Crimean coast, from the foot of the chain of mountains, rising up to 1400 m, to the seashore, one can observe numerous I. Some of them run right out of a steep cliff, with which the chain of mountains opens towards the Black Sea. Such I. sometimes appear in the form of a waterfall, as I. Uchan-su, near Yalta, which feeds the river of the same name. The temperature of different I. is different and fluctuates between 5 ° - 14 ° C. It was noted that the closer I. is exposed to the chain of mountains, the colder it is. In the same way, observations were made on the amount of water delivered by various I. at different times of the year. It was found that the higher the air temperature, the greater the amount of water given by the key, and vice versa, the lower the temperature, the less water. Both of these observations clearly show that the nutrition of I. yuzhn. the Crimean coast is due to the overlying snow reserves. However, the above-mentioned height of the chain of the Tauride Mountains is far from reaching the snow line and, indeed, if you climb to their plateau-like peak, called Yayla, then no snow reserves are observed here. Only with a close acquaintance with Yayla, one can notice failure holes in some of its places, sometimes occupied by small lakes, sometimes filled with snow. Often the depth of such pits reaches up to 40 m. During the winter, snow is stuffed into these pits by winds, and in spring, summer and autumn it gradually melts and, of course, its melting is stronger in warm time, therefore, I. give more water; for the same reason, the constant temperature of the water of I. is lower as their places of exits approach the reserves of melting snow. This conclusion is confirmed by yet another circumstance. Most of the waters of I. yuzhn. the coasts of the Crimea are hard, i.e., calcareous, even though they are sometimes exposed from clay shales. Such a content of lime in them finds an explanation for the fact that the snow reservoirs lie in limestone, from which water borrows lime. five) ascending, or beaters, keys require quite specific conditions for their formation: they require a cauldron-shaped bending of rocks and the alternation of water-resistant layers with water-permeable ones. Atmospheric water will penetrate into the exposed wings of the aquifers and accumulate at the bottom of the basin under pressure. If cracks form in the upper water-resistant layers, then water will spurt out of them. Based on the study of ascending I., artesian wells are arranged (see the corresponding article).

Mineral springs. There is no water in nature that does not contain in solution a certain amount of either various gases, or various mineral substances, or organic compounds. In rainwater, sometimes up to 0.11 g of mineral substances are found per liter of water. Such a finding becomes quite understandable if we remember that many mineral substances are carried in the air, which are easily soluble in water. Numerous chemical analyzes of the waters of various springs show that, apparently, even in the purest spring waters there is still a small amount of minerals. For example, one can point to the springs of Barege, where 0.11 g of minerals were found per liter of water, or to the waters of Plombier, where they were found to be 0.3 g. Of course, this amount varies significantly in different waters: there are spring waters containing in solution some minerals in an amount close to saturation. Determination of the amount of mineral substances dissolved in water is of great scientific interest, since it indicates which substances can be dissolved in water and transferred from one place to another. Such definitions were of particular importance when applying spectral analysis to precipitation falling from spring waters at the place of their exit to the earth's surface; such an analysis made it possible to detect very small amounts of mineral substances in solutions of various springs. By this method, it was found that most of the known mineral substances are found in the solution of spring waters; gold was even found in the water of Luesh, Gotl and Gisgubel. A higher temperature contributes to greater dissolution, and it is known that warm springs are found in nature, the waters of which in this way can be even more enriched with minerals. Fluctuations in water temperature of various springs are extremely significant: there are spring waters whose temperature is close to the melting point of snow, there are waters with a temperature exceeding the boiling point of water, and even - in an overheated state - like the water of Geysers. According to the temperature of the water, all the springs are divided into cold and warm or terms. Among the cold ones are distinguished: normal keys and hypotherms; in the former, the temperature corresponds to the average annual temperature of a given place, in the latter, it is lower. Among warm keys, local warm keys or terms and absolute terms are distinguished in the same way; the first include such springs, the water temperature of which is slightly above average annual temperature terrain, in the second - at least 30 ° C. Finding absolute terms in volcanic areas gives an explanation for their high temperature. In Italy, near volcanoes, jets of water vapor, called staffs, often break out. If such streams of water vapor meet an ordinary key, then it can be heated to a very different degree. The origin of the higher temperature of the local terms can be explained by various chemical reactions occurring inside the earth and caused by them an increase in temperature. For example, one can point to the relative ease of decomposition of sulfur pyrites, in which such a significant release of heat is detected that it may be quite sufficient to raise the temperature of the spring