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What do geographical signs mean? Rivers and water resources. Railways and structures attached to them

Topographical symbols

Conventional signs , which are used on topographic maps and plans, are mandatory for all organizations conducting topographic work.

Depending on the scale of the plan or map being created, the corresponding symbols are used. In our country, the currently valid symbols are:

    Symbols for a topographic map at a scale of 1:10000. M.: Nedra, 1977.

    Symbols for topographic plans at scales 1:5000, 1:2000, 1:1000, 1:500. M.: Nedra, 1973.

    Symbols, font samples and abbreviations for topographic maps scales 1:25000, 1:50000, 1:100000. M.: Nedra, 1963.

Conventional signs for ease of use, they are grouped according to homogeneous characteristics and placed in tables consisting of a serial number, the name of the symbol and its image. At the end of the tables there are explanations for use and drawing conventional signs , as well as an alphabetical index of symbols with their serial numbers, a list of abbreviations for explanatory inscriptions, frame design samples and font samples indicating the name of the font, its size and index according to the “Album of Cartographic Fonts”.

Students of geodetic specialties are required not only to know symbols in order to freely read topographic maps and plans, but also ability to draw them in strict accordance with the requirements of instructions and instructions. To this end, in curriculum There is a course in topographical drawing, which is understood as the process of graphic reproduction on paper using symbols and explanatory notes of the results of various types of surveys.

Conventional signs drawn by hand and using drawing tools:

    use a drawing board to draw straight contours,

    curved legs draw curved contours,

    Using calipers, symbols of forests, gardens and shrubs are drawn.

When drawing symbols, you should strictly adhere to the sizes and colors that are shown in the current symbols. The use of any other conventional signs is prohibited.

Classification of conventional signs

Conventional signs serve to designate various objects and their qualitative and quantitative characteristics. The completeness of the content of the map, its clarity and clarity depend on the selection of symbols. Conventional signs reveal the nature of the terrain and facilitate understanding of the content of topographic maps and plans. Therefore, conventional signs are developed that resemble the appearance of the depicted object. In addition, conventional signs are subject to such requirements as ease of memorization, ease of drawing and cost-effectiveness of the image.

Depending on the size of the depicted objects And plan or map scale Conventional signs can be divided into several groups:

    Scale symbols or areal are intended to depict local objects in compliance with the scale of the plan or map. They depict the largest objects: forests, meadows, arable lands, lakes, rivers, etc. Using scale symbols on a topographic map, you can determine not only the location of an object, but also its size. In addition, the map preserves the similarity of the contours of the depicted terrain objects and their orientation. Areas of figures or are painted over , or filled in with the appropriate symbols.

    Off-scale symbols or point symbols . This group consists of objects whose areas, due to their small size, are not expressed on the scale of a plan or map. Such objects include geodetic points, kilometer posts, semaphores, road signs, free-standing trees, etc. Based on off-scale symbols impossible judge the size of depicted terrain objects. However, in each of these signs there is a certain point that corresponds to the position of objects on the ground. So, for example, for some conventional signs this point is located in the center of the sign (triangulation point, wells, fuel depots), for other signs - in the middle of the base of the sign ( windmills, monuments) or at the top right angle at the base of the sign (kilometer posts, road signs).

    Off-scale symbols for depicting relief elements are used in cases where not all relief elements can be expressed by horizontal lines - curved lines connecting terrain points with the same elevations. For example, mounds, pits, stones, waste heaps are depicted with conventional out-of-scale signs using, in some cases, explanatory symbols.

    Linear symbols depict terrain objects of considerable length and small width. Such objects are roads, railways, pipelines, communication lines and power lines. The length of such features is usually expressed at map scale, while their width on the map is shown off-scale. The position of the linear symbol on the map corresponds to longitudinal axis of the symbol.

    Explanatory symbols are intended for additional characterization of terrain objects depicted on the map. For example, the width and nature of the road surface, the number of courtyards in populated areas, the average height and thickness of trees in the forest, etc.

The same object on plans of different scales will be depicted differently: on large-scale plans it will be expressed by a similar figure, and on small-scale plans it can be indicated by an off-scale symbol.

Conventional signs that we see on modern maps and plans did not appear immediately. On ancient maps, objects were depicted using drawings. Only starting from the mid-18th century, drawings began to be replaced with images of how objects look from above, or to designate objects with special signs.

Symbols and legend

Conventional signs- these are symbols indicating various objects on plans and maps. Ancient cartographers sought to convey the individual characteristics of objects using signs. Cities were depicted as walls and towers, forests as drawings different breeds trees, and instead of the names of cities, small banners depicting coats of arms or portraits of rulers were applied.

