Man and woman 

Social inequality, stratification and social mobility. Social inequality and stratification. social mobility

From point of view Marxism social inequality is a phenomenon that has arisen under certain historical conditions. The division of society into classes this is the result public division labor and the formation of private property relations. Classes are determined based on the fact of owning or not owning private property (land, capital, etc.). In any class socio-economic formation, there are two antagonistic classes, for example, under capitalism, these are the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Class relations necessarily presuppose the exploitation of one class by another, i.e. one class appropriates the results of the labor of another class, exploits and suppresses it. This kind of relationship constantly reproduces the class conflict, which is the basis of social changes taking place in society.

Fundamentals of the modern multidimensional approach to learning social stratification were laid M. Weber.

Weber's approach to stratification is based on Marxist theory, but significantly modifies and develops it. There are two main differences between the theory of M. Weber and the theory of K. Marx. First, according to M. Weber, class division stems not only from control (or lack of it) over the means of production, but also from economic differences that are not directly related to property. Such sources include skills or qualifications that influence the types of work people get. For example, skilled workers are guaranteed higher wages. Secondly, along with the economic aspect of stratification, M. Weber took into account such aspects as power and prestige.

Thus, M. Weber believed that the social structure of society is determined by three autonomous and interacting factors: property, power and prestige. In his opinion, differences in property give rise to economic classes, differences related to power give rise to political parties, and differences in "honors" give rise to status groups, or strata. He distinguished the following classes:

1. Positively privileged class is a class of property owners who live on income from property.

2. Negatively privileged class includes those who have neither property nor qualifications to offer in the labor market.

3. middle classes- these are classes consisting of independent peasants, artisans, officials employed in the private and public sectors, persons of free professions, as well as workers.

In addition to classes, M. Weber also distinguished strata in society. Strata- a community of people who occupy a relatively close position in the professional, socio-economic and political hierarchies and have a similar level of influence and prestige.

Functionalist theory of K. Davis and W. Moore. From their point of view, stratification is an uneven distribution of material wealth, power functions and social prestige, depending on the functional importance (significance) of the position. The most essential provisions of the functionalist theory are reduced to the following.

    Social differentiation, firstly, is an integral feature of any society, and secondly, it is functionally necessary, because it performs the functions of stimulation and social control in society.

    As a result of the developing division of labor, individuals realize some useful functions in a given society and, accordingly, occupy different social and professional positions. It both separates and binds them together.

    People tend to rank socio-professional positions, giving them a moral assessment. Why do some professions seem more prestigious to us than others? The ranking is based on two factors: functional importance for society (the degree to which the public good is promoted) and the scarcity of the role being performed. The scarcity of the same profession, in turn, is determined by the need to obtain special qualifications. For example, the profession of a driver is much less scarce than the profession of a doctor, since obtaining the latter is associated with a much longer period of training.

    Those positions, which are assigned a higher rank in accordance with their importance and scarcity, provide their holders on average with more significant rewards: income, power and prestige.

    There is competition for more prestigious seats, as a result of which they are occupied by the most capable representatives of a given society. In this way, the functionality of the social organism is achieved.

Structural functionalism as a sociological paradigm

Structural functionalism is a direction of sociological thought,

sociological paradigm, the essence of which is to highlight

elements of social interaction, determining their role and place in

larger social system or society as a whole, as well as their social

Founders:

I. Alfred Radcliffe-Brown

Key Ideas:

· social order supported by social institutions Social institutions - norms of behavior - are supported by constant practices. Practices should not interfere with each other. In some cases, they support each other. There is a process of "co-adaptation".

· Functionalism is a way of organizing practices to maintain stability in society.

Social structure is a set of stable social relations. There is a "total social structure" that is reproduced by sustainable practices Evolutionism vs. Diffusionism. How to study society?

Comparison of practices in societies is needed different type

II. Bronislav Malinovsky

Key Ideas:

v Enabled Surveillance

It is necessary to study the worldview and culture of people in order to understand how society is possible

v Reciprocity, principle of reciprocity:

-General

-Symmetrical

-Negative

v Social action can only be explained by means

Understanding people's needs. You need to understand their culture

their values ​​and the way they meet the needs in this

culture.

III. Talcott Parsons

The world is systemic, so you need to study it in a systematic way



· The system is a holistic education. Its aspects are structural and procedural.

