Whose ancestors are the Eastern Slavs. The history of totem animals, or who we came from
Since ancient times, horses have been considered human companions: they were used during great migrations, for military purposes, and simply for transporting goods. Perhaps someone was wondering how long ago horses appeared? What did the ancestor of the horse and zebra look like? Outwardly, these two animals are so similar to each other. In these and others interesting questions Let's try to figure it out in the article.
Evolution of the equine family - from Eohippus to modern horse.
Archaeological excavations have proven that the very first ancestors of horses began to appear 50–60 million years ago. The remains of animals were found both on the territory of the North American continent and in the European part of the world. They were named, respectively, Eohippus and Hyracotherium.
At that time, the entire surface of the Earth was covered with dense vegetation, and its recently appeared inhabitants, mammals, easily adapted to the new conditions and used the forest for shelter from predators. The small size of the animals helped with this.
Eohippus was small in stature - at the withers it reached no more than 30 cm. In its appearance, it vaguely resembled a modern horse. The paws had toes instead of the usual hooves, with four on the front and three on the back. The tail was up to 20 cm long and looked more like a cat's tail. The same can be said about the structure of the slightly elongated skull.
The only reason that prompted scientists to call this animal the ancestor of the horse was the fact that, in addition to small animals and insects, Eohippus supplemented its diet with young shoots of plants. He had developed molar chewing teeth, similar to those that nature gave to modern horses.
The first representative of the equine family was Eohippus, which translated means “Horse of the Dawn.”
Orohippus
About 20–30 million years ago, the hyracotheriums were replaced by the survival-adapted orohippus. Despite the fact that the number of species of this animal has already reached two hundred, only the one mentioned above continued the evolutionary chain of modern horses.
The growth of this fossil horse was already a little taller - it reached a confident half a meter. A short mane was formed from the protruding hair, and the tail was similar to a horse. Hooves had not yet formed on the animal’s paws, but the development of the middle fingers was already observed, which became larger and rougher. At this time, the lateral ones turned into bone growths rather than fingers.
This transformation of the beast began with their migration from a completely forested area to the steppe, where they had to move on harder ground. Moreover, in the flat expanses, Orohippus had a noticeable speed advantage, which made it possible to escape from predators.
Merigippus
The next important and long-term link in the development of the species was the merigippus, which appeared about 20 million years ago. Their feet were still three-toed, but the middle toe became more and more like a hoof. The teeth were considered fully chewable, because these ancestors ate exclusively plant foods.
The animal's height of 90 cm and unique flair gave reason to consider the species as close as possible to the modern horse.
Anchiterium
Along with many other species, Anchitheria appeared in North America, and then in Europe. These animals became even larger than their ancestors and reached the size of a modern pony. Middle finger became even more pronounced than the lateral ones.
During this period, cooling began on the planet, which led to an increase in the area of steppes and the retreat of forests. These climate changes began to affect the ancient horses, which in turn had to adapt in order to survive.
Anchiterium looked like a small horse and reached the size of modern ponies.
The appearance of the anchytherium began to change: the legs became longer, and the front part of the skull lengthened.
Hipparion
Hipparion, known as the first prehistoric horse that completely got rid of its lateral toes, began to populate vast areas of America, Eurasia and even Africa. He didn't have hooves yet, but appearance was the most horse-like. Extinct completely 1.5 million years ago.
Pliohippus
Constant climate change began to further change the habitats of horses. When, about 15 million years ago, on the territory of modern Africa, the moist soil began to turn into a savannah with dry soil, the hipparions began to be replaced by pliohippus, which also populated Europe and Asia. This species became the ancestor of the Przewalski's horse, zebra, donkey and other equids. However, pliohippus could not resist natural disasters and completely disappeared from the face of the Earth, passing on the branch of development to the modern horse.
In the territory North America During the global cooling, horses became extinct, and appeared there again during the discovery of the mainland by European colonialists.
Przewalski's horse
It appeared several thousand years ago and has survived to this day. It was discovered by the scientist N.M. Przhevalsky in Tibet. Currently lives in untouched natural areas in Asia, in protected reserves and zoos. Recognized as probable wild ancestor domestic horse. The animal is already 130 cm tall and weighs over 300 kg.
The Przewalski's horse has survived to this day and is recognized as the probable ancestor of domestic horses.
This horse can also be found in the city of Pripyat, in the exclusion zone, where scientists brought 17 heads for further breeding. The experiment was successful, since now there are already 59 individuals.
Tarpan
Tarpan, according to many scientists, is also the predecessor of the modern horse. He has a trained gray body and an erect mane - typical features of wild horses. The horse was mentioned in 1900 as a domesticated resident of a private Polish menagerie that belonged to the Zamoyski household. Later, the animals were given to peasants who started breeding them. However, the tarpan did not tolerate captivity and began to die out. The last living wild tarpan was seen in 1980.
