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1. There are three interrelated levels in the structure of sociology: general sociological theory, special sociological theories, and sociological research. They are also called private, empirical, applied or specific sociological research. All three levels complement each other, which makes it possible to obtain scientifically substantiated results in the study of social phenomena and processes.

Sociological research - it is a system of logically consistent methodological, methodological and organizational-technical procedures, subordinated to a single goal: to obtain accurate objective data about the social phenomenon under study.

The study begins with its preparation: thinking about the goals, program, plan, determining the means, timing, methods of processing, etc.

The second stage is the collection of primary sociological information (records of the researcher, extracts from documents).

The third stage is the preparation of the information collected in the course of a sociological study for processing, the compilation of a processing program and the processing itself.

The final, fourth stage is the analysis of the processed information, the preparation of a scientific report on the results of the study, the formulation of conclusions and recommendations for the customer, the subject.

The type of sociological research is determined by the nature of the goals and objectives set, the depth of analysis of the social process.

There are three main types of sociological research: intelligence (pilot), descriptive and analytical.

Intelligence(or pilot, probing) research is the simplest type of sociological analysis that allows solving limited problems. Methodical documents are being processed: questionnaires, interview form, questionnaire. The program of such research is simplified. The survey populations are small: from 20 to 100 people.

Intelligence research usually precedes deep study of the problem. In the course of it, goals, hypotheses, tasks, questions, their formulation are specified.

descriptive research is a more complex type of sociological analysis. With its help, empirical information is obtained that gives a relatively holistic view of the studied social phenomenon. In a descriptive study, one or more methods of collecting empirical data may be used. The combination of methods increases the reliability and completeness of information, allows you to draw deeper conclusions and sound recommendations. A descriptive study allows one to form a relatively holistic view of the phenomenon under study, its structural elements. In addition, understanding, taking into account such comprehensive information helps to better understand the situation, more deeply justify the choice of means, forms and methods of managing social processes.

Descriptive research is usually used when the object is a relatively large community of people with diverse characteristics. It can be a team of a large enterprise where people work different professions and age categories with different work experience, education level, marital status, and so on, or the population of a city, district, region, region. In such situations, the allocation of relatively homogeneous groups in the structure of the object makes it possible to evaluate, compare and contrast the characteristics of interest to the researcher, and in addition, to identify the presence and degree of development of relationships between them.

The most serious type of sociological research is analytical study. It not only describes the elements of the studied phenomenon or process, but also allows you to find out the reasons underlying it. The main purpose of such a study is to search for cause-and-effect relationships.

Analytical research completes exploratory and descriptive research, during which information is collected that gives a preliminary idea about certain elements of the studied social phenomenon or process. If in the course of a descriptive study it is established whether there is a connection between the characteristics of the phenomenon under study, then in the course of an analytical study it turns out whether the discovered relationship is of a causal nature. For example, if in the first case there is a connection between satisfaction with the content of the work performed and its efficiency, then in the second case, it is considered whether satisfaction with the content of labor is the main or not the main reason, i.e. factor influencing the level of its effectiveness.

Since the reality is such that it is practically impossible to name any single factor that determines the features and characteristics of any social process or phenomenon in a "pure form", so almost every analytical study studies a combination of factors. From it, the main and non-main factors, temporary and permanent, managed and unmanaged, inherent in a given social institution or organization, etc. are distinguished.

The preparation of an analytical study requires considerable time, a carefully designed program and tools. According to the methods used to collect sociological information, the analytical study is complex. In it, complementing each other, various forms of questioning, document analysis, and observation can be used. Naturally, this requires the ability to "join" information received through different channels, adhere to certain criteria for its interpretation. Thus, an analytical study differs significantly not only in the content of its preparatory stage and the stage of collecting primary information, but also in the approach to analysis, generalization and explanation of the results obtained.

A kind of analytical research can be considered social experiment. Its implementation involves the creation of an experimental situation by changing, to one degree or another, the normal conditions for the functioning of the object. During the experiment, special attention is paid to the study of the "behavior" of those factors included in it, which give the object new features and properties.