water. In addition to high temperature, pressure should also have a strong effect on the enhancement of dissolution. The waters of the springs, moving at depths where the pressure is much greater, must dissolve in large quantities both various minerals and gases. That, indeed, the dissolution intensifies in this way, is proved by the precipitation from the waters of springs at the points of their exits to the day surface, where the spring is exposed at a pressure of one atmosphere. This is also confirmed by the springs containing gases in solution, sometimes even in an amount exceeding the amount of water in volume (for example, in carbon dioxide sources). Pressurized water is an even stronger solvent. In water containing carbon dioxide, the average salt of lime dissolves extremely easily. Taking into account that in the immediate vicinity of both active and extinct volcanoes in some areas, there is sometimes a fairly abundant release of various acids, for example, carbon dioxide, hydrochloric, etc., it is easy to imagine that if such secretions are encountered jets of spring water, then it can dissolve a more or less significant amount of gas released (assuming the above pressure, it is necessary to recognize extremely strong solvents for such waters). In any case, the strongest mineral springs should be found more often in the neighborhood of active or extinct volcanoes, and often a significantly mineralized and warm spring serves as the last indicator of volcanic activity that once took place in the area. Indeed, the strongest and warmest springs are confined to the neighborhood of typical volcanic rocks. The classification of mineral springs is a great difficulty, since it is difficult to imagine the presence in nature of waters containing only one chemical compound in solution. On the other hand, the same difficulty in classifying is presented by the uncertainty of the chemists themselves and the grouping of the components of the keys dissolved in water, and a significant amount of arbitrariness. Nevertheless, in practice, for the convenience of reviewing mineral springs, it is customary to group them in a known way, which will be discussed. said further. A detailed consideration of all mineral springs would take us beyond the scope of this article, and therefore we will dwell only on some of the most common ones.

lime keys, or hard water keys. This name is understood as such spring waters, in the solution of which there is acid carbonic lime. They got the name of hard waters from the fact that soap dissolves in them with great difficulty. Lime carbonate dissolves very little in water, and therefore some favorable conditions are needed for its dissolution. This condition represents the presence of free carbon dioxide in solution in water: in its presence, the average salt becomes acidic and in this state becomes soluble in water. Nature contributes in two ways to the absorption of carbon dioxide by the waters. There is always free carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and therefore rain, falling out of the atmosphere, will dissolve it; this is confirmed by analyzes of the air before and after rain: in the latter case, carbon dioxide is always found to be less. Another supply of carbon dioxide rain water are found in the vegetative layer, which is nothing more than a product of the weathering of rocks, into which organic matter is a decomposition product of plant roots. Chemical analyzes of soil air have always revealed the presence of free carbon dioxide in them, and therefore water that has passed through air and soil must certainly contain a more or less significant amount of carbon dioxide. Such water, meeting limestone, which, as is known, consists of an average salt of carbonic lime, will convert it into an acid salt and dissolve. In this way, cold calcareous springs usually occur in nature. Their activity in the gesture of entering the daylight surface is revealed by the formation of a kind of sediment, called calcareous tufa and consisting of a porous mass in which the pores are located extremely irregularly; this mass consists of medium coal-lime salt. The precipitation of this precipitate is due to the release of semi-bound carbon dioxide from hard waters and the transfer of acid salt to the middle one. The deposits of calcareous tuff are a common phenomenon, because limestones are a very common rock. Calcareous tufa is used for burning and making caustic lime, and it is also directly used in lumps to decorate stairs, aquariums, etc. The sediment from hard water takes on a slightly different character if it is deposited somewhere in the cavities of the earth or in caves. The process of sedimentation here is the same as in the above case, but its character is somewhat different: in this latter case it is crystalline, dense and hard. If hard water seeps on the ceiling of the cave, then sagging masses are formed, descending from the ceiling of the cave down - such masses are given the name in the geological literature stalactites, a those that are deposited at the bottom of the cave, due to hard water falling down from the ceiling, - stalagmites. In Russian literature they are sometimes called droppers. With the growth of stalactites and stalagmites, they can merge with each other and thus artificial columns can appear inside the cave. Such a sediment, due to its density, is an excellent material for preserving all objects that can get into it. He covers these objects with a continuous and uninterrupted veil that protects them from the destructive influence of the atmosphere. Thanks in particular to the stalagmite layer, it was possible to survive to our time the bones of various animals, in the form of bone breccia, the products of a person who once, during prehistoric