Tests

Minerals of Europe. Natural conditions and resources of Western Europe. East European platform: landform. Minerals of the East European Platform

The East European Plain is second in size only to the Amazonian Plain, located in South America. The second largest plain of our planet is located on the continent of Eurasia. Most of it is located in the eastern part of the mainland, the smaller one is in the western part. As geographical position The East European Plain mainly falls on Russia, then it is often called the Russian Plain.

East European Plain: its boundaries and location

From north to south, the plain has a length of more than 2.5 thousand kilometers, and from east to west, 1 thousand kilometers. Its flat relief is explained by almost complete coincidence with the East European platform. And that means large natural phenomena it is not threatened, small earthquakes and flooding are possible. In the northwest, the plain ends with the Scandinavian mountains, in the southwest - with the Carpathians, in the south - with the Caucasus, in the east - with the Mugodzhars and the Urals. Its highest part is located in the Khibiny (1190m), the lowest is located on the Caspian coast (28 m below sea level). Most of the plain is in the forest zone, the southern and central part- these are forest-steppes and steppes. The extreme south and eastern part is covered with desert and semi-desert.

East European Plain: its rivers and lakes

Onega, Pechora, Mezen, Northern Dvina are large rivers of the northern part that belong to the Arctic Ocean. The Baltic Sea basin includes big rivers, as the Western Dvina, Neman, Vistula. The Dniester, the Southern Bug, the Dnieper flow to the Black Sea. The Volga and the Urals belong to the Caspian Sea basin. TO Sea of Azov the Don strives its waters. In addition to large rivers, there are several large lakes on the Russian Plain: Ladoga, Beloe, Onega, Ilmen, Chudskoye.

East European Plain: wildlife

Animals of the forest group, arctic and steppe live on the Russian Plain. AT more forest representatives of the fauna are widespread. These are lemmings, chipmunks, ground squirrels and marmots, antelopes, martens and forest cats, mink, black polecat and wild boar, garden, hazel and forest dormouse etc. Unfortunately, man has caused significant damage to the fauna of the plain. Even before the 19th century mixed forests tarpan (wild forest horse) lived. Today at Belovezhskaya Pushcha trying to save bison. There is steppe reserve Askania-Nova, where the animals of Asia, Africa and Australia settled. BUT Voronezh Reserve successfully protects beavers. Moose and wild boars, which had previously been completely exterminated, reappeared in this area.

Minerals of the East European Plain

The Russian Plain contains many mineral resources that have great importance not only for our country, but also for the rest of the world. First of all, these are the Pechora coal basin, the Kursk deposits of magnetic ore, nepheline and apathetic ores on Kola Peninsula, Volga-Ural and Yaroslavl oil, brown coal in the Moscow region. No less important aluminum ores Tikhvin and brown iron ore of Lipetsk. Limestone, sand, clay and gravel are distributed almost throughout the plain. Salt is mined in the Elton and Baskunchak lakes, and potash salt is mined in the Kama Cis-Urals. In addition to all this, gas is being produced (the area of the Azov coast).

The structure of the mining industry in Western Europe is characterized by the following data (% of the value of all industry products): fuel and energy resources 90.0; ores of ferrous and alloying metals 2.5; ores of non-ferrous, rare and precious metals 2.2; non-metallic minerals and building materials 5.3. Western Europe is characterized by the persistence of sharp disproportions between the consumption of mineral raw materials and its own production (in general, approximately 10:1 or more); at the same time, there is an acute shortage of its individual species, which is associated with limited raw material base region; the share of Western Europe in the reserves of most important types of minerals among industrialized and developing countries is only 3-5%, i.e. 5-8 times less than its share in industrial production. About 75% of the needs of Western Europe in 20 main types of minerals are provided by imports (for North America, for example, this figure is 15, for Japan - 90%). For a number of types of mineral raw materials, for example, for manganese and chromium, Western European countries are completely dependent on external sources.

The degree of self-sufficiency of Western Europe in mineral raw materials by the beginning of the 2000s. declined (except for zinc, whose production is increasing in Ireland, as well as oil and natural gas offshore North Sea). At the present stage, characterized by increased instability of mineral raw materials markets, the governments of Western European countries pay great attention to the problems of reducing import dependence. In particular, the main activities in this area are the replacement of a number of scarce materials with substitutes, more economical consumption of raw materials and the use of secondary resources for its production, diversification of external sources of supply, development of seabed deposits and new geological surveys. An important direction in increasing the self-sufficiency of Western European countries in mineral raw materials is the involvement in the operation of small and poor deposits, which, however, leads to an increase in the cost of production and reduces the competitiveness of products.

The share of mines and open-pit mines with a capacity of more than 1 million tons of ore per year in Western European countries accounts for about 40% of their total number. However, in general, the mining industry of Western European countries is characterized by a low share of open-cast mines. Their share (excluding energy resources) accounts for only 19%. In general, in terms of the number of mining enterprises with a capacity of 150 thousand tons per year and more, France ranks 1st among Western European countries (44 out of 178), Spain 2nd (26), Sweden 3rd (25), 4th e - Germany (18), 5th - Finland (14).

The share of Western European countries in the production of fuel and energy raw materials in the world is about 12%, metal ores - about 7%, non-metallic minerals - 18%.

Rice. 6. Oil rig in the North Sea

Oil industry. Oil production in western European countries is 139 million tons, which corresponds to 7% of the production of industrialized and developing countries of the world. The leading producing countries are Great Britain, as well as Norway and Germany. The main production area is the North Sea, where deposits are developed mainly in the British and Norwegian sectors. Great Britain in the 90s became one of the largest producers of oil in the world, it ranks 4th among industrialized and developing countries. A significant increase in production in this country is due to the commissioning of new fields in the North Sea. In the British sector of the North Sea, 20 fields are being developed and preparatory work is underway on 6; oil production amounted to 103 million tons in 2002. In the Norwegian sector of the North Sea, oil production is carried out at 9 fields in the area of Ekofisk, Statfjord and Murchison; the annual volume of production remains at a stable level (about 24 million tons), mainly due to the fact that this country, having achieved self-sufficiency in its needs for this raw material, does not set itself the task of further rapid development of oil production. In other countries of Western Europe, oil is produced on a small scale: in Germany (in the upper Rhine valley) about 4 million tons, in France and Italy 1.6 million tons each, in Spain (offshore field Amposta Marino) 1.4 million .t, in Greece (Prinos offshore field) 1.2 million t. Total number operating wells in Western Europe (in mid-2002) amounted to about 6,000. Oil production is controlled primarily by large companies - "British Petroleum", "Mobil", "Occidental", "Shell/Esso", "Philips". The total number of oil refineries in the region is 139 (at the end of 2002) with a total annual capacity of 897 million tons. The tanker fleet of Western European countries in 2002 totaled 110 million tons of deadweight.