Preparing and conducting any experiment is a rather time-consuming task and requires social knowledge and methodological skills. This is especially important when it comes to the introduction of new forms of social organization, about fundamental changes in the social and everyday life of people, etc., deeply affecting personal, group and public interests. In some cases, experimentation is not only desirable, but necessary. It allows you to avoid accidents and unforeseen consequences, more confidently, with scientific validity, to offer practice new forms and methods of management.

Depending on whether the subject is considered in statics or dynamics, two more types of sociological research can be distinguished - point and repeated.

Spot research (it is called one-time) provides information about the state and quantitative characteristics of a phenomenon or process at the time of its study. This information, in a certain sense, can be called static, since it reflects, as it were, an instantaneous "slice" of the object, but does not answer the question about the trends in its change over time.

Comparative data can only be obtained as a result of several studies conducted sequentially at certain intervals. Such studies based on a single program and tools are called repeated. In fact, they are a means of comparative sociological analysis, which is aimed at identifying the dynamics of the development of the object.

Depending on the goals put forward, the repeated collection of information can take place in two, three or more stages. The duration of the time interval between the initial and repeated stages of the study is very different, since social processes have unequal dynamics and cyclicality. Often, it is the properties of the object that prompt the time intervals for repeated studies. For example, if trends in the implementation of life plans of high school graduates are being studied and they were first surveyed before final exams, then it is obvious that the next time to re-survey after completion of admission to universities or employment.

A special kind of re-examination is panel. Suppose, in the course of a repeated study, the degree of effectiveness of education is clarified. Usually it is determined regardless of how the object has changed during the period between the initial and repeated stages of the study. A panel study, on the other hand, provides for the repeated study of the same persons at specified time intervals. Therefore, for panel studies, it is advisable to observe such intervals that allow maximum preservation of the stability of the studied population in terms of its size and composition. These studies provide a good opportunity to update and enrich information that reflects the dynamics and direction of development.

2. The preparation of a sociological study does not begin directly with the compilation of a questionnaire, but with the development of its program, consisting of methodological and methodological sections.

Andresearch program- a specially developed scientific document containing a description of the main premises of this scientific research.

Since the premises of empirical sociological research are of a theoretical-methodological and procedural-methodological nature, the research program consists of at least two main sections (parts). AT methodological section programs include:

a) formulation and justification of the object and subject of the social problem;

b) definition of the object and subject of sociological research;

c) definition of the researcher's tasks and formulation of hypotheses.

The methodological section of the program involves the definition of the population under study, the characteristics of the methods for collecting primary sociological information, the sequence of using tools for its collection, and the logical scheme for processing the collected data.

An essential part of the program of any research is, first of all, a deep and comprehensive substantiation of methodological approaches and methodological techniques the study of a social problem, which should be understood as a "social contradiction", perceived by the subjects as a significant discrepancy between the existing and official, between the goals and results of activities, arising from the lack or insufficiency of means to achieve goals, obstacles on this path, struggle around goals between different actors, which leads to dissatisfaction of social needs 2 .

It is important to distinguish between the object and the subject of research. The choice of the object and subject of research to a certain extent is already embedded in the social problem itself.

object research can be any social process, sphere of social life, labor collective, any public relations, documents. The main thing is that all of them contain a social contradiction and give rise to a problem situation.

Thing research - certain ideas, properties, characteristics inherent in a given team, the most significant from a practical or theoretical point of view, that is, what is subject to direct study. Other properties, features of the object remain outside the field of view of the sociologist.

The methodology distinguishes three levels of systemic descriptions of a sociological object: elements, relations between elements; holistic system formations.

First level - individuals constituting an elementary, arithmetic set. In most cases, the sociologist has to deal with individuals, countries, institutions, texts, events. Despite the fact that people, countries, institutions, texts and events are complex systems, units of study act as self-sufficient objects with their own parameters.

The second level is the relationship between the elements of the population. relational descriptions refer not to individual elements, but to the relationships between them. If we are talking, for example, about group dynamics, the relationship is described in terms of "cohesion - conflict". If the unit is a settlement, the distance between settlements is a characteristic of the relationship.