Modern horse
This is the only branch evolutionary development, which has survived to this day. Most live in captivity and serve humans. IN rural areas Horses are used as horse-drawn vehicles for transporting goods. Horse clubs are being formed in the suburbs, where anyone can book a horse ride through the forest.
Scientists have proven that horseback riding is therapeutic for people suffering from musculoskeletal diseases. This is how hippotherapy appeared.
Horses are associated with historical events and great figures. For example, it was named after the famous horse of Alexander the Great the whole city, Bucephalus. During the time of the Russian Tsar, Ivan the Terrible, a small change coin was minted with the image of a rider with a spear on a horse - a spearman, which was eventually called a kopeck.
The Slavs are Europe's largest ethnic group, but what do we really know about them? Historians still argue about who they came from, where their homeland was located, and where the self-name “Slavs” came from.
Origin of the Slavs
There are many hypotheses about the origin of the Slavs. Someone attributes them to the Scythians and Sarmatians, who came from Central Asia, some to the Aryans, Germans, others even identify them with the Celts. All hypotheses of the origin of the Slavs can be divided into two main categories, directly opposite to each other. One of them, the well-known “Norman” one, was put forward in the 18th century by German scientists Bayer, Miller and Schlozer, although such ideas first appeared during the reign of Ivan the Terrible.
The bottom line was this: the Slavs are an Indo-European people who were once part of the “German-Slavic” community, but broke away from the Germans during the Great Migration. Finding themselves on the periphery of Europe and cut off from the continuity of Roman civilization, they were very behind in development, so much so that they could not create their own state and invited the Varangians, that is, the Vikings, to rule them.
This theory is based on the historiographical tradition of the Tale of Bygone Years and famous phrase: “Our land is great and rich, but there is no harmony in it. Come reign and rule over us." Such a categorical interpretation, which was based on obvious ideological background, could not but arouse criticism. Today, archeology confirms the presence of strong intercultural ties between the Scandinavians and Slavs, but it hardly suggests that the former played a decisive role in the formation of the ancient Russian state. But disputes about the “Norman” origin of the Slavs and Kievan Rus do not subside to this day.
The second theory of the ethnogenesis of the Slavs, on the contrary, is patriotic in nature. And, by the way, it is much older than the Norman one - one of its founders was the Croatian historian Mavro Orbini, who wrote a work called “The Slavic Kingdom” at the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th centuries. His point of view was very extraordinary: among the Slavs he included the Vandals, Burgundians, Goths, Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Gepids, Getae, Alans, Verls, Avars, Dacians, Swedes, Normans, Finns, Ukrainians, Marcomanni, Quadi, Thracians and Illyrians and many others: “They were all of the same Slavic tribe, as will be seen later.”
Their exodus from the historical homeland of Orbini dates back to 1460 BC. Where did they not manage to visit after that: “The Slavs fought with almost all the tribes of the world, attacked Persia, ruled Asia and Africa, fought with the Egyptians and Alexander the Great, conquered Greece, Macedonia and Illyria, occupied Moravia, the Czech Republic, Poland and the coasts Baltic Sea».
He was echoed by many court scribes who created the theory of the origin of the Slavs from the ancient Romans, and Rurik from the Emperor Octavian Augustus. In the 18th century, the Russian historian Tatishchev published the so-called “Joachim Chronicle,” which, as opposed to the “Tale of Bygone Years,” identified the Slavs with the ancient Greeks.
Both of these theories (although there are echoes of truth in each of them) represent two extremes, which are characterized by a free interpretation historical facts and archaeological information. They were criticized by such “giants” national history, like B. Grekov, B. Rybakov, V. Yanin, A. Artsikhovsky, arguing that a historian should in his research rely not on his preferences, but on facts. However, the historical texture of the “ethnogenesis of the Slavs”, to this day, is so incomplete that it leaves many options for speculation, without the ability to definitively answer main question: “Who are these Slavs anyway?”
Age of the people
The next pressing problem for historians is the age of the Slavic ethnic group. When did the Slavs finally emerge as a single people from the pan-European ethnic “mess”? The first attempt to answer this question belongs to the author of “The Tale of Bygone Years” - monk Nestor. Taking biblical tradition as a basis, he began the history of the Slavs with Babylonian pandemonium, which divided humanity into 72 nations: “From these 70 and 2 languages became the Slovenian language...”. The above-mentioned Mavro Orbini generously gave the Slavic tribes a couple of extra thousand years of history, dating their exodus from their historical homeland to 1496: “At the indicated time, the Goths and Slavs left Scandinavia ... since the Slavs and Goths were of the same tribe. So, having subjugated Sarmatia, the Slavic tribe was divided into several tribes and received different names: Wends, Slavs, Ants, Verls, Alans, Massetians... Vandals, Goths, Avars, Roskolans, Russians or Muscovites, Poles, Czechs, Silesians, Bulgarians …In short, Slavic language heard from the Caspian Sea to Saxony, from Adriatic Sea to the Germanic, and within all these borders lies the Slavic tribe.”