Western European countries are actively involved in the international oil trade: their share in world imports is 42%, in exports 8% (2002). The total volume of imports in 2002 was determined at 447 million tons, the main importing countries are France (86 million tons), Italy (85 million tons), Germany (73 million tons). Oil comes to Western Europe mainly from the countries of the Near and Middle East (66%), Africa (17%). Oil export from Western Europe amounted to 78 million tons (2002), the main exporting countries are Great Britain, which supplied 58 million tons of oil to the foreign market, of which over 2/3 were sold to other Western European countries and about 30% to the USA, and Norway ( 20 million tons of oil in 2002) - mainly to the USA, the Netherlands and France.

Gas industry. The share of Western European countries in world natural gas production in 2002 was about 20% (compared to less than 10% in 1990). The main producers are the Netherlands and Great Britain. The main production area is the Groningen field in the Netherlands, which, however, is gradually being depleted. The weakening potential of the Netherlands in the production of natural gas (in 1980 - 96.2 billion m3, in 2002 - 77.7 billion m3) is partly offset by an increase in production in the North Sea, where, in addition to long-discovered fields in the southern part of the British sector, the operation of Ekofisk in the Norwegian sector and Frigga in the Norwegian and British sectors. Great Britain and Norway are considered as perspective producers of natural gas; it is expected that the volume of production in these countries, which amounted to 37 and 26, respectively, in 2002 (billion m3), will increase by 1990 to 44 and 42, and by 2000 to 48 and 63. Despite the reduction in production, the Netherlands continues to be the largest exporter of natural gas (in 2002 - 30% of world exports and 54% of exports from Western Europe), ranking first among industrialized and developing countries. Dutch gas is supplied mainly to the countries of Western Europe (Germany, France, countries of the Belgian-Luxembourg Economic Union - BLES, Italy, Switzerland). Germany and France stand out among the leading importers of natural gas.

The coal industry, traditionally considered one of the main industries in the region, in the 60-70s of the 20th century was in a crisis. By the mid-1980s, coal mining, mainly of hard coal, had halved on the whole. This is due to a number of reasons, incl. competition from more efficient fuels (oil and natural gas), replacement of hard coal by brown coal in many cases, reduction in consumption hard coal metallurgical industry as a result of improved technology, the desire of monopolies to make profits, often to the detriment of national interest. The share of Western European countries in the production of hard coal among industrialized and developing countries is 18%, brown - 57% (2002). The share of thermal coals in the total volume of their production increased from 62% in 1975 to 72% in 2002, coking - decreased from 38% to 28%. Leading positions in the coal industry belong to Great Britain and Germany. In the UK in 2002, 122 million tons of hard coal were mined; the coal industry continues to experience serious difficulties, mainly due to high production costs at mining enterprises and reduced demand for coal. The main mining areas are the Yorkshire, Northumberland-Durham and Northwest basins. In Germany, the main areas for the extraction of coal are the Lower Rhine-Westphalian (Ruhr) and Aachen basins, where coking coal is mainly mined, brown coal - the Lower Rhine and Westerwald basins. Coal is mined in significant quantities also in France, Spain and Belgium, brown - in Greece, Spain, Italy. The countries of the Western European region are major importers of coal: in 2002 they imported 112 million tons mainly from the USA (or about half of all world imports); the main importing countries are France, Italy, Belgium. The main coal exporting countries are Germany and the United Kingdom, ranked 4th and 6th respectively among industrialized and developing countries.

Rice. 7. Coal mine workers in the Ruhr coal basin

In the mining of uranium ores in industrialized and developing countries the share of Western European countries is 7% (2002). The main volume of production of this raw material is concentrated in France (about 90%), on a small scale, the development of uranium deposits is carried out in Spain, Portugal, Germany, and Greece. The main uranium mining areas in France are the deposits of the Central French Massif, as well as Lodev (in the south of France). Other Western European countries with a developed nuclear industry act as importers of uranium concentrates, which are purchased mainly from Canada, Australia, and African countries.

Iron production in industrialized and developing countries was 12% in 2002, compared with 32% in 1990. The industry's output has more than halved over this period. The main iron ore producing countries include France, Sweden, Spain and Great Britain; moreover, the first two countries are ranked 7th and 8th respectively among industrialized countries (2002). A particularly sharp decrease in production occurred in France (more than 3 times in 1960-82), because. the high-phosphorus low-grade ores of the Lorraine Basin cannot compete with high-grade raw materials mined in other regions. In the future, further curtailment of iron ore production in this country is expected. The low iron content of British and German ores and the unprofitability of mining are the main reason for the closure of the mines. The iron ore industry in Sweden is in a somewhat more favorable position, where the main volume of production is concentrated at state-owned iron ore enterprises based on the Kiruna and Malmberget (Northern Sweden) and Grengesberg (Central Sweden) deposits, which develop high-quality low-phosphorus ores. The Swedish iron ore industry has an export orientation, export is carried out mainly through the ice-free Norwegian port of Narvik and the Swedish port of Luleå. The needs of the Western European region for iron ore are met mainly through imports, mainly from developing countries. In EEC countries, for example, the share of imports in consumption ranges from 83% to 95%. The largest importers are Germany, BLES, France, Italy, Great Britain.

Bauxite mining in Western Europe is carried out mainly in Greece (mainly the Parnassus-Kiona region) and France (Provence), which provide 7% of its total volume in the world (2002), and in France since 1983 there has been a steady decline in production, which led to a decrease in the annual level by 2002 almost doubled. There is a reorientation of the French aluminum industry to imported raw materials. Greece acts as an exporter of this raw material mainly to the countries of the region.

Mining of gold and silver is carried out on a small scale, the share of the region in the world is 5% and 1%, respectively. Precious metals are extracted mainly along the way in the development of polymetallic deposits.