· Systems exist in interaction with the environment with which they are in exchange relations.

· Structure is a set of standardized relationships between elements of the system.

Element of the social system - acting man(actor)

The role is the expected behavior corresponding to the status and social position of the individual.

Quantitative and qualitative methods in modern sociology

Methodology sociological research is a set of methods

sociological research, methods and approaches to their application.

All methods of sociological research can be divided into two categories.

1) data collection methods

2) methods of processing sociological data

Methods of data collection in sociological research are divided into two

1) quantitative methods

2) qualitative methods of sociological research.

Therefore, there are such types of sociological research as

quantitative and qualitative.

Qualitative methods of sociology allow the sociologist to understand the essence

any social phenomenon, and quantitative - to understand how

massively (frequently encountered) is a social phenomenon and how important it is

for society.

Quantitative research methods include:

- sociological survey

- content analysis of documents

- interview method

- observation

- experiment

Qualitative methods of sociology:

· - focus group

- case study ("case study")

- ethnographic research

- unstructured interviews.

K. Marx on the origin of inequality

According to Marx, classes arise and fight on the basis of different

position and various roles performed by individuals in the production

structure of society, that is, the basis for the formation of classes is

social division of labor.

In turn, the struggle between antagonistic social classes

acts as a source of social development.

1. The emergence of classes becomes possible only when growth

productivity of labor leads to the appearance of a surplus product, and

common ownership of the means of production is replaced by private ownership

property.

2. With the advent of private property, it becomes inevitable

wealth inequality within the community: individual genera and families

get richer, others become poorer and become economically dependent on

first. Elders, commanders, priests and other persons who form

tribal nobility, using their position, are enriched at the expense of the community.

3. The development of production, the growth of trade, the increase in population destroy

former unity of clan and tribe. Thanks to the division of labor,

cities are centers of crafts and trade. On the ruins of the old, tribal system

a class society emerges, a characteristic feature of which is

antagonism between the classes of exploiters and exploited.

4. The ruling classes, being the owners of all or at least

as the most important means of production, get the opportunity to appropriate

the labor of the oppressed classes wholly or partly deprived of means

production.

5. Slavery, serfdom, wage labor form three successive

another way of exploitation, characterizing the three stages of class-

antagonistic society. With the first two methods of class

exploitation of the direct producer (slave, serf) was

legally disenfranchised or incomplete, personally dependent on the owner

means of production. In these societies, "... class differences were fixed and

in the class division of the population, was accompanied by the establishment of a special

legal place in the state for each class ... The division of society into

classes are inherent in both slave, and feudal, and bourgeois societies, but in

the first two there were classes-estates, and in the last classes

classless"

Thus, the basis of the inequality of society according to Marx is

economic development society. The more economically developed the society

The more class inequality is felt.

In the article we will talk about what social stratification and social inequality are. This is a rather burning question, which still remains relevant and popular in the modern world. Inequality has existed since the beginning of time, but it has changed its forms and been transformed. We will try to consider this issue in detail from all sides.

What is this about?

To consider questions of social inequality and the stratification of society should be only after we clearly understand the terminology. Interestingly, not all people know that the very term to which our article is devoted was borrowed from geology. There it means that the earth consists of different layers.

Social stratification is the division of society into separate layers using a variety of social tools. Most often, this is a social status that gives an idea of ​​the achievements and significance of a person in our value system. In fact, there are a lot of criteria for separation. We will try to mention all of them.

Figuratively speaking, one can imagine a straight line that is divided along its entire axis. Stratification is that there are different distances between different coordinates. The vertical line is very indicative of how stratification is formed. Most often, the divisions on it reflect the financial condition of a person, the amount of his power, education, leisure activities, consumption measures, and so on.

Why are we so different?

Many people perceive social stratification and social inequality negatively. The reason is that they believe that all conflicts in society arise on this basis. However, it is not. Even a child notices that all people are different. We are all very different in character, in appearance, in intellectual abilities. Of course, you don't always want to admit it and focus on it, but it's true. Another issue is that the concept of social inequality and social stratification is subjected to so many attacks due to the fact that people, even realizing their shortcomings, do not want to overcome them. They simply have a negative attitude towards those who are at a higher level. social hierarchy. But reasonable people understand that it is completely pointless to envy and denigrate those whom nature has endowed with the talent of an artist, musician, entrepreneurial ingenuity, and so on. At the same time, each person can try to develop these qualities in himself and become better. But we must take into account our psychological and physiological features to realistically assess the situation.