Of course, such “information” was not enough for historians. Archeology, genetics and linguistics were used to study the “age” of the Slavs. As a result, we managed to achieve modest, but still results. According to accepted version, the Slavs belonged to the Indo-European community, which most likely emerged from the Dnieper-Donets archaeological culture, in the area between the Dnieper and Don rivers, seven thousand years ago during the Stone Age. Subsequently, the influence of this culture spread to the territory from the Vistula to the Urals, although no one has yet been able to accurately localize it. In general, when speaking about the Indo-European community, we do not mean a single ethnic group or civilization, but the influence of cultures and linguistic similarity. About four thousand years BC it broke up into conventional three groups: the Celts and Romans in the West, the Indo-Iranians in the East, and somewhere in the middle, in Central and Eastern Europe, another one emerged language group, from which the Germans, Balts and Slavs later emerged. Of these, around the 1st millennium BC, the Slavic language begins to stand out.
But information from linguistics alone is not enough - to determine the unity of an ethnic group there must be an uninterrupted continuity of archaeological cultures. The bottom link in the archaeological chain of the Slavs is considered to be the so-called “culture of podklosh burials”, which received its name from the custom of covering cremated remains with a large vessel, in Polish “klesh”, that is, “upside down”. It existed in the V-II centuries BC between the Vistula and the Dnieper. In a sense, we can say that its bearers were the most early Slavs. It is from this that it is possible to identify the continuity of cultural elements right up to the Slavic antiquities of the early Middle Ages.
Proto-Slavic homeland
Where, after all, was the Slavic ethnic group born, and what territory can be called “originally Slavic”? Historians' accounts vary. Orbini, citing a number of authors, claims that the Slavs came out of Scandinavia: “Almost all the authors, whose blessed pen conveyed to their descendants the history of the Slavic tribe, claim and conclude that the Slavs came out of Scandinavia... The descendants of Japheth the son of Noah (to which the author includes the Slavs ) moved north to Europe, penetrating into the country now called Scandinavia. There they multiplied innumerably, as St. Augustine points out in his “City of God,” where he writes that the sons and descendants of Japheth had two hundred homelands and occupied lands located north of Mount Taurus in Cilicia, according to Northern Ocean, half of Asia, and throughout Europe as far as the British Ocean."
Nestor called the most ancient territory of the Slavs - the lands along the lower reaches of the Dnieper and Pannonia. The reason for the resettlement of the Slavs from the Danube was the attack on them by the Volokhs. “After many times, the essence of Slovenia settled along the Dunaevi, where there is now Ugorsk and Bolgarsk land.” Hence the Danube-Balkan hypothesis of the origin of the Slavs.
The European homeland of the Slavs also had its supporters. Thus, the prominent Czech historian Pavel Safarik believed that the ancestral home of the Slavs should be sought in Europe in the neighborhood of related tribes of Celts, Germans, Balts and Thracians. He believed that in ancient times the Slavs occupied vast territories of the Middle and of Eastern Europe, from where they were forced to leave the Carpathians under the pressure of Celtic expansion.
There was even a version about two ancestral homelands of the Slavs, according to which the first ancestral home was the place where Proto-Slavic language(between the lower reaches of the Neman and Western Dvina) and where the Slavic people themselves formed (according to the authors of the hypothesis, this happened starting from the 2nd century BC) - the Vistula River basin. Westerners and East Slavs. The first populated the area of the Elbe River, then the Balkans and the Danube, and the second - the banks of the Dnieper and Dniester.
The Vistula-Dnieper hypothesis about the ancestral home of the Slavs, although it remains a hypothesis, is still the most popular among historians. It is conditionally confirmed by local toponyms, as well as vocabulary. If you believe the “words”, that is, the lexical material, the ancestral home of the Slavs was located away from the sea, in the forest flat zone with swamps and lakes, as well as within the rivers flowing into the Baltic Sea, judging by the common Slavic names of fish - salmon and eel. By the way, the areas of the Podklosh burial culture already known to us fully correspond to these geographical characteristics.
"Slavs"
The word “Slavs” itself is a mystery. It firmly came into use already in the 6th century AD; at least, Byzantine historians of this time often mentioned the Slavs - not always friendly neighbors of Byzantium. Among the Slavs themselves, this term was already widely used as a self-name in the Middle Ages, at least judging by the chronicles, including the Tale of Bygone Years.