Currently, cartographers use a wide variety of symbols. They depend on the degree of detail, the coverage of the territory and the content of the cartographic image. Signs on large-scale plans and maps make them look like the objects depicted. Houses, for example, are marked with rectangles, the forest is painted green. From the plans you can find out what material the bridge is made of, what types of trees it is made of and much other information.

Values ​​are shown in the legend. Legend an image of all symbols that are used on a given plan or map, with an explanation of their meanings. The legend helps to read the plan and map, that is, to understand their content. With the help of symbols and legends, you can imagine and describe terrain objects, find out their shape, size, some properties, and determine their geographical location.

According to their purpose and properties, symbols of plans and maps are divided into three types: linear, area and point.

Linear signs depict roads, pipelines, power lines, borders. These signs tend to exaggerate the width of an object, but accurately indicate its extent.

Area (or scale) signs are used to depict objects whose dimensions can be expressed on the scale of a given map or plan. This is, for example, a lake, a plot of forest, a garden, a field. Using a plan or map, using a scale, you can determine their length, width, and area. Area signs, as a rule, consist of an outline and characters or color filling the outline. All water bodies(fresh lakes, swamps, seas) on any plans and maps are blue. Green color on large-scale plans and maps indicates areas with vegetation cover (forests, shrubs, gardens).

Point (or out-of-scale) signs These are dots or special drawing icons. They display small objects (wells, water towers, separate standing trees on plans, settlements, deposits on maps). Due to their small size, such objects cannot be expressed to scale, so it is impossible to determine their size from a cartographic image.

Many objects that are marked with icons on maps are shown with area symbols on plans. These are, for example, cities, volcanoes, mineral deposits.

The plans and maps have many of their own geographical names, explanatory captions and digital designations. They provide additional quantitative (length and width of the bridge, depth of the reservoir, height of the hill) or qualitative (temperature, salinity of water) characteristics of objects.

Comparison of the properties of a geographical map and a site plan.

Area plan. Geographic map

Map- a reduced generalized symbolic image of the surface of the Earth (its part), other planets or celestial sphere, built to scale and projection.

Site plan- a drawing of the area, made in conventional symbols and on a large scale (1:5000 and larger).

When constructing plans, curvature earth's surface is not taken into account, because small areas or areas of terrain are depicted.

The difference between a site plan and a geographical map:

1) plans depict small areas of terrain, so they are built on a large scale (for example, 1 cm - 5 m). Geographic maps show much larger territories, their scale is smaller;

2) the plan depicts the area in detail, preserving the exact outlines of the depicted objects, but only in a reduced form. The large scale of the plan allows you to reflect on it almost all objects located on the ground. It is not possible to plot all objects on a map that has a smaller scale, so when creating maps, objects are generalized. The exact outlines of all objects on the map also cannot be shown, so they are distorted to one degree or another. Many objects on the map, unlike the plan, are depicted by non-scale symbols;

3) when constructing a plan, the curvature of the earth’s surface is not taken into account, since a small area of ​​terrain is depicted. When constructing a map, it is always taken into account. Maps are built in certain map projections;

4) there is no degree network on the plans. Parallels and meridians must be marked on the map;

5) on the plan, the north direction is considered up by default, the south direction is down, the west direction is left, the east direction is right (sometimes on the plan the north-south direction is shown by an arrow that does not coincide with the up-down direction). On maps, the direction north - south is determined by meridians, west - east - by parallels.

Comparison of cartographic image methods. Methods of depicting objects and phenomena on geographical maps

Conventional signs- designations used on maps to depict various objects and their qualitative and quantitative characteristics. Conventional signs are used to denote both real objects (for example, settlements) and abstract ones (for example, population density). Conventional signs are intended to indicate the type and some characteristics of objects (phenomena) depicted on the map and determine their position in space.

Conventional signs are:

— non-scale(used to depict objects that cannot be expressed on a map scale). These are drawings or geometric figures, the shape of which usually resembles the depicted object (Fig. 1). Letter symbols also refer to non-scale symbols. The position of the object on the ground corresponds to the center of a sign with a symmetrical shape, the middle of the base of a sign with a wide base, the top of the corner of a sign with a base in the form of a right angle, the center of the bottom figure of a sign, which is a combination of several figures;

— linear(used to depict linear objects - rivers, roads, borders, pipelines, etc.). To scale, they convey only the length and shape of the object; their width is exaggerated, so it cannot be measured (Fig. 2);

— areal, or contour(used to depict geographical objects that occupy a certain area - a lake, a forest, etc.). The actual size of objects is transmitted (Fig. 3).