In the extraction of copper ore, Western European countries occupy a very modest position: they account for less than 3% of the world production of this raw material. The development of copper ores (mainly in polymetallic deposits) is carried out mainly in Sweden, Spain, Finland, and Norway. The region's need for raw materials for copper production is met mainly by imports of concentrates or crude metal, which are purchased mainly from developing countries. The main importers are Germany, Belgium, Great Britain.

Mining of nickel ores in the region is carried out on a limited scale, mainly in Greece and Finland. The production of refined nickel is carried out mainly on imported raw materials; a number of countries also import nickel and nickel products.

Rice. 8. Nickel open pit in Finland

Mining of tin ores is carried out on an extremely small scale; the region accounts for only about 2% of the world's tin production. The exploitation of tin deposits is practically carried out only in Great Britain (Cornwall), as well as in Spain and Portugal. Western European countries are major importers of tin concentrates, as well as tin and its alloys.

In the extraction of mercury, the Rudregion occupies a leading position in the world, providing more than half of the total production. The most important producing countries are Spain, which occupies the 1st place in the world in the extraction of mercury, and Italy, which until 1996 provided about 1/5 of the production. However, in 1997-2000, production in Italy was temporarily stopped due to the unprofitability of the operation of the Monte Amiata mine.

The share of Western Europe in the production of lead ores in the world is 13% (2002). The development of lead deposits is carried out mainly in Sweden, Spain, Ireland and Germany. In general, the region is a net importer of lead, since the lack of its own raw material base determines the high role of imports in meeting the needs of the industry in this raw material. In the 1980s - early 1990s. net imports of lead in all forms in Western European countries increased by more than 1.5 times.

The share of Western European countries in the production of zinc ores in the world is about 20% (2002); the main producers are Sweden, Spain, Ireland, Germany, France. The demand of Western European zinc smelters for raw materials is provided by their own ore only by 55%, the rest is imported.

In the extraction of a number of types of non-metallic mineral raw materials, Western European countries occupy leading positions among other countries. For example, the region provides about 75% of magnesite mining (mainly Greece, Austria, Spain), about 60% of pyrite mining (Spain, Italy), about 50% of feldspar (Germany, France, Italy) and potassium salts (Germany, France, Spain), 30-35% kaolin (UK, Germany, France), 28.1% fluorite (Spain, France, UK, Italy), 23% graphite (Austria, Norway, Germany), about 20% sulfur (France , Germany, Italy), 19% barite (Ireland, Germany, Italy, France), 25-30% marble (Greece, Italy, Germany).

General assessment of the natural conditions and resources of Europe

The natural conditions of European countries are generally favorable for human life and production activities. There are no gigantic mountain ranges that separate countries, too dry or cold areas that limit the distribution of the population.

Relief

By the nature of the relief and Europe is divided into mountainous and flat. by the most great plains are Central European and Eastern European. They are densely populated and developed.

The south of Europe is occupied by young mountain formations with a manifestation seismic activity. Here such mountain systems as the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Apennines, the Carpathians, the Balkans rose. But they do not represent significant obstacles and difficulties for mastering. In the north are the old ruined by time scandinavian mountains. They are peers Ural mountains. In the center of Europe there are also old mountain structures (Tatras, Harz, etc.), united in the Central European mountain belt. Also, the old forges are located in the north british isles(Northern Scotland).

Remark 1

In general, the relief is favorable for life and economic activity person. But if environmental protection measures are ignored, erosion processes can develop.

Climate

Europe is located in the subarctic, temperate and subtropical climatic zones. Most of the region is in a temperate climate. Favorable prevails here. temperature regime and humidification mode. In the north ( arctic islands and northern Scandinavia) there is a shortage of heat. Therefore, agriculture develops in closed ground. On the Mediterranean coast, on the contrary, there is enough heat, but there is a lack of moisture. Therefore, heat-loving and drought-resistant plants are cultivated here.

Minerals

The minerals of Europe are very diverse. They served as the basis for the economic power of European states. But over the past century, the deposits have been severely depleted. Many countries import raw materials from other regions.

Oil and gas fields are confined to the outskirts of the platform, shelf zones. In addition to Russia, the United Kingdom, Norway, the Netherlands and Romania are actively producing oil and gas.

The Carboniferous Belt stretched across Europe from Great Britain to Ukraine. Basins that are unique in terms of coal quality are:

Donbass (Ukraine, Russia),
Upper Silesian (Poland),
Ruhr (Germany),
Ostravo-Karvinsky (Czech Republic).

Germany ranks first in the world in brown coal production. In addition, its deposits are available in Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Bulgaria.

The ore resources of Europe are confined to the foundations of ancient platforms. After Russia, Ukraine and Sweden can boast of rich deposits of iron ore. The iron ore basins of France, Great Britain and Poland are severely depleted. Ukraine ranks first in the world in the extraction of manganese ores.

The south of Europe is rich in ores of non-ferrous metals. Copper and nickel ores, bauxites, and mercury ores are mined here. The Lublin copper ore basin (Poland) is considered the most powerful in Europe.

On the territory of Sweden and France there are deposits of uranium ores. Germany, Belarus, Ukraine are rich in potash salts, Poland is rich in sulfur, and the Czech Republic is rich in graphite.

Land and forest resources

Europe is rich in land resources. The best in terms of soil fertility - chernozems are located on the territory of Ukraine, Hungary and in the south of Russia. Most of Central Europe is covered with brown forest soils. Brown soils are formed on the Mediterranean coast. In the north of the region there are soddy-podzolic soils in need of intensive reclamation.

The region's forest resources have been rather severely depleted over centuries of use. Forest areas remain the territories of Finland, Sweden, Austria, Belarus, northern part of Poland.

Recreational resources

Natural and recreational resources form the basis for the development of the resort business. Resorts can be:

beach ( Cote d'Azur, Golden Sands, Malta),
skiing (Switzerland, Slovenia, Austria, Norway),
hydropathic (Karlovy Vary, Baden-Baden).

Foreign Europe has a rather diverse set of fuel, ore and non-metallic minerals. However, the reserves of only a few of them in terms of their value can be classified as global or at least pan-European. So, according to the estimates of the geographers of Moscow State University, in the world reserves this region stands out most in terms of coal (20%), zinc (18%), lead (14%), copper (7%). Its share in the world reserves of oil, natural gas, iron ore, bauxite is 5–6%, and other types of mineral raw materials are represented in foreign Europe by smaller amounts of resources. When characterizing the resource base of the region, one must also take into account the fact that for the most part the basins and deposits of mineral raw materials in foreign Europe were developed long ago and are now severely depleted. Therefore, the region is very dependent on the import of many types of mineral raw materials - oil, natural gas, manganese and nickel ores, copper, bauxite, uranium concentrates, etc.