However, its origin is still unknown. The most popular version is that it comes from the words “word” or “glory,” which go back to the same Indo-European root ḱleu̯- “to hear.” By the way, Mavro Orbini also wrote about this, albeit in his characteristic “arrangement”: “during their residence in Sarmatia, they (the Slavs) took the name “Slavs”, which means “glorious”.
There is a version among linguists that the Slavs owe their self-name to the names of the landscape. Presumably, it was based on the toponym “Slovutich” - another name for the Dnieper, containing a root with the meaning “to wash”, “to cleanse”.
At one time, a lot of noise was caused by the version about the existence of a connection between the self-name “Slavs” and the Middle Greek word for “slave” (σκλάβος). It was very popular among Western scientists of the 18th-19th centuries. It is based on the idea that the Slavs, as one of the most numerous peoples in Europe, made up a significant percentage of captives and often became objects of the slave trade. Today this hypothesis is recognized as erroneous, since most likely the basis of “σκλάβος” was a Greek verb with the meaning “to obtain spoils of war” - “σκυλάο”.
The Eastern Slavs, their life, stages of development, origin are the object of study by representatives of various sciences: anthropology, anthroponymics, linguistics, archeology. Scientists are also concerned with the question: whose ancestors are the Eastern Slavs and who lived on Slavic territory before them.
Origin of the Slavs
The Slavs in the past occupied the territory of Central and Eastern Europe. In the Paleolithic era, a special ethnic group of Slavs did not yet exist. It’s just that these lands were inhabited by tribes that united to protect lands and property from enemies, as well as to obtain food. Analyzing this stage, scientists could not find signs of a national community of these tribes.
We can talk about the ethnogenesis of the Slavs when considering the period from the XII-X centuries BC. It was during these centuries that communities appeared in which there was a unique internal structure, elements of a fair division of spoils, and joint property was accumulated.
In the 6th-5th millennia BC, people began to domesticate animals and learned to make weapons. The key moment in the manufacture of weapons and the development of agriculture was the conquest of iron. First, people learned to process copper, then bronze, and finally iron. Those tribes that learned to make objects from iron were in an advantageous position over those who had to exchange it for other property.
There are different opinions of researchers about the Slavic community at this stage of development. The ongoing research does not provide a clear answer. We can only rely on the evidence of the Greeks, who at that time were a very highly developed civilization. And from Greek written sources it is known that in the 6th century BC Slavic tribes already existed. Byzantine evidence speaks of two large tribes, the Antes and the Sklavins, who inhabited the territory north of Byzantium.
If we discuss the origin of the Slavs briefly, we should note the tribes that inhabited the lands between:
- Dnieper (Jordan) and Danube (Istrom),
- Elbe, Vistula and Oder (Procopius).
The people who inhabited these lands lived at a low level: small, squat houses, almost rooted in the ground, lack of writing. The Greeks perceived all this as complete barbarism.
Although in reality the crafts were at a fairly high level. The design of pottery, the production of figurines and drawings was associated with beliefs in gods and spirits. There is practically no data about these times, since they cremated the dead, so there is no way to study the burials, and household items have not survived to our times.
The works of Herodotus also mention the tribes of the Wends, who occupied the lower reaches of the Viskla. Some scientists believe that the Wends are the ancestors of the Slavs. But there is no clear answer to the question of who exactly are the ancestors of the Slavs. The problem is the lack of sources to study.
Linguists can base their research only on words and other linguistic units common to all Slavs. According to these parameters, they correlate the Slavs with the Proto-Balts and Italians.
Geneticists also have their own opinion. They closely analyze the Y chromosome, which contains information about ancestors. But there are a lot of problems here too. After all, the tribes were constantly moving, fighting, and representatives of different tribes were mixing, so it’s impossible to talk about anything definite. And the question of whose ancestors the Eastern Slavs are still remains open. Most often, geneticists call the Balts the ancestors of the Slavs in general. The Northern Slavs have a direct similarity with the Finno-Ugric group, the Western Slavs have connections with the Celts, and threads stretch from the southern ones to the Thracians.
Territory of Slavic tribes
To the east, the Slavs in the past lived in what is now Ukraine. This is confirmed by many factors, including excavations related to the study of two cultures: Prague-Penkov and Prague-Korchak. There is an opinion that the Slavs are more connected with the Goths, that is, with the Chernyakhov culture. The names of ancient communities depended on the geographical locations in which they settled: rivers, lakes. They often had to migrate and change their habitat, as endless wars were fought for territory. Hence such names as Vitichi, Drevlyans, Krivichi, Polyane.
Lifestyle of Slavic tribes
In order to survive, settlements had to be carefully fortified: surrounded by high fences and ditches. Such settlements were called principalities after the name of their rulers - princes. In times of war, life was under the leadership of military princes. And a squad was formed from the people. IN Peaceful time The princes of the union of communities ruled, endowed with many powers. In resolving issues related to the life of the community, they relied on the council of elders and the people's assembly (veche).