They consist of an outline (forests, swamps, etc.) and its filling (color, shading).

Explanatory symbols (for example, arrows showing the direction of river flow, figures of deciduous and coniferous trees etc.), signatures, letters and numbers also carry certain information on the card.

Cartographic methods of representation

A method for a high-quality background. It is used to depict on a map the qualitative features of certain objects or phenomena that have a continuous distribution on the earth’s surface or occupy large areas. Its essence lies in the fact that areas on the map that are homogeneous according to a certain characteristic(s) are identified (for example, natural areas) and paint (or shade) them in the colors selected for them (shading).

Method of habitats. Area- the area of ​​distribution of a phenomenon on the earth’s surface (for example, the territory in which a certain animal lives, or the territory in which a particular agricultural crop is grown, etc.).

Isoline method. Isolines(from the Greek isos - equal) - lines on geographical maps passing through points with the same value any quantitative indicator (temperature, precipitation, depth, height, etc.) characterizing the depicted phenomenon. For example, isotherms are lines connecting places with the same temperature; isobaths - lines connecting places with the same depth; horizontal lines are lines connecting points on the earth's surface with the same absolute height. The essence of the isoline method is that points on the map with the same values ​​of a certain indicator are connected by thin lines, i.e., isolines are drawn.

Movement lines. Lines (arrows) show the direction of movement of any objects - air masses, winds, ocean currents, rivers, etc.

Determining directions, measuring distances on a plan and map

On the plan, north - south is shown by an arrow. If there is no arrow on the plan, then it is considered that north is at the top, south is at the bottom.

On the map, directions are determined using a degree network. The direction north - south corresponds to the direction of the meridians, west - east - parallels.

Azimuth measurements Maps are made using a protractor. Azimuth- the angle formed at a given point or on a map between the direction north and any object and measured clockwise.

So, if an object is located strictly north of the point where the observer is located, then the azimuth to it will be 0°, to the east - 90°, to the south - 180°, to the west - 270°. Azimuths can range from 0° to 360°. In order to measure azimuth on the map, you need to starting point determined direction, draw a line parallel to the north-south direction. Then, also through the point, draw a line connecting the point and the object to which you want to determine the azimuth. And then, using a protractor, measure the resulting angle (azimuth), taking into account that azimuth is always measured clockwise.

Determination of geographical coordinates

Degree network and its elements. Earth degree network- a system of meridians and parallels on geographic maps and globes, used to count the geographic coordinates of points on the earth's surface - longitudes and latitudes - or to plot objects on the map according to their coordinates.

To create a degree network, certain reference points are required. The spherical shape of the Earth determines the existence of two fixed points on the earth's surface - poles. An imaginary axis around which the Earth rotates passes through the poles.

Geographic poles- mathematically calculated points of intersection of the imaginary axis of rotation of the Earth with the earth's surface.

Equator- an imaginary line on the earth’s surface, obtained by mentally dissecting the ellipsoid into two equal parts (Northern and Southern Hemisphere). All points of the equator are equidistant from the poles. The plane of the equator is perpendicular to the Earth's axis of rotation and passes through its center. The hemispheres are mentally separated by many more planes parallel to the plane of the equator. The lines of their intersection with the surface of the ellipsoid are called parallels. All of them, like the equatorial plane, are perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the planet. You can draw as many parallels on a map and globe as you like, but usually on educational maps they are drawn with an interval of 10-20°. The parallels are always oriented from west to east. The circumference of the parallels decreases from the equator to the poles. At the equator it is greatest, and at the poles it is zero.

When crossing globe Great circles are formed by imaginary planes passing through the Earth’s axis perpendicular to the equatorial plane - meridians. Meridians can also be drawn through any points of the ellipsoid. They all intersect at the pole points (Fig. 4). The meridians are oriented from north to south. Average length arc 1° meridian: 40,008.5 km: 360° = 111 km. The length of all meridians is the same. The direction of the local meridian at any point can be determined at noon by the shadow of any object. In the Northern Hemisphere, the end of the shadow always points north, in the Southern Hemisphere it always points south.

A degree network is necessary to measure the geographic coordinates of points on the earth’s surface—latitude and longitude.

Geographic latitude- the distance along the meridian in degrees from the equator to any point on the surface of the Earth. The origin is the equator. The latitude of all points on it is 0. At the poles the latitude is 90°. North of the equator is counted northern latitude, to the south - southern.