The distribution of minerals across the territory of foreign Europe is characterized by significant unevenness, which is predetermined by geological - primarily tectonic - structural features of the region's territory. Within it, there are usually five main tectonic structures: Baltic Shield, Caledonian folding belt, Northwest European depression, Epihercynian platform and Alpine folded area. However, with a more generalized approach, they can be combined into two main groups, coinciding with the northern and southern parts of the region (Fig. 2).

main feature northern part of the region lies in the fact that it has a predominantly platform structure, although far from homogeneous. The most ancient and stable territory within its boundaries, composed of crystalline rocks, forms, as you know, the Baltic Shield. In the east, the very ancient, Precambrian East European platform, covered with a thick cover of sedimentary rocks, also enters the borders of foreign Europe. Most of the rest of the territory is occupied by a younger, so-called epi-Hercynian platform, formed on the site of the Hercynian folding, which flowed in the Carboniferous and Permian periods. It is characterized by a mosaic combination of platform areas with intermountain depressions and foredeeps. These features of the tectonic structure primarily determine the composition and distribution of minerals. Summarizing, it can apparently be argued that they are genetically related, firstly, to the crystalline basement of the platform, secondly, to its sedimentary cover, and, thirdly, to marginal and intermountain troughs.

Minerals associated with the crystalline basement of the platform and having a pronounced igneous origin are most characteristic of the Baltic Shield. An example is the iron ore deposits in Northern Sweden - Kirunavare, Gällivare, etc. The mineralization here extends from the surface to a depth of 2000 m, and the iron content in the ore reaches 62–65%. Within the same shield on the territory of Finland, Sweden and Norway there are also deposits of non-ferrous metals. A variety of ore deposits of igneous and metamorphic origin are also found within the epihercynian platform on the territory of the Federal Republic of Germany, France, Spain and some other countries.

Mineral resources, which owe their origin to the sedimentary cover of the platform, are even greater and more diverse. So, in the Paleozoic (Permian), copper ore basins of Poland and Germany were formed.

In the Polish Lower Silesia, deposits of copper ore were discovered in 1957. The average copper content in cuprous sandstones occurring at a depth of 600-1000 m is 1.5% here; in addition, ores contain silver, nickel, cobalt, lead, zinc and other metals. The total reserves of copper ores are estimated at 3 billion tons, which is equivalent to more than 50 million tons of metal. This puts Poland first in Europe and fourth in the world. Numerous deposits of rock salt (salt domes) in Poland, deposits of potash salts in the Federal Republic of Germany and French Alsace are also associated with the Permian deposits left by the so-called Zechstein Sea.

In the Mesozoic (Jurassic) in trough-shaped depressions in the territory of Lorraine (France), deposits of iron ore, estimated at 4 billion tons, arose. However, the iron content in Lorraine ore is quite low (25–35%), and it also contains an admixture of phosphorus. All this is only partly compensated by its shallow occurrence, which allows open-pit mining.

The main mineral of the Cenozoic age, associated with the sedimentary cover of the platform, is brown coal, which has come down to us in the form of numerous basins of the Paleogene and Neogene age in the territory of the Federal Republic of Germany (Lower Rhine, Lauzitsky), Poland (Belchatow), Czech Republic (North Czech).

Among the minerals that owe their origin to foredeeps, leading role play coal, oil and natural gas. The coal basins of the region form a kind of latitudinal axis, stretching from Great Britain through the basins of northern France and southern Belgium, the Ruhr and Saar basins of Germany to the Ostrava basin of the Czech Republic, the Upper Silesian and Lublin basins of Poland. (Let us add that further east on the same axis is the Donets Basin.) This arrangement of coal basins, which together form one of the largest in the world coal accumulation belts, is explained by the fact that in the Carboniferous period the northern marginal foredeep of the Epihercynian platform passed here. Therefore, in structural and tectonic terms, the basins of this belt show great similarity, which can be illustrated by the examples of the largest of them - the Ruhr (general geological reserves of about 290 billion tons, an area of 5.5 thousand km 2) and the Upper Silesian (120 billion tons, 4, 5 thousand km 2).

Both of these basins are of the paralytic type, formed in large tectonic depressions. Throughout carboniferous period there was a gradual subsidence of these depressions, accompanied by intense sedimentation, as well as repeated marine transgressions.

Rice. 2. The main features of the tectonic structure of the territory of foreign Europe

However, the formation of coal is associated only with deposits of the Upper Carboniferous, which in the Ruhr basin reach a thickness of 5000–6000 m, and in the Upper Silesian basin 3000–7000 m. This means that the mining and geological conditions of coal occurrence in the Upper Silesian basin are more favorable. In addition, the depth of development in it is less than in the Ruhr. However, in terms of the quality of coals and, in particular, in terms of the share of coking grades, the Ruhr basin is ahead of the Upper Silesian.

The oil and gas basins explored in the northern part of foreign Europe are, as a rule, very small in size. Genetically, they are associated with small intermountain depressions of the Epihercynian platform. The only major basin in this region is the Severomorsky. It arose within the North Sea syneclise, where the thickness of Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary deposits reaches a thickness of 9000 m. This sequence is characterized by an abundance of oil-bearing reservoirs and oil-and-gas-resistant seals.

main feature southern part of the region lies in the fact that it is located within the geologically much younger folded zone, which is part of the vast Euro-Asian geosynclinal belt. Differences of this part of the region from the northern one: a much younger geological age of most minerals, the origin of which is associated mainly with the epoch of Alpine orogeny; the predominance of ore minerals of igneous and metamorphic origin; less territorial concentration mineral resources.

Ore basins and deposits in the southern part of the region (chrome, copper, polymetallic, mercury ores) are of igneous origin and are mostly associated with volcanic intrusions. The exception is bauxite, whose deposits form a wide Mediterranean belt stretching from France to Greece. They formed here in lake and maritime conditions under the dominance of wet subtropical climate and are associated with eluvial red-colored rocks - laterites (from Latin later - brick).