antiquity, lived in these caves. Taking into account that both the settlement of the cave and the deposition of the stalagmite layer proceeded gradually, it is to be expected that an extremely interesting picture of the past should be revealed in the successive layering of the caves. Indeed, the excavations of the caves were delivered to the highest degree important material, both for the study of prehistoric man and ancient fauna. If a cold source of hard water, when it comes to the surface of the earth, should fall in the form of a waterfall, then medium coal-lime salt will fall out of the water and line the bed of the waterfall. Such a formation resembles, as it were, a frozen waterfall, or even a whole series of them. Potanin, in his journey to China, describes a very interesting series of such waterfalls, where one could count up to 15 separate terraces, from which water flows in cascades, forming a series of pools composed of carbonic lime along its course. Hot springs deposit the average carbon-lime salt even more vigorously. Such springs, as mentioned earlier, are confined to volcanic countries. As an example, one can point to Italy, in which there are many places where such springs come out: in this respect, a particularly vigorous deposition of carbonic lime is observed near San Filippo, in Tuscany; here the spring deposits a layer of sediment one foot thick in four months. In Campania, between Rome and Tivoli, there is a lake. Solfataro, from which carbon dioxide is released with such energy that the water of the lake seems to be boiling, although the temperature of its water is far from reaching the boiling point. Parallel to this release of carbon dioxide, there is also precipitation from the water of the average salt of carbonic lime; it is enough to stick a stick under the water level for a short time so that it is covered in a short time with a thick layer of sediment, the sediment deposited under such conditions is much denser than tuff, although it contains pores, but these latter are arranged in rows parallel to each other. This sediment in Italy was given the name travertine. It serves as a good building stone and, where there is a lot of it, breaks are laid in it and its development is carried out. Many buildings in Rome were erected from such a stone, and, among other things, the Cathedral of St. Peter. The abundance of broken travertine in the vicinity of Rome indicates that in the basin in which Rome now stands and where the river flows. Tiber, there was once an energetic activity of warm limestone springs. Even more original is the deposition of the same composition of sediment from hot lime springs, if they are in the form of ascending or beating springs, that is, in the form of a fountain. Under these conditions, under the influence of a vertically beating jet of water, small foreign objects can be mechanically entrained in water and float in it. Carbon dioxide is released more vigorously from the surface solids. In a short time, lime carbonate will begin to deposit around it on the floating particle, and in a short time, a ball floating in water will form, consisting of concentrically shell-like deposits of lime carbonate and supported in water by a vertically beating stream of water from below. Of course, such a ball will float until its weight increases and it falls to the bottom of the key. This way is the accumulation of the so-called pea stone. In Carlsbad key sowing. In Bohemia, the accumulation of pea stone occupies a very significant area.

iron, or glandular, keys contain ferrous oxide in the solution of their waters, and therefore, for their formation, the presence in the rocks or ready-made ferrous oxide or conditions under which iron oxide can also turn into oxide is necessary. In some breeds, there is indeed ready-made ferrous oxide, for example. in rocks containing magnetic iron ore, and therefore, if water containing free carbon dioxide in solution flows to such a rock, then ferrous oxide can be easily borrowed from magnetic iron ore. In this way, carbonic iron waters occur. In rocks, sulfur pyrite, or pyrite, is quite often found, representing the combination of one share of iron with two shares of sulfur; this latter mineral, being oxidized, yields ferrous sulphate, which is rather readily soluble in water. Iron sulphate springs are formed in this way, and as an example of such, one can point to the Koncheozersky mineral waters of the Olonets Bay. Finally, there may be cases when there is no ready-made iron oxide in the rock, but there is oxide: it turns out that here, too, nature is able to practice a certain method in which iron oxide is converted into oxide. This method has been observed on red-colored sandstones, the upper surface of which is overgrown with plant roots; at the same time, it turned out that where the roots were in contact with the sandstone, it became discolored, i.e., under the influence of decomposition of the roots without access to air and at the expense of the carbohydrates formed, iron oxide was reduced to oxide. In any case, the content of iron carbonate in iron springs is very small: it ranges from 0.196 to 0.016 grams per liter of water, and in mixed waters, as in the iron-alkaline waters of Zheleznovodsk, it is only 0.0097 g. Iron springs are easy to recognize by the appearance on the surface of their waters, at the point of exit, an ocher-brown film, consisting of aqueous iron oxide, which is the result of the oxidation of iron oxide by atmospheric oxygen into oxide. This way goes in nature the accumulation of diverse. iron ores, called brown iron ore, varieties of which are: turf, marsh and lake ores. Of course, in previous geological times, nature also practiced the accumulation of brown iron ore in ancient deposits in the same way.