Geographic longitude— the distance along the parallel in degrees from the prime meridian to any point on the earth’s surface. All meridians are equal in length, so it was necessary to choose one of them for counting. It became the Greenwich meridian, passing near London (where the Greenwich Observatory is located). Longitude is measured from 0° to 180°. To the east of the prime meridian up to 180° eastern longitude is measured, to the west - western longitude.

Thus, using degree network, can be accurately determined geographical coordinates- quantities that determine the position of a point on the earth’s surface relative to the equator and the prime meridian. For example, the geographic coordinates of Cape Chelyuskin (the extreme northern point of Eurasia) are 78° N. w. and 104° E. d.

Finding distances on a map

Scale is the ratio of the length of a line on a drawing, plan or map to the length of the corresponding line in reality. The scale shows how many times the distance on the map is reduced relative to the actual distance on the ground. If, for example, the scale of a geographic map is 1: 1,000,000, this means that 1 cm on the map corresponds to 1,000,000 cm on the ground, or 10 km.

There are numerical, linear and named scales.

Numerical scale is depicted as a fraction in which the numerator is equal to one, and the denominator is a number showing how many times the lines on the map (plan) are reduced relative to the lines on the ground. For example, a scale of 1:100,000 shows that everything linear dimensions on the map are reduced by 100,000 times. Obviously, the larger the denominator of the scale, the smaller the scale; with a smaller denominator, the scale is larger. The numerical scale is a fraction, so the numerator and denominator are given in the same measurements (centimeters).

Linear scale is a straight line divided into equal segments. These segments correspond to a certain distance on the depicted terrain; divisions are indicated by numbers. The measure of length along which the divisions are marked on a scale ruler is called the scale base. In our country, the base of the scale is taken to be 1 cm. The number of meters or kilometers corresponding to the base of the scale is called the scale value. When constructing a linear scale, the number 0, from which the divisions begin, is usually placed not at the very end of the scale line, but retreated one division (base) to the right; on the first segment to the left of 0, the smallest divisions of the linear scale are applied - millimeters. The distance on the ground corresponding to one smallest division of the linear scale corresponds to the scale accuracy, and 0.1 mm corresponds to the maximum scale accuracy. A linear scale, compared to a numerical one, has the advantage that it makes it possible to determine the actual distance on a plan and map without additional calculations.

Named scale- scale expressed in words, for example, 1 cm 250 km. (Fig. 5):

Measuring distances on a map and plan. Measuring distances using a scale. To measure distance, you need to draw a straight line (if you need to know the distance in a straight line) between two points and use a ruler to measure this distance in centimeters, and then multiply the resulting number by the scale value. For example, on a map of scale 1: 100,000 (1 cm is 1 km) the distance is 5 cm, i.e. on the ground this distance is 1.5 = 5 (km). If you need to measure the distance between objects indicated by off-scale symbols, then measure the distance between the centers of the symbols.

Measuring distances using a degree network. To calculate distances on a map or globe, you can use the following values: the arc length of 1° meridian and 1° equator is approximately 111 km. The total length of the earth's meridian is 40,009 km. Due to the fact that the Earth is flattened at the poles (polar compression), the length of the 1° arc along the meridian at the equator (110.6 km) is less than at the poles (111.7 km). It is believed that the average length of 1° meridian is 111.1 km. The length of an arc of 1° along the parallels decreases towards the poles. At the equator it can also be taken equal to 111 km, and at the poles - 0 (since a pole is a point). To determine the distance in kilometers between two points lying on the same meridian, calculate the distance between them in degrees, and then multiply the number of degrees by 111.1 km. To determine the distance between two points on the equator, you also need to determine the distance between them in degrees, and then multiply by 111.1 km. To determine the distance between two points located on the same parallel, you need to know the number of kilometers corresponding to the length of 1° arc of each specific parallel.

Definition of zone and zone time

Time zones. Local and standard time. Solar time at points located on the same meridian is called local . Due to the fact that at every moment of the day it is different on all meridians, it is inconvenient to use. Therefore, according to international agreement Standard time has been introduced. The entire surface of the Earth was divided along the meridians into 24 zones of 15° longitude. Belt (same within each zone) time — this is the local time of the median meridian of a given zone. Zero belt is a belt whose median meridian is the Greenwich (prime) meridian. From there, the belts are counted to the east.