Distribution base

Now we will talk about the basic criteria by which the division of society takes place. As we know, the inequality of social groups reflects social stratification, but let's delve into the main indicators.

First, it is income. Money has always been key factor because they give power and allow it to be held. At the moment, money is not the only key factor in stratification, but so far it plays huge role in society. And that's okay. The next indicator is education. The point here is not whether you received a higher education, how many universities you graduated from and whether you have a red diploma. It is more about how educated a person is, how he can keep up a conversation, how he decides logical tasks, as oriented in difficult situations how to get rid of stress and so on. All this allows us to judge how intelligent this person is, and how to build relationships with him.

Power

The next indicator is power. Very often it depends on family ties and income, as well as on intellectual abilities, but not always. Sometimes power can be an innate human quality. That is, he can be able to lead people, convince them of something, correct their points of view and influence decisions. This is also a kind of power that exerts quite strong influence to large populations. From the following basic indicators, we note prestige, that is, an indicator of our status. All people understand that they have disadvantages and advantages, but someone knows how to present it profitably, while someone creates the impression of an insecure and negligent child. The fact is, even if you are very smart and talented, this is not enough. You must be able to demonstrate your qualities, defend your point of view, and most importantly, be yourself in any situation. The courage to be yourself also brings a certain power and prestige, which in the future is reflected in the reputation and relationships in the group.

Causes

Social stratification describes social inequality in a society, but it also explains why things happen the way they do.

Note that without social inequality it would be very difficult for society to exist. In other words, ordinary chaos would begin, since there would be no hierarchy. Sociology cannot give a specific answer to the causes of stratification, but it offers different variants and points of view, which we will discuss below.

First, social stratification and social inequality are explained by the fact that each person or a certain group of people performs a certain function in society. In other words, everyone has their own specific task and, naturally, some tasks are more important, and some are less important. Based on this, people are already being divided into those who are engaged in more specific serious matters, and those who help them in this. You can draw a parallel with production. So, for example, there are key workers who are directly involved in the production process itself. And there are those who help maintain this process and this is their main job. Likewise with society. In order for everyone to exist in normal conditions, everyone must do his own thing and fulfill his role. But the problem of modernity is that, in view of a large number motivational books, trainings, videos, films, etc. many people have decided to give up their role and try themselves in something more. In fact, there is nothing wrong with this; on the contrary, it is a very good development of events. But there is one big problem. All motivational stimuli affect even those people who are satisfied with their situation. That is, they like to live in a certain city, do a certain job, return to their family, or live on their own and engage in some kind of craft, it is possible to live only by the goals of society, etc. But modern society all this criticizes and aims everyone at a single goal - to achieve happiness through self-realization. All this confuses people, and they stop following their real desires, go on about marketers.

We digress a little from the topic of functional causes of inequality. In fact, it leads us to the next reason, which is different status of people. That is, if you occupy a certain place, then you have a certain status. Inequality in status leads to the fact that there is, in principle, differentiation of the population.

Economic point of view

It is very important to consider this issue from this angle. Social structure, social inequality, social stratification - all this is considered in detail in the works of Marxists. They say that the stratification of society began with the emergence of private property. Naturally, this is an exaggeration, which, nevertheless, has won many fans around the world. But there is still some truth in this.

The fact is that economic inequality is caused by the fact that people have different attitudes to the process of creating and accumulating wealth, as well as to property. Someone pays more attention to their real life and wants to receive maximum return in the present, and someone saves more money, and then skillfully invests it and gets even more profit. For others, the money is simply inherited or as a result of a successful operation. In other words, there can be many reasons for inequality, but they do exist.

Personal qualities

Social stratification and social inequality is also caused by the fact that each person has his own individuality. This means that everyone has a personal set of qualities that are a union of advantages and disadvantages. But someone focuses on their minuses, thus stopping a little on their own. life path. Others focus on their merits, trying to solve the problem of their shortcomings, that is, to somehow deal with them or learn to exist peacefully. Such people achieve more because they know what is their main weapon.