Sulphurous Keys contain hydrogen sulfide in solution, recognizable by an unpleasant odor; in their distribution on the surface of the earth, sulphurous springs are confined to areas where gypsum or anhydrides are developed, i.e., aqueous or anhydrous sulfate salt of lime. Such a close proximity of sulfur springs with the above rocks involuntarily suggests that there are some processes in nature by which sulfur salt is reduced to a sulfur compound. A case in one of the laboratories helped to explain this process. In a jar filled with a solution of iron sulfate. or ferrous sulphate, accidentally got a mouse; after a rather long time, the corpse of the mouse became covered with crystals with a metallic, brassy-yellow luster of sulfur pyrite. The last mineral could have occurred in solution only by reduction, i.e., by deprivation of oxygen from the sulfur salt, and this could only have occurred from the decomposition of a mouse corpse in solution and without access to air. At the same time, carbohydrates develop, which act in a reducing way on sulfur salt, take away oxygen from it and transfer it to a sulfur compound. In all probability, the same process takes place with gypsum or with anhydride, with the assistance of carbohydrates; at the same time, lime sulphate is converted into calcium sulfide, which, in the presence of water, quickly decomposes and gives hydrogen sulfide. In the same way, it can be explained why the waters of some wells sometimes begin to emit the smell of rotten eggs (hydrogen sulfide), while previously these waters were odorless Gypsum represents a very common mineral, and therefore its presence in a solution of various waters should also be common. Imagine that there is gypsum in the water of this well and that the log house of the well has rotted: when a tree rots without access to air, carbohydrates develop here, which act in a reducing way on gypsum, take away oxygen from it and convert it into a sulfur compound. Since this process takes place in the presence of water, decomposition immediately takes place and hydrogen sulfide is formed. One has only to change the rotten logs of the well's log house and the nasty smell will disappear. This process of formation of sulfur springs is confirmed by the presence of certain sulfur compounds in solution in their waters, as well as the frequent proximity of oil sources to them. However, the content of hydrogen sulfide in the water of sulfur springs is not particularly significant - it ranges from barely noticeable traces to 45 kb. cm per liter (i.e., per 1000 kb. cm) of water. In Europe. In Russia, sulfur springs are known in the Ostsee region, in Lithuania, in the Orenburg province. and in the Caucasus.

salty keys are found where there are deposits of table salt in rocks, or where the latter forms inclusions in them. Table or rock salt belongs to substances easily soluble in water, and therefore, if water flows through such rocks, then it can be largely saturated with salt; that is why springs so varied in salt content are found in nature. There are keys that are close to saturation, there are keys that are found only by weak ones. salty taste. Some salt springs are also mixed with calcium chloride or magnesium chloride, sometimes in quantities so significant that mineral springs of a completely new composition are formed in this way; the latter type of springs is recognized as quite important in medical terms, and the Druskeniks mineral waters belong to this category (see the corresponding article). The purest salt springs are found in Europe. Russia in the provinces of Vologda, Perm, Kharkov and in Poland. In the areas of distribution of salt springs, drilling has recently been quite often used, with the help of which either the presence of deposits is detected at depths. rock salt, or extract stronger salt brines. In this way, the famous deposit of Stasfurt, near Magdeburg, or our Bryantsovskoye salt deposit in Yekaterinoslav province, was discovered. By drilling, as mentioned above, stronger brines can be obtained. A key that rises naturally from the depths can meet on its way fresh water, which will dilute it to a large extent. By laying a borehole and accompanying it with a pipe, it is possible in this way to adopt stronger solutions at depths; the well pipe protects the rising water from mixing it with fresh water. But it is necessary to use drilling in order to increase the concentration of waters of mineral springs with great care, it is necessary to first study this key well, to know exactly the rocks through which it breaks to the surface of the earth and, finally, to accurately determine the value of the mineral key. If desired, exploit the key for commercial purposes, for example. salt key for boiling salt out of it, it can be recommended to increase its concentration by drilling. Many mineral springs are exploited for medical purposes, for which their significant strength is often not so much important as their specific composition. In this last case, it is often better to completely abandon the desire to increase the concentration of the key by drilling, because otherwise its mineral composition can be spoiled. Indeed, in medicine, especially in balneology, in the composition of mineral waters, often minimal amounts of a substance play a significant role (as an example of this, the insignificant content of ferrous oxide in iron waters was indicated above), and there are some waters, such as ., iodine, which sometimes contain only traces of iodine and despite this are not only considered useful, but actually help the sick. Any key, breaking through in a natural way to the surface of the earth, must go through the most diverse rocks, and its solution can enter into an exchange decomposition with the constituent parts of the rocks; in this way a key, originally of quite a simple composition, can acquire considerable diversity in mineral constituents. By laying a borehole and accompanying it with a pipe, you can get stronger solutions, but not the same composition as before.