Since 2014, 11 time zones have been established in Russia. The starting point for calculating the local time of time zones is Moscow time - the time of the II time zone (see map). Thus, the difference in time between the first time zone and the eleventh is 10 hours.

Conventionally, it is believed that a new day begins in the 12th time zone (through which the 180° meridian passes - the international date line). West of the international date line, a new day begins (according to the calendar). Therefore, in the logbook of a ship sailing from west to east, one day must be counted twice, and a ship moving from east to west, as it were, “skips” one day, after December 31 it immediately ends up on January 2.

Use of statistical materials to determine trends in the development of geographical processes and phenomena

To reflect trends in the development of processes, statistical tables are often used, where data is presented as a percentage of the previous year - the volume of production of the previous year is 100%. Therefore, if any number greater than 100 is indicated in the table for the next year, then the volume of production this year was greater than the previous one.

Building a relief profile from a map

Relief image on maps. Relief on maps is depicted by contour lines, special symbols and elevation marks.

Horizontals- lines on the map along which all points on the earth's surface have the same absolute height. The difference between two heights of adjacent horizontal lines is called the relief section. The smaller the cross-section of the relief, the more detailed it is depicted. The size of the relief section depends on the scale of the map and on the nature of the relief itself. The relief is depicted in most detail on topographic maps. For example, on a map of scale 1:25,000 (250 m in 1 cm), solid horizontal lines are drawn through 5 m, and on a map of scale 1:100,000 (1 cm in 1 km), a relief section of 20 m is used for flat areas and 40 m for mountain On small-scale maps, an uneven cross-section of the relief is usually used: more frequent in flat areas and enlarged in mountainous areas. Thus, on a physical map of Russia at a scale of 1:25,000,000, horizontal lines are drawn at heights of 0, 200, 500, 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000 m. Isobats (depth contours) are also shown.

Using horizontal lines, you can easily determine the absolute height of any point on the earth's surface and the relative height of two points (the excess of one over the other). Contour lines also help determine the steepness of slopes. The closer the horizontal lines are to one another, the steeper the slope. Additional information about the relief on topographic maps give berg strokes- small strokes drawn perpendicular to the horizontal lines, indicating in which direction the relief is decreasing.

To depict relief forms that are not expressed by horizontal lines (for example, sharp ledges, cliffs, ravines, etc.), special symbols are used.

Absolute altitudes Peaks or depressions on maps are labeled with numbers. Absolute heights are indicated in meters.

Elements of hydrography help to understand the general nature of changes in relief - for example, if a river is shown on the map, then, as a rule, there is a general decrease in the relief of the right left bank towards its bed. The direction of the river flow also shows the direction of decline absolute altitude points.

Definition 1

Cartographic symbols- symbolic graphic symbols that are used to depict various objects and their characteristics on cartographic images (maps and topographic plans).

Sometimes conventional signs are called map legend.

Types of symbols by scale

Depending on the scale, $3$ groups of conventional signs are distinguished:

  • scale (area and linear);
  • off-scale (point);
  • explanatory.

Using area scale symbols, extended objects are displayed on a map scale. On a map, scale marks allow you to determine not only the location of an object, but also its size and outline.

Example 1

Scale symbols are the territory of the state on a map of scale $1:10,000,000$ or a reservoir on a map of scale $1:10,000$.

Linear symbols are used to display objects that are significantly extended in one dimension, such as roads. Only one dimension (in which the object is most extended) is consistent with the scale on such signs, while the other is scale-free. The position of an object is determined by a conventional or explicit centerline.

Out-of-scale point symbols are used on maps to display features whose dimensions are not expressed on the map. The largest cities on the world map are displayed with out-of-scale signs - dots. The actual placement of the object is determined by the main point of the point symbol.

The main point is placed at off-scale signs as follows:

  • in the center of the figure for symmetrical signs;
  • in the middle of the base for signs with a wide base;
  • at the vertex of a right angle, which is the base, if the sign has such an angle;
  • in the center of the bottom figure, if the sign is a combination of several figures.

Explanatory signs are intended to characterize local items and their varieties. Explanatory signs may indicate the number of railway tracks and the direction of river flow.

Note 1

On large-scale maps, the signs of individual objects are indicated separately; on smaller-scale maps, objects of the same type are grouped and marked with one sign.

Conventional signs by content

  1. signs and signatures of settlements;
  2. signs of individual local facilities;
  3. signs of individual relief elements;
  4. transport infrastructure signs;
  5. signs of hydrographic network objects;
  6. signs of soil and vegetation cover;

Signs and signatures of settlements

On maps of scale $1:100,000 and larger, all settlements are indicated along with a caption of their names. Moreover, the names of cities are written in straight lines. in capital letters, rural settlements - in lowercase letters, urban and holiday villages - in lowercase slanted letters.