Deposits and pools of coal, oil and gas, and native sulfur also formed in sedimentary deposits. Among coal basins, brown coal predominates, primarily its lowest-grade type - lignite (for example, Kosovo in Serbia, Vostochno-Maritsky in Bulgaria). In most cases, they were formed in small intermountain and intramountain depressions under conditions of lacustrine sedimentation. Small oil and gas basins also arose in intermountain and intramountain depressions, and the largest of them, the Ciscarpathian basin in Romania, was formed within a vast marginal foredeep stretching along the Southern and Eastern Carpathians. In this basin, more than 70 oil and gas fields have been explored, located in the deposits of the Cenozoic and Mesozoic. However, oil production began here in the middle of the 19th century, and now the deposits are severely depleted. Exploration and production of oil has long been directed not so much “in breadth” as “in depth”, and the depth of wells reaches 5000–6000 m.

Region central Europe has a very wide variety of natural conditions and resources.

Almost half of the territory of Central Europe is lowland: the north of its mainland is occupied by the Central European Plain; low-lying plains are also characteristic of the east and south of Great Britain and Ireland. In most of the UK, the low North Scottish Highlands, the Pennines and the Cambrian Mountains are located. In the south of the continental part of the region, a relatively wide strip of uplands, low and medium-altitude mountains passes into a relatively narrow belt of the powerful mountain system of the Alps. Located mainly on the territory of Western European "countries, the Alps are the highest mountains of all of Foreign Europe. Their main peak, Mont Blanc, located at the junction of the borders of France, Switzerland and Italy, reaches 4807 m above sea level. The difficult high-altitude relief creates many problems for agriculture , transport, construction, life and life of the population.

From Switzerland to the Netherlands just over 400 km, but how different their relief! The powerful, glacier-covered mountain ranges of the Alps of Switzerland - and the flat, almost table-like low-lying surface of the Netherlands! Near 2/5 their territory lies even below sea level and is not flooded only thanks to the whole system protective structures.

Features of geotectonics and the diversity of geological structures of Western Europe determined the diversity of the composition of its mineral resources. In thick strata of sedimentary rocks of the Upper Paleozoic of the Central European Lowland, deposits of oil, gas, potash and rock salts were found, and oil and gas were found in the same rocks of the North Sea shelf. In the foothill troughs in the territory of Great Britain, Germany, France, a strip of coal basins stretched mainly in the Upper Carboniferous time, to the south - an iron ore province (primarily Lorraine in France) of the Mesozoic era. Deposits of lead-zinc, polymetallic, copper and other ores are found mainly in the zones of faults and intrusions, which are most characteristic of the foothill and mountainous regions of Western Europe, which are distinguished by mineralization of rocks.

The share of Central Europe in the reserves of most of the most important types of minerals in the world is only a few percent, that is, several times less than the share of the region in world industrial production. In Central Europe, there is very little bauxite, a raw material for the production of the "metal of the century" - aluminum; there are practically no deposits of manganese, chromites, nickel, molybdenum, copper, cobalt, mercury and some other minerals, especially rare earths. The situation is better with the "classical" types of mineral raw materials - coal and iron ore, which began to be widely used in the last quarter of the 19th - early 20th centuries. Large deposits of coal in Great Britain, Germany and Belgium and iron ore in Great Britain, France and Luxembourg then served as a prerequisite for the development of powerful energy, metallurgy (and on its basis - mechanical engineering) and the chemical industry. The countries of Western Europe as a whole are still sufficiently supplied with bituminous and brown coal.

The coal industry of the countries of Western Europe, in the past one of the main industries of the region, in the 60-70s of the twentieth century found itself in a crisis situation. This was due to several reasons: competition for coal from more efficient fuels - oil and natural gas, a decrease in the consumption of coal by the metallurgical industry as a result of the achievements of the scientific and technological revolution, and environmental restrictions. In the 1970s, the fuel and energy balance of Western European countries became mainly oil and gas. The discovery of large deposits of natural gas in the Netherlands dramatically changed their energy economy and partly affected the energy of other countries receiving Dutch gas. Then oil and gas were discovered in the North Sea.

Central Europe is located mainly in the temperate zone. Almost all of its mainland (except for the Alpine regions and a narrow strip mediterranean coast France), as well as the south of Great Britain, have an annual sum of temperatures (for a period with a stable temperature above 10 °) from 2200 to 4000 °, which makes it possible to grow crops with a medium and long growing season. In most of Great Britain, in Ireland and in the highlands of the mainland, the sum of temperatures is much less - from 1000 to 2200 °, i.e., it ensures the cultivation of mainly crops with a short growing season. Only the Mediterranean coast of France and the island of Corsica lie in the subtropical climate zone and have a sum of active temperatures from 4000 to 6000 °. Therefore, heat-loving crops with a very long growing season are grown here - cotton, citrus fruits, olives, etc.

In Central Europe (except for the highlands and the southeast of Germany), mild winters are common with an average January temperature of 0 to 8 °. Summer is usually not hot: in July, the average temperature ranges from 16 to 24 °, and in the highlands and in the British Isles it is even lower - from 8 to 16. The proximity of the Atlantic Ocean has a particular effect on moisture: it is abundant almost everywhere. On the west coast Ireland and the UK and in the mountainous regions receive from 1000 to 2000 mm of precipitation per year, in the rest of the territory - from 500 to 1000 mm. At the same time, in the west of the region, the bulk of precipitation falls on the cold season; to the east, their maximum shifts to the summer. Droughts are extremely rare, so only a small part of cultivated land is irrigated. On the contrary, large areas of agricultural land are in need of drainage, especially in the UK, the Netherlands, Austria and the FRG.

The countries of Western Europe have a dense river network. Almost all their rivers are always full of water; from largest rivers freeze-up occurs on the Rhine, and even then no more than a crescent and not every year. Most of the Western European rivers are navigable, especially in the lower and middle reaches. Their transport value is significantly increased due to the system of numerous channels. Those rivers that begin in the Alps, the Pyrenees and the Massif Central have powerful water resources in their upper reaches. Western Europe, mainly due to France, Austria and Switzerland, accounts for more than 1/4 general reserves hydropower of foreign Europe.