Social inequality: the theory of social stratification

This theory belongs to William Warner, who proposed the idea that stratification is built on prestige. different layers population, as well as what people think about each other. But he researched Western society, and identified 6 population groups that he found in the context of social division:

  • Aristocrats.
  • Self-made millionaires.
  • intellectual elite.
  • Educated people.
  • Workers.
  • People without education, without their own home, beggars and criminals.

Theory of inequality M. Weber

Max Weber believed that the main criterion of stratification, which determines the position of a person in the life hierarchy, is not his belonging to a certain group, but his personal qualities and status, which allow him to independently raise or lower himself on the social ladder. The second important factor in stratification, Max Weber considered the respect and reputation that a person receives in the course of his activities. It is a good position in society that very often ensures a quick and high-quality advancement of a person.

Social stratification, inequality, mobility - all this was considered by the researcher as factors that the person himself is able to influence if desired. He talked about the fact that the classification of people, based on what class or caste they are, is a thing of the past.

P. Sorokin's theory

The scientist expressed his thoughts in the work " social mobility", written in 1927. Note that in sociology this work is considered a classic. According to him, social differentiation is the division of people into certain groups within a certain hierarchical system. The essence is that everything is distributed unevenly - rights, privileges, duties, power, etc. All this is never distributed in equal parts and in such a way that there is enough for everyone.

Three forms of differentiation

Also, the peculiarity of Sorokin's work is that he singled out three main forms of differentiation, namely political, economic and professional. He considered social group, social stratification, social inequality only in the context of these three spheres of human life. At the same time, he noted that they are very strongly intertwined, and it is on their basis that relationships are built in all other areas.

He also singled out interprofessional and intraprofessional differentiation in professional stratification. In other words, he divided people according to the rank they hold within their profession. That is, they are hired workers, entrepreneurs or senior employees. As for interprofessional stratification, he emphasized the importance of the profession for society as a whole and the level of intelligence that is necessary to engage in a particular activity.

Summing up the article, we note that social group, social stratification, social inequality - these are concepts with which the life of modern man is closely intertwined. However, the ideas of humanism are currently so widespread that inequality is gradually fading into the background, which indicates positive changes in society.

Social inequality, stratification and social mobility

TOPIC 4. Social class structure of society

The main groups in the stratification structure of society

Social class structure of society

Subjects , carriers of social relations are social communities and groups. It is the subjects that bind the main spheres into a single societal system. public life, so the analysis social structure society is the central problem of sociology.

In the very general view societal structure -it is a stable connection of such elements of the socio-cultural system as classes, strata and groups, which differ in their place in the system of social inequalities of society.

Therefore, it is first necessary to find out the origins of social inequality and its impact on the social differentiation of people in society.

Social inequality, stratification and social mobility

Social inequality has existed throughout the history of human civilization. The origins of social inequality are many modern researchers see in the natural differences of people according to physical data, temperament, strength of motivation. Initially emerging inequality is usually highly unstable and does not lead to institutional consolidation. For example, a strong, strong-willed, purposeful person can be a leader and subjugate the members of the group, receiving more material benefits, honor until a stronger and more ambitious applicant appears. The authority of the leaders of tribal social structures had to be constantly supported by the successful achievement of group goals.

The next stage in the formation of social inequality is the consolidation of the existing situation in the conditions of social division of labor and exchange. In society, groups are differentiated, unequal by nature of work(mental and physical labor), by social roles(father, doctor, salesman, political figure), by type of settlement and way of life(urban and rural population).

Consolidation of inequality is carried out through institutionalization and the regulatory framework that establishes the place of each individual in the social structure. Even natural differences take on a socially institutionalized form. Women are socially unequal to men, younger - older. A stable system of social statuses appears that determines the ranks of individuals according to such criteria as property, access to power, etc.

Causes of social inequality sociologists explain in different ways. Functionalists, starting with E. Durkheim, point to the division of functions according to their significance for a particular society. On the basis of the hierarchy of social functions, a corresponding hierarchy of unequal social groups is formed.

Marxists believe that inequality is not only a consequence of the division of labor, but also of property, the form of property and the way it is owned.