Carbonic I. It has already been pointed out above that in volcanic countries, carbon dioxide and other gases are released through cracks; if the waters of the spring meet such gases on their way, they can dissolve them in a more or less significant amount, which, of course, largely depends on the depth at which such a meeting took place. At great depths, where pressure is also high, the waters of the spring can dissolve a lot of carbon dioxide under high partial pressure. For example, we can point to the Marienbad carbonic I., where 1514 kb are dissolved in a liter of water. cm, or on Narzan Kislovodsk, where 1062 kb are dissolved in the same amount of water. see gas. Such sources are easily recognized on the surface of the earth by the abundant release of gas from the water, and sometimes the water seems to be boiling.

Oil I. Oil is a mixture of liquid carbohydrates, among which marginal ones with a specific gravity less than water predominate, and therefore oil will float on it in the form of oily spots. Oil-carrying waters are called oil springs. Such I. are known in Italy, in Parma and Modena, very strong along the river. Irrawaddy, in the Burmese Empire, in the vicinity of Baku and on the Absheron Peninsula, on the bottom and islands of the Caspian Sea. On one island of Cheleken, in the Caspian Sea, there are up to 3,500 oil springs. Especially remarkable is the famous oil region of the river. Allegheny, in Sev. America. Usually, the places of natural outlets of oil springs are chosen for laying boreholes at these points in order to get a larger supply of oil at great depths. Drilling in the oil regions has provided a lot of interesting data. It has found sometimes significant cavities in the earth, filled under pressure with gaseous hydrocarbons, which, when they are reached by a borehole, sometimes break out with such force that the drilling tool is thrown out. In general, it should be noted that the areas of outlets of oil sources themselves reveal gaseous carbohydrates. So, in the vicinity of the city of Baku there are abundant outlets of such gases in two places; one of the exits is located on the mainland, where in the past there was a temple of fire worshipers above the exit point, and now the Kokorev plant; if you ignite this gas, protecting it from the wind, then it will constantly burn. Another outlet of the same gases is found from the bottom of the sea, at a fairly considerable distance from the coast, and in calm weather it can also be made to burn. The same drilling revealed that the distribution of oil springs is subject to a well-known law. When drilling in the valley of the river. Allegheny, it was proved that oil wells are located in strips parallel to the chain of the Allegheny Mountains. The same thing, apparently, is found in our country in the Caucasus, both in the Baku region and in the sowing. slope, in the vicinity of Grozny. In any case, when the drill reaches the oil-bearing layers, water together with oil appears in the form of an often grandiose fountain; with this appearance, a very strong splashing of its jet is usually observed. The latter phenomenon did not find an explanation for a long time, but now, apparently, it is quite satisfactorily explained by Sjogren, according to whom this spraying of the fountain water depends on the fact that at depths, under high pressure, oil condensed a large amount of gaseous carbohydrates and when such material on the surface of the earth, under the pressure of one atmosphere, gaseous products are released with considerable energy, causing this spraying of a water jet. Indeed, this releases a lot of gaseous hydrocarbons, which makes the oil fields take, during the appearance of the fountain, a number of precautions in case of a fire that could occur. Together with water and oil, the fountain sometimes ejects a very large amount of sand and even large stones. Long time paid little attention to the nature of the water bearing the oil. Thanks to the works of Potylitsyn, it was proved that these waters are quite significantly mineralized: in a liter of water, he found from 19.5 to 40.9 g of mineral substances; main integral part is table salt, but of particular interest is the presence of sodium bromide and iodide in these waters. In nature, there is a significant diversity in the composition of mineral I., and therefore it is not possible to consider them all here, but it can be noted that, in general, other I. occur in ways similar to those described above. The waters always circulating in rocks can meet various water-soluble substances in them and either directly, or by exchange decomposition, or oxidation, or reduction, mineralize at their expense. Finding mixed And., as it is specified above, considerably complicates their classification; Nevertheless, for the convenience of review, mineral waters are subdivided into several categories, meaning mainly pure springs: 1) chloride springs (sodium, calcium, and magnesium), 2) hydrochloric springs, 3) sulphurous or hydrogen sulfide springs, 4) sulfate (sodium, lime, magnesia, alumina, iron and mixed), 5) carbonic (sodium, lime, iron and mixed) and 6) silicate, i.e. containing various salts of silicic acid in solution; The last category represents a great variety. To get some idea about the composition of the springs, we present a table of analyzes of the most famous mineral springs.