Despite the abundance of rivers and significant reserves of groundwater, Western Europe is experiencing an ever-growing shortage of fresh water for household and household purposes. The water management balance of individual large economic regions (West Yorkshire in the UK, Paris and others in France), as well as entire countries (primarily Germany and the Netherlands) is becoming so tense that it becomes almost a national problem for them.

The shortage of water supply in Western Europe is due both to a sharp increase in water consumption by the population and many industries, especially water-intensive industries that are progressing in the era of the scientific and technological revolution (chemical, metallurgical and energy), and mismanagement, reaching a barbaric attitude towards water resources on the part of the capitalist monopolies . As a result of the discharge of overheated and polluted waters into rivers by industrial enterprises, some of them are almost completely devoid of biological life. First of all, this applies to the Rhine, its tributaries in the lower reaches and the Seine, which have acquired the "glory" of the dirtiest rivers in the world.

The main consumers (and at the same time pollutants) of water in Western Europe are industry and public utilities. In the UK, Belgium, Germany, Luxembourg and Austria, they take almost all the water used for household purposes. Only in France and the Netherlands more than 30% of the volume of water is given to the needs of agriculture. In general, however, in Western Europe there are enough precipitation(as well as heat) to grow a large set of crops.

This is facilitated by the diversity of soil cover. The most common brown forest soils deciduous forests occupying vast areas in the lowland, hilly and foothill regions of France, Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands and Great Britain. In the same place and in most of the territory of Ireland, soddy-podzolic soils are found. mixed forests and sod-calcareous soils, and in the Netherlands - march soils. Mountainous regions are characterized by mountain types of soils - podzolic, forest sod-calcareous and forest brown, as well as terra dew in the south of France.

The soils of Western Europe in their natural state are predominantly of medium and low fertility. However, the high level of agricultural technology, the widespread use of mineral fertilizers for decades have significantly improved their quality in most Western European countries. Therefore, crop yields temperate zone in Western European countries, as a rule, is significantly higher than in other economically developed countries. In the Netherlands, Great Britain, for example, wheat is harvested up to 80-90 centners per hectare. This allows the countries of Western Europe to largely provide themselves with food, although there is little arable land there: from 0.1 to 0.3 hectares per capita, i.e., about the same as in the countries of Eastern and South-East Asia considered "classically" poor arable land. Western Europe is dominated by cultivated landscapes and cultivated vegetation. Only in the highlands and in the north of Great Britain (in Scotland) did the corners of wildlife. There are mostly forests preserved. In Western Europe, they occupy a more modest area than in other European regions, covering just over % of its territory. At the same time, in the UK and the Netherlands, forests occupy only 7.5% of the area, and in Ireland - less than 3%. In all European countries, with the exception of France and Belgium, now prevail conifers trees: in recent centuries, broad-leaved forests in the lowlands, in forest parks, on watersheds and coastal dunes have been largely replaced by planted coniferous forests. Wood consumption in Western Europe far exceeds timber harvesting, which is sharply limited by a modest forest fund: for each inhabitant of the region, on average, there is 0.15 hectares of forest, that is, half as much as in general in Foreign Europe.

MINERALS:

Coal:

Total reserves: 3rd in the world after Asia and America

Hard coal: 3rd place in the world after Asia and America

Explored reserves: 3rd place after Asia and America

Hard coal - 2nd place after Asia

Brown coal - 3rd place after America and Asia

For hard coal: Czech Republic, Germany, Poland, Great Britain

Brown coal: Germany, Eastern Europe

Among the coal basins, the Ruhr in the Federal Republic of Germany and the Upper Silesian in Poland stand out, among the oil and gas basins - the North Sea, among the iron ore - Lorraine in France and Kiruna in Sweden. (+ 1 Scottish Bass. 2 Yorkshire Bass. 3 South Welsh Bass. 4 Ruhr Basin 5 Nord-Pas-de-Calais Bass 6 Saar-Lorraine Bass. 7 Lower Rhine Bass. 8 Asturian Bass. 9 Upper Silesian Bass. 10 Dnieper Bass 11 basin Comanesti 12 Krekan basin 13 North Sea basin CONCLUSION: There are many types of mineral raw materials in the bowels of the region, however, these numerous and diverse deposits do not provide the region's needs for energy carriers and metal ores.Therefore, the European economy in largely dependent on their imports)

mineral

Uranium ores: France, Sweden, Spain

Iron ores: France, Sweden

Copper ores: Poland, Finland, former Yugoslavia

Oil: UK, Norway, Romania

Gas: Netherlands, UK, Norway

Mercury ores: Spain, Italy

Bauxites: France, Greece, Hungary, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Sulfur: Poland

Graphite: Czech Republic

Mining and chemical raw materials (potassium salts): Germany, France

12% of the world's fuel and energy potential is concentrated in the bowels of Europe, including 20% of the world's fossil coal reserves; large reserves of metal ores (mercury, lead, zinc, etc.), native sulfur, potash salts and a number of other types of minerals. But almost all European countries depend to some extent on the import of raw materials, especially fuel and energy.

In the bowels are concentrated various minerals. Some types of mineral raw materials form rather large concentrations and can fully meet the needs of the pan-European economy (fossil coals, natural gas, mercury, lead-zinc ores, potash salts, graphite, etc.). However, most of the mineral resources in Europe are quantitatively insignificant, and among them are oil, manganese and nickel ores, chromites, and phosphorites. Therefore, Europe imports large quantities of iron and manganese ores, tin, nickel, uranium concentrates, copper, tungsten and molybdenum, bauxites, and oil. The need for mineral raw materials for the industry of Europe continues to grow steadily, although the scale of European consumption and processing of minerals far exceeds its specific supply of raw materials. NATURAL WATERS- one of the most important and scarce natural resources in Europe. The population and various sectors of the economy use huge volumes of water, and the amount of water consumption continues to increase. Water quality deterioration due to uncontrolled or poorly controlled economic use is the main problem in modern water use in Europe. The total water reserves concentrated on the surface or in the bowels of Europe are quite significant: their volume approaches 1,600 thousand km3. The modern economy of European countries annually takes about 360 km3 of pure water from water sources for the needs of industry, agriculture and for the water supply of settlements. The demand for water and water consumption is steadily increasing as the population grows and the economy develops.