The religion was pagan. It was based on totemism and fetishism. The Slavs considered themselves descendants of animals and believed that they could turn into them. The culture was based on the making of totems for worship. These were animal figurines, they were found during excavations. Russians folk tales are also evidence of such beliefs, for example, the famous “Frog Princess”.
Another object of worship was objects of nature: forests, swamps, rivers, trees. Subsequently, certain ancestral spirits were singled out for worship. Mermen, kikimoras, brownies, and woodland creatures appeared. And to top it off - highest manifestation- pagan gods.
The gods all personified natural phenomena; the supreme god was the god of thunder and lightning - Perun. Temples are religious buildings that were erected in honor of the gods by the ancient Slavs. Essentially, these were open areas where certain rituals were performed. On these sites there were objects corresponding to one or another deity. Some sources claim that “religious rituals were accompanied by human sacrifices.”
All further development these tribes, the development of new types of activities led to the emergence of such a state as Kievan Rus.
1) fishing 2) beekeeping 3) cattle breeding 4) agriculture
2. The trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” led from the sea
1) White - to Caspian
2) Baltic - to Black
3) White - to Black
4) Baltic - in Ladoga lake
3. What was the name of the community among the Eastern Slavs?
1) polyudye 2) rope 3) elderly 4) camp
4. What were they called in Ancient Rus' free communal peasants who had their own farm?
1) rank and file 2) purchases 3) slaves 4) people
5. Information from the work of the Byzantine historian:
“They believe that only God, the creator of lightning, is the ruler over all, and to him they sacrifice bulls and perform other sacred rites. They venerate rivers and nymphs and all sorts of other deities, make sacrifices to all of them and, with the help of these sacrifices, perform fortune telling,” indicate that among the Eastern Slavs
1) Christianity established itself
2) the main occupations were fishing and sailing
3) pagan beliefs were widespread
4) there were no contacts with other countries
6. The neighbors of the Eastern Slavs were
1) Polyans 2) Khazars 3) Arabs 4) Drevlyans
7. System of agriculture” used by the Eastern Slavs in the VI-VIII centuries. in the steppe zone
1) three-field 2) two-field 3) slash-and-burn 4) shifting
8. Eastern Slavs include
1) Krivichi 2) Khazars 3) Cumans 4) Varangians
2. imagine that you are a resident of an East Slavic village. Choose a time of year and describe your entire work day in full
3. With specific examples prove that the beliefs of the Eastern Slavs were pagan.
4. Why can the social structure of the Eastern Slavs be called primitive?
2. The ancestors of the Eastern Slavs lived in: a) Northern Europe b) Central Europe c) East Asia G) North Africa.
3. The reason for the formation of the state among the Eastern Slavs was not: a) organization of construction of irrigation structures b) protection from attacks by neighbors c) organization of trade on the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks.”
4. The main centers of state formation among the Eastern Slavs: a) Novgorod b) Rostov c) Izborsk d) Kyiv.
5. Important role in the formation of the Old Russian state played: a) Baskaks b) Streltsy c) Smerds d) Varangians.
6. The century in which it was formed Old Russian state: a) 7 b) 8 c) 9 d) 10.
7. List the reasons for political fragmentation in Rus'.
8. What does not apply to the reign of Ivan 4? a) construction of St. Basil's Cathedral b) establishment Zemsky Sobors c) oprichnina d) liquidation of veche rule in Novgorod.
9. What is superfluous in this series? a) "Domostroy" b) The Bible c) "The Tale of Bygone Years" d) "The Tale of Igor's Campaign."
10. What is superfluous in this series? A) Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv b) Church of the Intercession on the Nerl c) Bell Tower of Ivan the Great d) Izborsk Fortress.
11. First Russian Tsar: a) Yaroslav the Wise b) Vladimir Monomakh c) Ivan 3 d) Ivan 4.
Modern Slavic peoples were formed over a long period of time. They had many ancestors. These include the Slavs themselves and their neighbors, who significantly influenced the life, culture and religion of these tribes when they still lived according to the foundations of the tribal community.
Antes and Sklavins
Until now, historians and archaeologists have put forward a variety of theories about who the Slavic ancestors could have been. The ethnogenesis of this people took place in an era from which almost no written sources remain. Specialists had to restore early history Slavs in the smallest grains. The Byzantine chronicles are of great value. It was the Eastern Roman Empire that had to experience the pressure of the tribes that eventually formed the Slavic people.
The first evidence of them dates back to the 6th century. The Slavic ancestors were called Ants in Byzantine sources. The famous historian wrote about them. At first, the Antes lived in the area between the Dniester and Dnieper rivers modern Ukraine. During their heyday, they lived in the steppes from the Don to the Balkans.