The third level - holistic integrative qualities system education, not derived from individual characteristics. Here the totality appears as an indivisible (atomic) self-sufficient unit. Social institutions have the most integrative properties, but groups also have supra-individual descriptions.

unit of study, whether it is an institution, a group, a person, a thing or an event, is a part of the systemic universe and itself, in turn, consists of many elements. The problem lies in the fact that supra-individual formations - groups, regions, institutions - have some characteristics that cannot be derived from individual characteristics.

Procedure there is a sequence of all operations, a system of actions and ways of organizing research. This is the most general, moreover, a collective concept related to the system of methods for collecting and processing sociological information.

Technics differs from a procedure as a special fact-finding or manipulation operation separated from the main procedure. Following this distinction, there are five main procedures that are part of the methodology of any science. These are statistical, experimental, typological, historical and selective procedures. On the other hand, there is an innumerable number techniques derived from these procedures directly or in combination.

Strategic research plan offers three options:

search, when there is no clear idea about the object, the sociologist could not put forward scientific hypotheses;

analytical, used when testing a descriptive hypothesis and obtaining accurate qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the object of study using questionnaires, selective research and statistical methods;

3)experimental, used to establish cause-and-effect relationships in an object.

Work plan contains specific steps for conducting research. It includes: the procedure for preparing a group of sociologists participating in the study; the number of tools; volume; terms and conditions of replication; training of interviewers and their number; time and place of the event; survey form; terms of data processing; report preparation.

Supporting Documents - it is a calendar plan; instructions for interviewers and questionnaires on survey techniques; selection card; instructions for coders to close open questions; regulations.

A document is a set of methodological techniques used to collect primary information from documentary sources.

The analysis of any problem can be carried out in theoretical and applied directions, depending on the purpose of the study. The purpose of the study can be formulated as theoretical. Then, when preparing the program, the main attention is paid to theoretical and methodological issues. The object of research is determined only after the preliminary theoretical work has been completed.

Compilation of the methodological part of the study begins with a description and justification of the primary information collection methods used in the study. This can be a characteristic of a questionnaire, interview, observation, etc. The program does not just list these methods, but gives a detailed explanation of why this particular research technique is preferred, how it helps in solving the research objectives, in testing the hypotheses put forward. and in achieving the aim of the study.

Population- this is the object of research, which is "localized" territorially, industrially, in time and to which the conclusions of this study apply. In a sociological study, it is impossible to interview all the people who fall under the object of the study, since it can be thousands, millions of people, so it is not continuous, but selective.

Sample population - this is a certain number of elements of the general population, selected according to a strictly specified rule. The structure of the sample population should coincide as much as possible with the structure of the general population in terms of the main studied characteristics and characteristics. AT this case the sample is called representative (representative).

Sample there is:

a set of methods for selecting elements of the object of sociological research, relevant units of observation and their study;

part of the elements of the object of sociological research, reflecting the characteristics of all its components, i.e., the general population.

One of the main values of sample quality is representativeness, which depends on the nature of the goal and the information being collected, the greater or lesser homogeneity of the object under study, the degree of selection accuracy, reflecting the structure of the entire object. Sample types are determined by the procedures for establishing structural relationships between the sample size and the object: empirical; random; zoned; stratification, etc. Hence, the “sampling study” technique is a systematic way of collecting data about an object associated with the study of a sample.

The sampling rules are such that in the process of selecting respondents, one has to first select certain regions, enterprises, institutions, etc., and then directly interviewed. The elements selected at each sampling stage are called selection units.

Random (probability) sampling means that each element of the population must have an equal probability of being included in the sample. This is where the "law of large numbers" comes into play.

Hypotheses and theories. Research often begins with intuition suggesting the cause of events or phenomena. For example, my student Mark intuitively felt that differences in students' social attitudes could be explained by differences in their parents' incomes.

The assumption of a causal relationship between two groups of facts (for example, between belonging to a certain social class and socio-political position) is called a hypothesis. The hypothesis must be formulated in such a way that it can be confirmed or refuted.

Hypotheses are not unrelated ideas. They are always based on one or more theories. A theory is a statement containing a system of interrelated hypotheses. Mark chose certain hypotheses because he held certain views about the influence of social class on the behavior and attitudes of people. If his views were different (for example, if he emphasized the influence of religion), he would formulate a different system of hypotheses or assumptions about the relationship between the data he collected.