Europe has a dense water transport network (navigable sections of rivers and canals) with a total length of over 47 thousand km. The network of waterways in France has reached almost 9 thousand km, in Germany - more than 6 thousand km, in Poland - 4 thousand km, in Finland - 6.6 thousand km. The largest river in Europe is the Danube; it crosses the territory of eight states and annually transports over 50 million tons of cargo. His drainage basin differs in complexity in climatic and morphological terms. The section of the Danube in the area of the breakthrough of the Carpathians was the most difficult to pass. In the early 1970s, the Jerdap complex hydroelectric complex was built (a dam, two hydroelectric power stations and shipping locks), which improved the transport capabilities of the river. The Rhine River, crossing the territory of five states, is the main transport artery of Western Europe. The Rhine and its tributaries pass through large industrial centers of Germany (North Rhine-Westphalia, Frankfurt am Main, etc.), France, Switzerland, so the cargo traffic on the river exceeds 100 million tons per year. There is a trans-European system of navigable canals that connects the rivers of the Central European Plain - the Bug, Vistula, Odra, Elbe, Weser.

SOILS

European countries have a fairly high agro-natural potential, since they are located in the temperate and subtropical geographical zones, they have favorable thermal resources and moisture supply. But the increased population density, characteristic of Europe in all historical epochs, contributed to the long and intensive use of natural resources. Low fertility prompted Europeans to pay attention to the development of various ways to improve soils and raise their natural fertility. It was in Europe that the practice of artificially improving the chemical composition of the soil cover with the help of organic and mineral fertilizers was born, variants of crop rotation systems and other agrotechnical measures were developed.

Agricultural development of the territory in the north, in the center and in the south of Europe differs significantly. The highest coefficient of agricultural use (AUC) in Romania, Poland, Hungary, in the east of Germany, Denmark - more than 80%. In the west of Central Europe, there are fewer plowed lands: in the west of Germany and France - 50%, in Great Britain - 40, in Ireland - only 17% of the agricultural fund. In the subtropical south, where there are few plains, arable land occupies only 1/3 of the land used in agriculture. For example, in Italy, plantations occupy up to 17% of all agricultural land, in Spain - 16%, in Portugal - 14%. FORESTS About 4% of global reserves. Large disparities: in Ireland, forest cover is 6% of the territory, and in Finland about 60%. Most forested: Finland (59%), Sweden (54%)

Forests cover 157.2 million hectares in foreign Europe, or 33% of its territory. For every European, on average, there is 0.3 hectares of forest (in the world this norm is 1.2 hectares). The long history of the economic development of European lands was accompanied by intensive deforestation. There are almost no forests that have not been affected by economic activity in Europe. Operational forests in Europe are 138 million hectares with an annual increase of 452 million m3. They perform not only production, but also environmental protection functions. According to FAO and UNECE forecasts, in 2000 timber production in Europe will reach 443 million m3. Europe is the only part of the world where recent decades forest area is increasing. And this is happening despite high population density and a severe shortage of productive land. The need long recognized by Europeans to protect their very limited land resources and fertile soils from erosional destruction and to regulate flood runoff resulted in the overestimation of the environmental protection functions of forest plantations. Therefore, the soil and water protection role of the forest and its recreational value have immeasurably increased in importance. Natural resources are a necessary (but not mandatory) condition for economic development. In recent decades, countries that lack the necessary minerals have developed rapidly. But ceteris paribus, the presence of rich and diverse natural resources gives countries - their owners additional advantages. In most countries with developed market economies, natural resources (especially minerals) are consumed more than they have. The missing resources are imported mainly from developing countries. This state of affairs gives rise to two problems: the dependence of developed countries on the supply of raw materials and the raw material orientation of the exports of many developing countries.

General assessment of the natural conditions and resources of Europe

European countries are generally favorable for human life and production activities. There are no gigantic mountain ranges that divide the countries, too dry or cold areas that limit the population.

Relief

By nature, Europe is divided into mountainous and flat. The largest plains are Central European and East European. They are densely populated and developed.

The south of Europe is occupied by young mountain formations with seismic activity. Here such mountain systems as the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Apennines, the Carpathians, the Balkans rose. But they do not represent significant obstacles and difficulties for mastering. In the north are the old Scandinavian mountains destroyed by time. They are the same age as the Ural Mountains. In the center of Europe there are also old mountain structures (Tatras, Harz, etc.), united in the Central European mountain belt. Also, old forges are located in the north of the British Isles (Northern Scotland).

Remark 1

In general, the relief is favorable for human life and economic activity. But if environmental protection measures are ignored, erosion processes can develop.

Climate

Europe is located in the subarctic, temperate and subtropical climatic zones. Most of the region is in a temperate climate. Favorable temperature and moisture conditions prevail here. In the north (Arctic islands and northern Scandinavia) there is a lack of heat. Therefore, agriculture develops in closed ground. On the Mediterranean coast, on the contrary, there is enough heat, but there is a lack of moisture. Therefore, heat-loving and drought-resistant plants are cultivated here.

Minerals

Oil and gas fields are confined to the outskirts of the platform, shelf zones. In addition to Russia, the United Kingdom, Norway, the Netherlands and Romania are actively producing oil and gas.

The Carboniferous Belt stretched across Europe from Great Britain to Ukraine. Basins that are unique in terms of coal quality are:

Donbass (Ukraine, Russia),
Upper Silesian (Poland),
Ruhr (Germany),
Ostravo-Karvinsky (Czech Republic).

Germany ranks first in the world in brown coal production. In addition, its deposits are available in Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Bulgaria.

On the territory of Sweden and France there are deposits of uranium ores. Germany, Belarus, Ukraine are rich in potash salts, Poland is rich in sulfur, and the Czech Republic is rich in graphite.

In Europe in various parts there is a huge amount of valuable natural resources that are raw materials for various industries and some of them are used by the population in everyday life. The nature of the relief of Europe is plains and mountain ranges.

fossil fuels

A very promising area is the extraction of oil products and natural gas. A lot of fuel resources lie in the north of Europe, namely on the coast washed by the Arctic Ocean. About 5-6% of the world's oil and gas reserves are produced here. The region has 21 oil and gas basins and about 1.5 thousand individual gas and oil fields. The UK and Denmark, Norway and the Netherlands are engaged in the extraction of these natural resources.