If the Ants belonged to the eastern group of Slavs, then to the west of them lived the related Sklavins. The first mention of them was in Jordanes’ book “Getica,” written in the middle of the 6th century. Sometimes the Sklavins were also called Veneti. These tribes lived on the territory of modern Czech Republic.
Social order
Residents of Byzantium believed that their Slavic ancestors were barbarians who did not know civilization. It really was like that. Both the Sklavins and the Antes lived under democracy. They did not have a single ruler and statehood. Early Slavic society consisted of many communities, the core of each of which was a specific clan. Such descriptions are found in Byzantine sources and are confirmed by the finds of modern archaeologists. The settlements consisted of large dwellings in which people lived large families. In one locality there could have been about 20 houses. The Sklavins had a hearth, while the Ants had a stove. In the north, the Slavs built log houses.
The customs corresponded to cruel patriarchal mores. For example, ritual killings of wives were practiced at the grave of their spouse. The Slavic ancestors were engaged in agriculture, which was the main source of food. Wheat, millet, barley, oats, and rye were grown. A big one was getting divorced cattle: sheep, pigs, ducks, chickens. The craft was poorly developed compared to Byzantium. It mainly served household needs.
Army and slavery
Gradually, a social stratum of warriors emerged in the community. They often organized raids on Byzantium and other neighboring countries. The goal was always the same - robbery and slaves. Ancient Slavic squads could include several thousand people. Exactly at military environment governors and princes appeared. The first ancestors of the Slavs fought with spears (less often with swords). A throwing weapon, the sulitsa, was also common. It was used not only in battle, but also in hunting.
It is known for certain that slavery was widespread among the Ants. The number of slaves could reach tens of thousands of people. These were mostly prisoners captured in the war. That is why there were many Byzantines among the Anta slaves. As a rule, the antes kept slaves in order to receive a ransom for them. However, some of them were employed in farming and crafts.
Invasion of the Avars
In the middle of the 6th century, the lands of the Antes came under attack from the Avars. These were nomadic tribes whose rulers bore the title of kagan. Their ethnicity remains a matter of debate: some consider them Turks, others consider them speakers of Iranian languages. The ancestors of the ancient Slavs, although they found themselves in a subordinate position, noticeably crowded out the Avars in numbers. This relationship led to confusion. The Byzantines (for example, John of Ephesus) completely identified the Slavs and Avars, although such an assessment was a mistake.
The invasion from the east led to significant migration of the population, before for a long time living in one place. Together with the Avars, the Ants first moved to Pannonia (modern Hungary), and later began to invade the Balkans, which belonged to Byzantium.
The Slavs became the basis of the army of the Kaganate. The most famous episode of their confrontation with the empire was the siege of Constantinople in 626. The history of the ancient Slavs is known from brief episodes of their interaction with the Greeks. The siege of Constantinople became just such an example. Despite the assault, the Slavs and Avars failed to take the city.
Nevertheless, the onslaught of the pagans continued in the future. Back in 602, the Lombard king sent his shipbuilding masters to the Slavs. They settled in Dubrovnik. The first Slavic ships (monoxyls) appeared in this port. They took part in the already mentioned siege of Constantinople. And at the end of the 6th century, the Slavs laid siege to Thessalonica for the first time. Soon thousands of pagans moved to Thrace. At the same time, the Slavs appeared on the territory of modern Croatia and Serbia.
East Slavs
The unsuccessful siege of Constantinople in 626 undermined the forces Avar Khaganate. Slavs everywhere began to get rid of the yoke of strangers. In Moravia, Samo led an uprising. He became the first Slavic prince known by name. At the same time, his fellow tribesmen began their expansion to the east. In the 7th century, the colonialists became neighbors of the Khazars. They managed to penetrate even into Crimea and reach the Caucasus. Where the ancestors of the Slavs lived and their settlements were founded, there was always a river or lake, as well as land suitable for cultivation.
The city of Kyiv appeared on the Dnieper, named after Prince Kiy. Here a new tribal union of the Polyans was formed, which, among several other such unions, replaced the Ants. In the 7th-8th centuries, three groups finally formed Slavic peoples, existing today (western, southern and eastern). The latter settled on the territory of modern Ukraine and Belarus, and in the area between the Volga and Oka rivers, their settlements ended up within the borders of Russia.
In Byzantium, the Slavs and Scythians were often identified. This was a serious Greek error. The Scythians belonged to Iranian tribes and spoke Iranian languages. During their heyday, they inhabited the Dnieper steppes, as well as the Crimea. When I got there Slavic colonization, regular conflicts began between the new neighbors. The cavalry owned by the Scythians posed a serious danger. The ancestors of the Slavs held off their invasions for many years, until finally the nomads were swept away by the Goths.