So, the components of sociological knowledge are facts, hypotheses and theories.

Sociological methods are the rules and methods by which a connection is established between facts, hypotheses and theories.

Variables. We have already said that sociology seeks to give a scientific explanation of society and social relations.

Sociologists seek to identify causal relationships by finding relationships between variables. A variable is a concept that can take on different values. Age is a variable. She has a number of meanings: 6 months, 18 years, 47 years, etc.

Most sociological research seeks to identify and measure the variations characteristic of one specific phenomenon. The first phenomenon is called the dependent variable. The second, which explains or causes the first, is called the independent variable. When sociologists guess in advance about the relationship between the independent and dependent variables, they formulate a hypothesis. In other words, on the dependent variable, i.e. behavior is influenced by the independent variable.

3. Over time, sociology has mastered a variety of methods for identifying causal relationships in public life.

Selective survey. By the middle of the XIX century. many governments regularly conducted censuses or counts of their populations. In the United States, a population census has been carried out every ten years since 1790. A sociological survey is in many ways similar to a census. It was used by Charles Booth in his study of poverty in London and by Frederic Le Play, who studied the French working classes. Based on the techniques used by these and other European sociologists, a modern method of sampling has been developed. It consists in the systematic collection of data on the behavior and social attitudes of people through a survey of a specially selected group of respondents who talk about themselves and express their opinions on various issues.

At present, the sampling method is perhaps the most frequently used in the social sciences. It can be used simultaneously to describe and explain social facts. The researcher begins by carefully defining the group of people (or other communities, such as families) that he or she will be studying.

This group is called the general population. It includes all members of society with given social characteristics. You can choose any sign: Democrats who voted in previous elections, pregnant women under the age of 20, blacks holding police posts in Detroit. Populations studied by sociologists are groups of people who share one or more common characteristics. Often the groups are so large that the examination of each of their members requires a significant investment of money and time. Therefore, based on practical considerations, at the next stage of the work, the researcher conducts a sample or selection of that part of the general population that he will study. On the basis of the correct sample, it is possible to obtain reliable data characterizing the entire population.

After constructing the sample, it is necessary to formulate questions that will be asked to answer the respondents included in the sample. The results of the survey are subject to registration, classification and summation (usually using a computer). The sampling method has many advantages. This is the best way to get a representative idea of the characteristics of people's behavior and attitudes. However, since almost all of the data here is from respondents, some researchers feel that this method is not very helpful in understanding more deep meaning answers.

Field research. In the United States, the first major studies of social conditions were carried out by scientists who observed the behavior of people in real life situations. This method, known as field research, was first applied in the 1920s by representatives of the Chicago School, which (as we already know) dominated American sociology until the 1940s. And today field research still serves as one of the main methods of sociological analysis.

Field research has at least one advantage over the sampling method. In a survey, the researcher asks people to remember how they behaved or how they felt at a particular time. As a result, the data obtained are divorced from the real life of the respondents. With the help of the field method, researchers can solve this problem: they are on the scene and directly observe what interests them. For example, a sociology student who is a member of a college football team and can directly observe players doping will certainly get better data than one who simply asks players about doping.

For these reasons, information collected from field research may be more reliable than survey data. However, since field studies usually cover a single situation, their results are also limited. Therefore, a study of the use of doping by members of one football team can reveal a lot about that particular team, but it would be dangerous to try to generalize about all football teams based on this information.

Under observation in sociology, direct registration of events by an eyewitness is implied. Observation can be of different nature. Sometimes the sociologist independently observes the events taking place. Sometimes he can use the observational data of other persons.

Observation is simple and scientific. Simple is that which is not subject to a plan and is carried out without a definitely developed system. Scientific observation is characterized by:

a) It is subject to a clear research goal and clearly formulated objectives.

b) Scientific observation is planned according to a predetermined procedure.

c) All observational data are recorded in protocols or diaries according to a certain system.

d) Information obtained through scientific observation must be controllable for validity and sustainability.