Social exchange theories argue that inequality results from unfair, unequal sharing of outcomes. human activity. M. Weber was the first to substantiate the importance of identifying unequal status groups that differ in social prestige, belonging to certain political circles (parties), and access to power.

Inequality has many faces and manifests itself in various parts of the social system: in the family, at home, at work, in organizations, large groups. It is a necessary condition for the organization social life in the types of social systems known to us. Inequality is ordered by social institutions because it gives stability social relations and stimulates the development productive forces society. The reproduction of inequality leads to the stratification of society.

Social stratification -it is a hierarchically organized structure of social inequality that exists in a certain society, in a certain historical period of time.

The hierarchically organized structure of social inequality can be represented as a division of the whole society into strata (this means a layer). The stratification of society into strata can be compared with the geological layers of the soil. At the same time, in comparison with natural stratifications, social implies: rank bundle when the upper layers are in a privileged position in relation to the lower ones; fewer top layers.

A carefully developed theory of stratification was created by our compatriot P.A. Sorokin, who believed that it was impossible to give a single set of criteria for belonging to any stratum and saw three stratification structures in society: economic, professional and political. He used the criteria identified by his predecessors and contemporaries: property, income, profession, power, social roles etc.

How did P.A. Sorokin imagine the social stratification of society?

First of all, he distinguished one-dimensional stratification, carried out by selecting groups for any one sign e.g. income. Further, in the course of multidimensional stratification, groups are identified that have a whole set of common characteristics, for example, women of a certain nationality, age, with low incomes.

According to P.A. Sorokin, in the modern world there are millions of sociocultural systems in which microgroups (dyads, triads) and supersystems, world religious associations (a billion Catholics, several billion Muslims) can be distinguished. This set of social systems is classified according to many bases.

Among the one-dimensional groups, there are biosocial: racial, gender, age; sociocultural: clan, territorial neighborhood, linguistic, ethnic groups, states, professional groups, economic groups, religious associations, political organizations, ideological groups (scientific, educational, ethical, recreation and entertainment groups), nominal elite groups (leaders, geniuses, historical figures ).

P.A. Sorokin refers to multilateral (combination of several values) groups: family, clan, tribe, nation, estate and classes.

This scheme in sociology is not particularly disputed, although other theories of stratification are proposed.

In the works of American sociologists, there are up to 90 signs of stratification. IN different periods history, one or the other foundations of social division come to the fore. The ancient Egyptians spent a huge portion of their national income on serving the dead, including them in their ranking system. Religion has played a significant role in stratification in Russia for many centuries. Russian schismatics (nobles, merchants, peasants) went into the fire for the right to be baptized in their own way.



According to the views American sociologist E.O. Wright, in modern capitalist production, there are three types of control over economic resources, which make it possible to single out the main strata.

1. Control over investments or money capital.

2. Control over land and industrial means of production.

3. Control over labor and power.

The capitalist class controls all three types of resources, while the workers control none.

Frank Parkin, a British sociologist, a follower of M. Weber, considers property, control over monetary resources, race, nationality, language, religion - as special social partitions that separate strata. For example, in South Africa, until recently, white unions excluded blacks from membership in order to maintain their privileged position.

The German sociologist R. Dahrendorf proposed to put the concept of "authority" as the basis of social stratification, which, in his opinion, most accurately characterizes power relations and the struggle between groups for a prestigious place in the stratification system. R. Dahrendorf divides modern society into managers and managed. In turn, the former are divided into two subgroups: managing-owners and managing-managers. The managed group is also heterogeneous. It can be divided into skilled and unskilled workers. Between the two main strata is an intermediate "new middle class" - the product of the assimilation of the labor aristocracy and employees.

The most influential point of view on the process of formation of social strata can be considered the theory of stratification by K. Davis and W. Moore - supporters of E. Durkheim's functional approach.

According to this theory, every society must solve the problem of placing and motivating individuals in the social structure in accordance with their functional capabilities. For the distribution of people according to social statuses and their motivation, remuneration is used, which reproduces both income inequality and the statuses themselves. How harder job the more professional training it requires, the higher the status rank and pay. However, there is another group of statuses that are not functionally significant, but, nevertheless, are highly rewarded. These are hard-to-fill statuses, i.e. unprestigious, unhealthy work. Religious activities is also important, so the clergy are rewarded more than ordinary workers. The reward is not always money. It can be more honor, respect, insignia, orders.