Tribal unions and cities of the Eastern Slavs
In the northeast, numerous Finno-Ugric tribes became neighbors of the Slavs, including the All and Merya. The settlements of Rostov, Beloozero and Staraya Ladoga appeared here. Another city, Novgorod, became an important political center. In 862, the Varangian Rurik began to reign there. This event marked the beginning of Russian statehood.
The cities of the Eastern Slavs appeared mainly in places where the Path from the Varangians to the Greeks ran. This trade artery led from the Baltic Sea to Byzantium. Along the way, merchants transported valuable goods: ambergris, whale skin, amber, marten and sable furs, honey, wax, etc. The goods were delivered on boats. The ships' route ran along rivers. Part of the route ran on land. In these areas, the boats were transported by portage, as a result of which the cities of Toropets and Smolensk appeared in the places of portage.
The East Slavic tribes lived separately from each other for a long time, and often were completely hostile and fought among themselves. This made them vulnerable to their neighbors. For this reason, at the beginning of the 9th century, some East Slavic tribal unions began to pay tribute to the Khazars. Others were heavily dependent on the Varangians. “The Tale of Bygone Years” mentions a dozen such tribal unions: Buzhans, Volynians, Dregovichs, Drevlyans, Krivichis, Polyans, Polochans, Severians, Radimichis, Tivertsi, White Croats and Ulichs. They all developed a unified culture only in the 11th-12th centuries. after the formation of Kievan Rus and the adoption of Christianity. Later, this ethnic group was divided into Russians, Belarusians and Ukrainians. This is the answer to the question of whose ancestors the Eastern Slavs are.
Southern Slavs
The Slavs who settled the Balkans gradually separated from their other tribesmen and formed the South Slavic tribes. Today their descendants are Serbs, Bulgarians, Croats, Bosnians, Macedonians, Montenegrins and Slovenes. If the ancestors of the Eastern Slavs settled mostly empty lands, then their southern brothers inherited a region in which there were many settlements founded by the Romans. The roads along which pagans quickly moved across the Balkans also remained from ancient civilization. Before them, Byzantium ruled the peninsula. However, the empire had to cede the region to strangers due to constant wars in the east with the Persians and internal turmoil.
In the new lands, the ancestors of the South Slavs mixed with the autochthonous (local) Greek population. In the mountains, the colonialists had to face resistance from the Vlachs, as well as Albanians. Also, outsiders clashed with Christian Greeks. The resettlement of the Slavs to the Balkans ended in the 620s.
Neighborhood with Christians and regular contacts with them have had big influence to the new masters of the Balkans. The paganism of the Slavs in this region was eradicated most quickly. Christianization was both natural and encouraged by Byzantium. At first, the Greeks, trying to understand who the Slavs were, sent embassies to them, and then preachers followed them. Emperors regularly sent dangerous neighbors missionaries, hoping in this way to strengthen their influence over the barbarians. For example, the baptism of Serbs began under Heraclius, who ruled in 610-641. The process was gradual. The new religion established itself among the southern Slavs in the second half of the 9th century. Then the princes of Raska were baptized, after which they converted their subjects to the Christian faith.
It's interesting that if the Serbs became a flock eastern church in Constantinople, then their Croat brothers turned their gaze to the west. This was due to the fact that in 812 the Frankish emperor Charlemagne concluded an agreement with the king of Byzantium, Michael I Rangave, according to which part of the Adriatic coast of the Balkans became dependent on the Franks. They were Catholics and during their short rule in the region they baptized Croats according to their Western custom. And although in the 9th century Christian church was still considered united, the great schism of 1054 noticeably alienated Catholics and Orthodox from each other.
Western Slavs
The western group of Slavic tribes settled vast territories from the Elbe to the Carpathians. She laid the foundation for the Polish, Czech and Slovak people. To the west lived the Bodrichi, Lyutichs, Lusatians and Pomeranians. In the 6th century, this Polabian group of Slavs occupied about a third of the territory of modern Germany. Conflicts between tribes of different ethnic origins were constant. The new colonialists pushed the Lombards, Varins and Rugs (who spoke English) from the shores of the Baltic Sea.
An interesting evidence of the presence of the Slavs on what is now German soil is the name of Berlin. Linguists have discovered the nature of the origin of this word. In the language of the Polabian Slavs, “burlin” meant a dam. There are many of them in northeast Germany. This is how far the ancestors of the Slavs penetrated. Back in 623, these same colonists joined Prince Samo in his rebellion against the Avars. Periodically, under the successors of Charlemagne, the Polabian Slavs entered into an alliance with the Franks in their campaigns against the Kaganate.