As for hard coal, in Europe there are several largest basins in Germany - Aachen, Ruhr, Krefeld and Saar. In the UK, coal is mined in the Welsh and Newcastle basins. A lot of coal is mined in the Upper Silesian Basin in Poland. Brown coal deposits are found in Germany, the Czech Republic, Bulgaria and Hungary.

ore minerals

Mined in Europe different types metal minerals:

iron ore (in France and Sweden);
uranium ores (deposits in France and Spain);
copper (Poland, Bulgaria and Finland);
bauxites (Mediterranean province - basins of France, Greece, Hungary, Croatia, Italy, Romania).

In European countries, polymetallic ores, manganese, zinc, tin and lead are mined in different quantities. They mainly lie in mountain systems and on the Scandinavian Peninsula.

non-metallic minerals

Of the non-metallic resources in Europe, there are large reserves of potash salts. They are mined on a huge scale in France and in Germany, in Poland, Belarus and Ukraine. A variety of apatites are mined in Spain and Sweden. The carbon mix (asphalt) is mined in France.

Precious and semi-precious stones

Among precious stones emeralds are mined in Norway, Austria, Italy, Bulgaria, Switzerland, Spain, France and Germany. There are varieties of garnets in Germany, Finland and Ukraine, beryls - in Sweden, France, Germany, Ukraine, tourmalines - in Italy, Switzerland. Amber occurs in the Sicilian and Carpathian provinces, opals - in Hungary, pyrope - in the Czech Republic.

Despite the fact that the minerals of Europe have been actively used throughout history, there are quite a lot of resources in some areas. If we talk about the global contribution, then the region has quite good indicators for the extraction of coal, zinc and lead.

Foreign Europe has quite diverse resources of fuel, mineral and energy raw materials.

But it must be taken into account that almost all known deposits of minerals on European territory have long been known and are on the verge of exhaustion. Therefore, this region more than others in the world needs to import resources.

Features of the relief of Europe

The relief of foreign Europe is quite diverse. In the east, low-lying plains predominate, which stretch in a wide strip from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea. Uplands dominate in the south: Oshmyany, Minsk, Volyn, Crimean mountains.

The territory of the western part of Europe is strongly dissected. Here, as you move from north to south, mountain ranges alternate with stripes of plains and lowlands. In the north are the Scandinavian mountains. Further south: Scottish Highlands, elevated plains (Norland, Småland), lowlands (Central European, Greater Poland, North German, etc.). Then the mountain strip follows again: these are Sumava, the Vosges and others, which alternately alternate with the plains - Lesser Poland, Czech-Moravian.

In the south - the highest European mountain ranges - the Pyrenees, the Carpathians, the Alps, then again the plains. At the southernmost extremities of foreign Europe, another mountain belt extends, which is made up of such massifs as the Rhodopes, the Apennines, the Andalusian Mountains, the Dinars, and the Pindus.

This diversity determined the uneven occurrence of minerals. In the mountains and on the Scandinavian Peninsula, the reserves of iron, manganese, zinc, tin, copper, polymetallic ores, and bauxite are concentrated. Significant deposits of brown and hard coal, potash salts have been discovered in the lowlands. The coast of Europe, washed by the Atlantic and Arctic Oceans, is an area of oil and gas deposits. Especially a lot of fuel resources lie in the north. Developments of the Northern shelf Arctic Ocean are still a priority.

Types of minerals

Despite the diversity of minerals in foreign Europe, the reserves of only some of them can be estimated as significant shares in the world reserve. This can be expressed in numbers in the following way:

. hard and brown coal- 20% of the world stock;

. zinc- 18%;

. lead- 14%%

. copper- 7%;

. petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, bauxite - 5-6%.

All other resources are presented in insignificant volumes.

By production hard coal Germany is in the lead (Ruhr, Saar, Aachen, Krefeld basins). It is followed by Poland (Upper Silesian basin) and Great Britain (Wales and Newcastle basins).

The richest deposits brown coal are also located on the territory of Germany (Halle-Leucipg and Lower Lausitz basins). There are rich deposits in Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Hungary.

Every year, for example, 106 billion tons of coal are mined in Germany, and 45 billion tons in Great Britain.

Potassium salts commercially mined in Germany and France.

uranium ores- in France (fields: Limousin, Forez, Morvan, Chardon) and Spain (Monasterio, La Virgen, Esperanza).

Iron ores- in France (Lorraine Basin) and Sweden (Kiruna).

Copper- in Bulgaria (Medet, Asaral, Elatsite), Poland (Grodzetskoye, Zlotoryyskoye, Presudetskoye deposits) and Finland (Vuonos, Outokumpu, Luikonlahti).

Oil- in Great Britain and Norway (water area of the North Sea), Denmark and the Netherlands. Currently, 21 oil and gas bearing basins have been discovered, with a total area of more than 2.8 million sq. km. Separate oil fields- 752, gas - 854.

Gas- in the UK, Norway, the Netherlands. The largest deposit is Gronigen. More than 3.0 trillion tons are mined here annually. cubic meters.

bauxites- in France (Mediterranean province, La Rouquet), Greece (Parnassus-Kiona, Amorgos), Croatia (Rudopolje, Niksic), Hungary (Halimba, Oroslan, Gant).

Natural resources of foreign Europe

Features of Europe's resource supply can be explained by three factors:

1. This is a relatively small area, therefore, the volume of natural resources is small.

2. Europe is one of the most densely populated regions in the world, so resources are used very actively.

3. Europeans were the first in the world to follow the path industrial development, which led not only to a significant depletion of all types of resources, but also to environmental degradation.

Land and forest resources. The land area of foreign Europe is small - about 173 million hectares, of which 30% is allocated for arable land, 18% - for pastures, 33% is occupied by forests. The highest land use ratio is in the Netherlands, Romania, Poland and Denmark - 80%, in France, Germany - 50, but in Italy and Portugal - 14-16%.

There is approximately 0.3 hectares of forest per 1 European, while average in the world - 1.2 ha. Long-term use has led to the fact that there are practically no natural forests left, those that are available are planted forests. About 400 million cubic meters of timber are mined annually in Europe, mainly in the Scandinavian Peninsula. The rest of the territory is dominated by protected forests that are not subject to felling, which means that they are not resources.

Water resources. natural waters- a scarce resource in Europe. water is used by industrial enterprises and agriculture. Long-term uncontrolled use has led to their depletion. To date, an extremely unfavorable ecological situation has developed - most European rivers and lakes are heavily polluted. In all countries of foreign Europe there is an acute shortage of fresh water.