Thus, from the point of view of the functionalist theory, inequality and status distribution on the stratification scale depends, first of all, on the functional significance of this status, the requirements for the performance of the role ( professional quality) and difficulties in filling social status.

Sociology knows four main historical systems of social stratification.

Slavery - the most pronounced form of social inequality, in which some people belong to others as property. As the main mass system stratification, slavery disappears in the 19th century, but even today elements of the slave trade persist in some third world countries.

castes associated with the culture of the Indian subcontinent, where they are elaborate and associated with the Hindu religion. Religion and traditions fix belonging to a caste so strongly that Brahmins, for example, generally avoid any contact with untouchables, and those, in turn, are mainly engaged in animal husbandry.

Caste-like systems of stratification arose in other countries when a policy of racial segregation was pursued. For example, in the United States, after the abolition of slavery, the degree of separation of blacks from whites remained so strong that the stratification system was in fact a caste system.

Estates were part of European feudalism and other traditional civilizations. The place of estates in the stratification system was fixed by law, all estates had different rights, duties, clothes, etc. Places in the hierarchy were distributed in the following way: aristocracy, nobility, clergy, merchants, free peasants, servants, artists, etc.

Classes differ primarily in economic opportunities, are impersonal, mobile and independent of legal and religious norms.

The strata must not be considered in a frozen, unchanging position, but in constant movements and displacements. These movements in sociology are called "social mobility".

Social mobility -this is any transition of an individual, group, social object from one social position to another, from stratum to stratum, or within one layer.(Under the social object, P.A. Sorokin understands property, cultural objects).

Horizontal mobility - this is the movement of an individual (social object) from one group to another, located at the same level (change of residence, family, religion). Status, income, prestige do not change. If such a move occurs up(promotion, increase in income), then there is vertical mobility. Deprivation of status, bankruptcy, loss of respect, deprivation of awards are examples downward vertical mobility.

Due to the fact that the social movements of people and social objects are carried out both individually and jointly, there are individual and group vertical mobility.

According to the figurative expression of P.A. Sorokin, “the first case of decline resembles the fall of a man from a ship; the second is a ship that sank with all on board. The mechanism of infiltration in vertical mobility is associated with the action of the main social channels (elevators). Under them P.A. Sorokin understands the main social institutions: the army, the education system, political and economic organizations, marriage and family, property.

For example, an individual chooses a military career because it guarantees a stable, gradual rise from one stratum to another, an increase in income, status, prestige. War can accelerate the movement of this social elevator, since it implies the expulsion due to the death of those who occupy higher ranks, provides an opportunity to show military prowess, receive awards, etc.

In the spirit of the positivist tradition, P.A. Sorokin proposes to distinguish between the absolute and relative intensity of mobility (the number of people moved per unit of time), calculate the total mobility index, etc. His work "Social Mobility" is still considered the official textbook in American universities.

The positivism of P.A. Sorokin is also clearly manifested in the formulation of the main laws of stratification. Here are some examples:

1. Any society is stratified; an unstratified society is a utopia.

2. No individual, no group can permanently maintain the same place in the system of stratification.

3. The narrower the boundaries of stratification, the more likely social stagnation, the cessation of development; the wider the boundaries of stratification, the more likely social explosions and revolutions.

To measure social distances in the social hierarchy, P.A. Sorokin proposed the term "decile coefficient", meaning the difference in income between the richest 10% and the poorest 10%.

Changes in the individual's position in the stratification system can occur not only under the influence of vertical and horizontal mobility, but also as a result of the reorganization of the social structure, the introduction new system stratification. New industries, services, new professions appear or disappear.

Mass movements horizontally and vertically are associated with profound changes in the economic system of society, with a change in ideological guidelines, and the emergence of new social groups.

To an outsider, Alter Road in Detroit looks like an ordinary city street. However, locals call it the "Berlin Wall" or the "Mason-Dixon Line". This is due to the fact that Alter Road separates the eastern part of Detroit - the impoverished ghetto from the fashionable, wealthy suburb of Gross Point.