German feudal lords began an offensive against outsiders in the 9th century. Gradually, the Slavs living on the banks of the Elbe submitted to them. Today, all that remains of them are small isolated groups, including several thousand people, who have retained their own unique dialect, unlike even Polish. In the Middle Ages, the Germans called all neighboring Western Slavs Vendians.
Language and writing
To understand who the Slavs are, it is best to turn to the history of their language. Once upon a time, when this people was still united, they had one dialect. It was called the Proto-Slavic language. There are no written monuments left from him. What is known is that it belonged to the vast Indo-European family of languages, which makes it similar to many other languages: Germanic, Romance, etc. Some linguists and historians put forward additional theories about its origin. According to one hypothesis, the Proto-Slavic language at some stage of its development was part of the Proto-Balto-Slavic language, until the Baltic languages separated into their own group.
Gradually, each nation developed its own dialect. Based on one of these dialects, spoken by the Slavs who lived in the vicinity of the city of Thessaloniki, the brothers Cyril and Methodius created Slavic Christian writing in the 9th century. The Enlighteners did this by order of the Byzantine emperor. Writing was necessary for the translation of Christian books and sermons among the pagans. Over time, it became known as the Cyrillic alphabet. This alphabet today is the basis of the Belarusian, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Russian, Serbian, Ukrainian and Montenegrin languages. The rest of the Slavs who converted to Catholicism use the Latin alphabet.
In the 20th century, archaeologists began to find many artifacts that became monuments of ancient Cyrillic writing. Novgorod became the key place for these excavations. Thanks to finds in its vicinity, experts learned a lot about what ancient Slavic writing and culture was like.
For example, the so-called Gnezdovo inscription, made on a clay jug in the middle of the 10th century, is considered to be the oldest East Slavic text in Cyrillic. The artifact was found in 1949 by archaeologist Daniil Avdusin. A thousand kilometers away, back in 1912, a lead seal with a Cyrillic inscription was discovered in an ancient Kyiv church. Archaeologists who deciphered it decided that it means the name of Prince Svyatoslav, who reigned in 945-972. It is interesting that at that time paganism remained the main religion in Rus', although Christianity and the same Cyrillic alphabet were already in Bulgaria. in such ancient inscriptions help to more accurately identify the artifact.
The question of whether the Slavs had their own written language before the adoption of Christianity remains open. Fragmentary mentions of it are found in some authors of that era, but these inaccurate evidence is not enough to create a complete picture. Perhaps the Slavs used cuts and features to convey information through images. Such writings could be of a ritual nature and used for fortune telling.
Religion and culture
Pre-Christian paganism of the Slavs developed over several centuries and acquired independent unique features. This belief consisted of the spiritualization of nature, animism, animatism, the cult of supernatural forces, veneration of ancestors and magic. The original mythological texts, which would help lift the veil of secrecy over Slavic paganism, have not survived to this day. Historians can judge this faith only from annals, chronicles, testimonies of foreigners and other secondary sources.
In the mythology of the Slavs, features inherent in other Indo-European cults can be traced. For example, in the pantheon there are also wars (Perun), the god of the other world and cattle (Veles), and a deity with the image of the Sky Father (Stribog). All this in one form or another also exists in Iranian, Baltic and German mythology.
For the Slavs, gods were the highest sacred beings. The fate of any person depended on their complacency. In the most important, responsible and dangerous moments, each tribe turned to its supernatural patrons. Sculptures of gods (idols) were common among the Slavs. They were made of wood and stone. The most famous episode related to idols was mentioned in the chronicles in connection with the Baptism of Rus'. Prince Vladimir as a sign of acceptance new faith ordered to throw the idols of the old gods into the Dnieper. This act became a clear demonstration of the beginning of a new era. Even despite Christianization, which began at the end of the 10th century, paganism continued to live, especially in the remote and bearish corners of Rus'. Some of its features mixed with Orthodoxy and were preserved in the form folk customs(For example, calendar holidays). I wonder what Slavic names often appeared as references to religious views (for example, Bogdan - “given by God,” etc.).
For the worship of pagan spirits there were special sanctuaries called temples. The life of the ancestors of the Slavs was closely connected with these sacred places. Temple premises existed only among the western tribes (Poles, Czechs), while their eastern counterparts did not have such buildings. Old Russian sanctuaries were open groves. Rituals of worship of the gods were held at the temples.
In addition to idols, the Slavs, like the Baltic tribes, had sacred boulder stones. Perhaps this custom was adopted from the Finno-Ugrians. The cult of ancestors was associated with Slavic funeral rites. During the funeral, ritual dances and chants (trizna) were held. The body of the deceased was not buried, but burned at the stake. The ashes and remaining bones were collected in a special vessel, which was left at a pole on the road.
The history of the ancient Slavs would have been completely different if all the tribes had not accepted Christianity. Both Orthodoxy and Catholicism included them in a single European medieval civilization.