Observation is classified:

1) According to the degree of formalization, uncontrolled (or non-standardized, structureless) and controlled (standardized, structural) are distinguished. In uncontrolled observation, only a fundamental plan is used, and in controlled observation, events are recorded according to a detailed procedure.

2) Depending on the position of the observer, there are participating (or included) and simple (not included) observations. During participant observation, the researcher imitates entry into the social environment, adapts to it and analyzes events as if “from the inside”. In a non-involved (simple) observation, the researcher observes “from the outside”, without interfering in events. In both cases, surveillance can be done openly or incognito.

One of the modifications of participant observation is called stimulating observation. This method involves the influence of the researcher on the events that he observes. The sociologist creates a certain situation in order to stimulate events, which makes it possible to evaluate the reaction to this intervention.

3) According to the conditions of organization, observations are divided into field (observations in natural conditions) and laboratory (in an experimental situation).

The procedure of any observation consists of answering the questions: “What to observe?”, “How to observe?” and “How do I keep records?”. We will try to find answers to them.

The first question is answered by the research program, in particular the state of hypotheses, empirical indicators of the selected concepts, the research strategy as a whole. In the absence of clear hypotheses, when the study is carried out according to a primal (approximate) plan, a simple or unstructured observation is used. The purpose of such a preliminary observation is to come up with hypotheses for a more rigorous description of the observed object. This uses the following:

1) General characteristics of the social situation, including such elements as: field of activity (industrial, non-industrial, clarification of its features, etc.); rules and regulations governing the state of the object as a whole (formal and generally accepted, but not enshrined in instructions or orders); the degree of self-regulation of the object of observation (to what extent its state is determined by external factors and internal causes). 2) An attempt to determine the typicality of the observed object in a given situation, relative to other objects and situations; ecological Environment, area of life, social, economic and political atmosphere, the state of public consciousness at the moment.

3) Subjects or participants in social events. Depending on the general task of observation, they can be classified: according to demographic and social characteristics; according to the content of the activity (nature of work, sphere of occupation, sphere of leisure); regarding status in a team or group (team leader, subordinate, administrator, public figure, team member ...); according to official functions in joint activities at the object under study (duties, rights, real opportunities their implementation; rules which they follow strictly and which they neglect...); on informal relations and functions (friendship, connections, informal leadership, authority...).

4) Purpose of activity and social interests of subjects and groups: common and group goals and interests; official and informal; approved and not approved in this environment; alignment of interests and goals.

5) The structure of activity from the outside: external motives (incentives), internal conscious intentions (motives), funds attracted to achieve goals (in terms of the content of the funds and their moral assessment), according to the intensity of activity (productive, reproductive; intense, calm) and according to its practical results (material and spiritual products).

6) The regularity and frequency of observed events: according to a number of the parameters indicated above and according to the typical situations that they describe. Observation according to such a plan allows you to better understand the object of observation.

Withsociological document in sociology, they call any information recorded in printed or handwritten text, on magnetic tape, photographic film, film.

Almost all sociological research begins with the analysis of documents. The documents contain great information opportunities.

Documents can be classified in a number of ways:

according to the form of presentation documents are divided into: statistical, containing data in numerical form; verbal, describing social phenomena and processes in the form of a text;

in terms of overall importance official documents, bearing an "official nature" (minutes of meetings, documents of economic bodies, data from the CSO, etc.); informal documents- public and personal documents containing free information about events taking place in society, related to the personal life of a person, group of persons (memoirs, personal letters, etc.);

according to the method of fixing information, documents are: written(handwritten and printed); iconographic(film, video, photographic documents, paintings, etc.; phonetic(recordings, magnetic recordings).

The most important source of sociological information are also documents specially created for the purposes of the study: questionnaires, interview forms, tests, observation diaries, etc.

Documentary information is used by the sociologist at all stages of the study. The use of a particular document is determined by the problem, purpose, objectives of the study, as well as its availability.

In sociology, two methods of document analysis are used:

traditional(qualitative);

content analysis(formalized).

Traditional analysis includes procedures aimed at revealing the main content of the studied material. It is based on the mechanism of understanding, which does not exclude the possibility of subjective interpretation of the material. The traditional analysis is:

external analysis, showing the circumstances, the purpose of its appearance and reliability;

internal analysis, aimed at identifying differences between the actual and literary content, establishing the level of competence of the author and systematizing the information contained in the document.