In The Wall Street Journal (1982), correspondent Amanda Bennett characterizes the communities that live on both sides of Alter Road: "East Detroit is inhabited by the poor, mostly Negroes; Grosse Point is inhabited by the rich, all white. The premises of the schools where the children of residents study on the East Side of Detroit, guarded by police.Gross Point privileged kids take violin lessons, have their own computers.To East Detroiters, "help" means survival; to those who live across Alter Road, the word is commonly associated The differences are so striking that friends of Detroiters who come from other places are shocked when they are shown along Alter Street.In the eastern part of the city there are abandoned car dumps, many burnt buildings, on the walls of which all kinds of inscriptions and drawings are scrawled. Crowds of unoccupied people loitering about.At a distance of only a thousand feet, a different picture opens up - neatly trimmed hedges and painted shutters are reminiscent of another world of lawnmowers, maids, two-car garages and charity events. As Democratic Senator John Kelly, representing both groups, says, on the one hand, here is "Western Beirut", on the other, the fabulous country of "Disneyland". /273/

The economic downturn in the early 1980s affected the two communities in different ways. Bennett writes: “Lifestyles are changing at all levels. On one side of the Alter Road, an unemployed man is forced to leave his tennis club. On the other side, an unemployed woman cannot afford to eat a hamburger. summer cottage, while in Detroit an underemployed prostitute raises the price of her services. In Detroit, impoverished, unemployed drunks drink one bottle at all.

The huge differences between these two groups clearly testify to the existence of "haves" and "have-nots". This situation is one of the most important problems that concern sociologists. They explore it by analyzing three variables: inequality, stratification, and class.

INEQUALITY, STRATIFICATION AND CLASS

A FEW EXAMPLES

IS INEQUALITY UNIVERSAL?

Religious leaders help to understand the meaning of life and death - create moral code which people follow in order to gain salvation. Since this function is very important, religious figures are usually rewarded more than ordinary members of society. It's not necessarily about financial rewards, because many members of the clergy or religious orders don't get that much money; social rewards are recognition and respect.

Management is another key social function. Rulers have much more power than those they rule. For the ruling stratum, increased power is a reward, but they often become owners of a larger share of wealth, their prestige is higher than that of mere mortals.

According to Davis and Moore, another leading area of ​​activity is technology. "Technicians" operate in special areas - for example, in the field of improving military and agricultural equipment. Since this type of activity requires a long and careful preparation, society must provide technical specialists with large material benefits in order to stimulate the desire of people to make efforts in this direction (Davis, Moore, 1945).

THEORIES OF CONFLICT: DEFENDING THE PRIVILEGES OF POWER

Conflict theorists disagree with the notion that inequality is natural way ensure the survival of society. They not only point out the shortcomings /279/ of functionalist approaches (is it fair, for example, that soap merchants earn more than people who teach children to read?), but also argue that functionalism is nothing more than an attempt to justify the status quo. In their opinion, this is precisely the essence of inequality: it is the result of a situation where people who control social values ​​(mainly wealth and power) have the opportunity to benefit for themselves (Tumin, 1953).

Marx

Many ideas on the problem of social inequality are drawn from the Marxist theory of stratification and class. According to Marx, human history can be divided into periods depending on how the production of goods is carried out - he called it a mode of production. During the period of feudalism, the main mode of production was Agriculture: the nobleman owned the land, and his subjects cultivated it. During the capitalist period, business owners pay their workers, who use the money they earn to buy goods and services as they want and need.

The mode of production determines the economic organization of each formation. Marx considered economic organization to be the main aspect of social life. It includes technology, the division of labor and, most importantly, the relationships that develop between people in the production system. These relationships play a key role in the Marxist conception of classes.

Marx argued that in every type of economic organization there is a ruling class that owns and controls the means of production (factories, raw materials, etc.). Through economic power, the ruling class decides the fate of those who work for it. In a feudal society, the nobles exercise control over the serfs, in a capitalist society the bourgeoisie (owners of the means of production) over the proletariat (workers). Let us give an example from modern life: the bourgeois are the owners of factories and their equipment (means of production), and the proletariat is usually represented by people working on an assembly line. This division of society into classes is the basis of Marx's theory. Marx also argued that history is a sequence of changes in which one class system (eg feudalism) is transformed into another /280/ (eg capitalism). During the transformation at a new stage of development, some features of the previous stage are preserved. For example, in England during the period of capitalism, the aristocracy continued to own the land, this was the legacy of the feudal era. Marx also recognized that there is a division among the main classes - thus, within the bourgeoisie, shopkeepers and merchants differ in their position in the social hierarchy from the owners of the most important means of production (factories and land). Finally, Marx took into account the existence of a lumpen proletariat - criminals, drug addicts, etc., completely thrown out of society.