Large-scale maps display external contours and layout, highlighting major highways, businesses, prominent knowledge and landmarks.

Example 2

On maps of scale $1:25\000$ and $1:50\000$ the type of building (fireproof or non-fireproof) is shown in color.

The figure below shows signs of settlements used on maps of various eras.

Signs for individual local facilities

Individual local objects, which are landmarks, are depicted on the map mainly with off-scale signs. These can be towers, mines, adits, churches, radio masts, rock outcrops.

Signs of individual relief elements

Relief elements are marked on the map with appropriate symbols.

Note 2

Object natural origin are depicted by lines and brown symbols.

Transport infrastructure signs

Transport infrastructure objects displayed on topographic maps include road and railway networks, structures and bridges.

When plotted on a map, paved roads (freeways, improved highways, improved dirt roads) and unpaved roads are distinguished. All paved roads are shown on the map, indicating the width and material of the pavement.

The color of the road on the map indicates its type. Motorways and highways are painted orange, improved dirt roads are yellow (occasionally orange), unpaved country roads, field, forest and seasonal roads are uncolored.

Signs of hydrographic network objects

The map depicts the following elements of the hydrographic network - the coastal part of the seas, rivers, lakes, canals, streams, wells, ponds and other bodies of water.

Reservoirs are plotted on the map if their area on the image is more than $1 mm^2$. In other cases, a pond is applied only because it is of high importance, for example in arid areas. Next to the objects their name is indicated.

The characteristics of objects of the hydrographic network are indicated next to the signature of the name of the object. In particular, they indicate in the form of a fraction the width (numerator), depth and nature of the soil (denominator), as well as the speed (in m/s) and direction of the flow. Hydraulic structures - ferries, dams, locks - are also indicated along with their characteristics. Rivers and canals are mapped in full. In this case, the type of display is determined by the width of the object and the scale of the map.

Note 4

In particular, at a map scale of more than $1:50,000$, objects with a width of less than $5$ m, at a scale of less than $1:100,000$ - less than $10$ m are represented by a $1$ line, and wider objects - by two lines. Also, $2$ lines indicate channels and ditches with a width of $3$ m or more, and with a smaller width - one line.

On large-scale maps, blue circles indicate wells, with the letter “k” or “art.k” in the case of an artesian well placed next to them. In dry areas, wells and water supply facilities are shown with enlarged signs. Water pipelines on maps are shown as lines with dots blue: solid lines – above-ground, broken lines – underground.

Land cover signs

Often, when displaying land cover on a map, a combination of scale and off-scale symbols is used. Signs denoting forests, shrubs, gardens, swamps, meadows, character are large-scale, and individual objects, for example, free-standing trees, are non-scale.

Example 3

A swampy meadow is displayed on the map as a combination of symbols of meadow, bushes and swamp in a closed contour.

The contours of areas of terrain occupied by forest, bushes or swamps are drawn with a dotted line, except when the border is a fence, roads or other linear local object.

Forested areas indicate green with a symbol indicating the type of forest (coniferous, deciduous or mixed). Areas with forest growth or nurseries are shown in pale green on the map.

Example 4

The picture below shows a coniferous tree on the left. pine forest with an average tree height of $25$ meters and a width of $0.3$ m, and a typical distance between tree trunks of $6$ m. The picture on the right is a deciduous maple forest with a tree height of $12$ m and a trunk width of $0.2$ m, the distance between which average $3$ meters.

Swamps are shown on the map by horizontal shading in blue. In this case, the type of hatching shows the degree of passability: intermittent hatching – passable, solid – difficult and impassable.

Note 5

Swamps with a depth of less than $0.6$ m are considered passable.

The blue vertical shading on the map indicates salt marshes. Just like for swamps, solid shading indicates impassable salt marshes, intermittent shading indicates passable ones.

Symbol colors on topographic maps

The colors used to depict objects on maps are universal for all scales. Black line marks – buildings, structures, local objects, strongholds and borders, brown line marks – relief elements, blue – hydrographic network. Area signs of light blue color – water mirror of hydrographic network objects, green color – areas of tree and shrub vegetation, orange– neighborhoods with fire-resistant buildings and highways, yellow – neighborhoods with non-fire-resistant buildings and improved dirt roads.

Note 6

On military and special maps special symbols.