According to Marx, the essence of the relationship between the ruling and exploited classes is that the ruling class exploits the working class. The form of this exploitation depends on the mode of production. Under capitalism, property owners buy the labor of workers. It is the labor of workers from raw materials that creates a product. When this product is sold, the owners of the property make a profit, since it can be sold for more than the production itself costs. Marx stressed that surplus value is created by workers:

PRODUCT COST - cost technical equipment and raw materials + wage workers + owner's profit (surplus value).

Marx concluded that eventually the workers would understand: surplus value goes into the pockets of the owners of the means of production, not their own. When they consider this, they will see that they are being exploited. This will lead to a deep, inevitable conflict between workers and owners. Marx predicted that as capitalism developed, the bourgeoisie would get richer and the proletariat poorer. The conflict will intensify, eventually the workers will make a revolution. The revolution will become global, which will lead to the overthrow of capitalism and the transition to socialism.

Marx's prediction did not come true, capitalism did not lead to the results he expected. First, there was a significant stratification within the proletariat. The service sector has grown noticeably in the economy; as wage earners, people in this area do not necessarily identify with the working class. Giorgiano Gagliani (1981) suggested that non-manual workers ("white collars"), from secretaries to engineers, are interested in an alliance with the capitalists: for political support, the owners pay them higher wages than manual workers. Marx's theory /281/ is also weakened by the fact that the government and the capitalists themselves have become more responsive to the needs and demands of the workers due to political pressure and thanks to the system of collective bargaining. Workers in the US have high wages and bonuses, in addition, they are paid unemployment benefits. For these reasons, they are hardly inspired by Marx's call: "The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They will gain the whole world. Proletarians of all countries, unite!"

Mikels

Other critics accepted the basic tenets of Marx's theory but questioned the idea that economic organization was the main cause of class conflict. In his study of the activities of trade unions and political parties late XIX- beginning of XX century. Robert Michels proved that an oligarchy (the power of a few) is formed in any case, if the size of the organization exceeds a certain value (say, increases from 1,000 to 10,000 people). This theory is called the "iron law of the oligarchy" (Mikels, 1959). The trend towards concentration of power is mainly due to the structure of the organization. A huge number of people who make up the organization cannot discuss the issue in order to start acting. They put the responsibility for it on a few leaders whose power is growing.

Dahrendorf

This "iron law" is characteristic of the organization of all social life, and not just the economy. Ralf Dahrendorf (1959) argues that class conflict is determined by the nature of power. It is not called economic relations between superiors and subordinates, rather, its main reason is the power of some over others. It is not only the power of the employers over the workers that creates the basis of the conflict; the latter can arise in any organization (hospital, military unit, university) where there are superiors and subordinates. /282/

WEBER'S THEORY: WEALTH-PRESTIGE-POWER

Max Weber, who wrote his scientific works a few decades after Marx (1922-1970), unlike him, he did not consider the organization of the economy the basis of stratification. Weber identified three main components of inequality. He considered them interrelated and yet in essential respects independent. The first component is wealth inequality. Wealth means more than just wages; the rich often do not work at all, but receive large incomes from property, investments, real estate or stocks and valuable papers. Weber pointed out that representatives of different social classes- Peasants, workers, merchants have unequal opportunities to earn income and purchase goods.

Status Achievement Research

Recently, the study of intergenerational mobility has given way to the study of status acquisition features. This is connected with the analysis of the social mobility of people during their life. Their mobility data is "read in reverse order"to identify factors affecting their current status. Thus, scientists have found that the most important factors that determine the status /293/ of a person are social and economic status, race, education, parental occupation, gender, family size, place

Table 9-3. Influence of race and gender on occupational status, 1984 (in %)

Occupation

Whites and others

Hispanics

Leading and highly qualified specialists

Technical specialists, sales and administrative workers

Service workers

Workers of the system for the production of precision instruments, products, repair specialists

Operators, assemblers, handymen

Experts in agriculture, forestry and fisheries