The possibility of subjective interpretation of the material required the search for formalized methods, as a result of which content analysis was created.

Content analysis has a qualitative-quantitative nature of the study of documents. The procedure of formalized analysis begins with the allocation of semantic units of analysis and units of account. In the text, the semantic unit can be concepts (term, “name”, sign), theme, character (hero), message, judgment, situation, action. The units of account can be time (minutes of airtime), space (volume of text), frequency of occurrence of units of analysis, etc.

Non-quantitative content analysis is based on identifying the presence of a semantic unit in the content of the text.

Quantitative content analysis is based on the quantitative measurement of units of analysis.

Documentary in sociology is called any information fixed in printed or handwritten text, on magnetic tape, on photographic or film. In this sense, the concept of documentation differs from the commonly used one: we usually refer to official materials as documents.

According to the method of fixing information, they differ: handwritten and printed documents; records on magnetic tape. From the point of view of the intended purpose, materials that were chosen by the researcher himself are distinguished.

Example: American sociologist W. Thomas and Polish F. Znaniecki studied the life of Polish emigrants in Europe and America according to documents. They asked a Polish peasant to write an autobiography and received from him 300 pages of handwritten text. These documents are called target. Other documents, independent of the sociologist, are called cash. Usually they constitute documentary information in sociological research.

According to the degree of personification, documents are divided into personal and impersonal.

Personal - documents of individual accounting (library forms, questionnaires and forms certified by a signature), characteristics issued to a given person, letters, diaries, statements, memoirs.

Impersonal - statistical or event archives, press data, minutes of meetings. Depending on the status, documents are divided into official and unofficial.

Official - protocols, government materials, resolutions, statements, communiques, transcripts of official meetings, state and departmental statistics, archives, etc., reporting. Unofficial - personal documents, as well as impersonal documents compiled by private citizens (for example, statistical generalizations made by another researcher based on their own observations).

A special group of documents - the media, newspapers, magazines, radio, television, cinema.

According to the source of information, documents are divided into primary and secondary. The first is direct observation. To secondary - processing of direct observation data, generalization or description based on primary sources.

You can also classify documents by content: for example, literary data, historical and scientific archives, sociological research archives.

Polls - an indispensable technique for obtaining information about the subjective world of people, their inclinations, motives of activity, opinions. Polling is an almost universal method. With proper precautions, information can be obtained no less reliable than in the study of documents or observation. And this information can be about anything. Even about what you can not see or read.

For the first time, official polls appeared in England at the end of the 18th century, and in early XIX century in the USA. In France and Germany, the first surveys were conducted in 1848, in Belgium - in 1868-1869. And then they began to actively spread.

The art of using this method is to know what to ask, how to ask, what questions to ask, and finally, how to make sure that the answers you receive can be trusted.

For the researcher, first of all, it is necessary to understand that not the “average respondent” is participating in the survey, but a living, real person endowed with consciousness and self-awareness, who affects the sociologist in the same way as the sociologist affects him. Respondents are not impartial registrars of their knowledge and opinions, but living people who are not alien to some kind of sympathy, preferences, fears, etc. Therefore, perceiving questions, they cannot answer some of them due to lack of knowledge, and they do not want to answer others or answer insincerely.

Poll varieties. There are two large classes of survey methods: interviews and questionnaires.

An interview is a conversation conducted according to a certain plan, involving direct contact between the interviewer and the respondent (interviewee), and the latter's answers are recorded either by the interviewer (his assistant) or mechanically (on film).

There are many types of interviews.

2) According to the technique of conducting - they are divided into free, non-standardized and formalized (as well as semi-standardized) interviews.

Free - a long conversation (several hours) without a strict specification of questions, but according to a general program ("interview guide"). Such interviews are appropriate at the exploration stage in the formulational research plan.

Standardized interviews, like formalized observation, require a detailed development of the entire procedure, including the general plan of the conversation, the sequence and design of questions, and possible answers.

3) Depending on the specifics of the procedure, the interview can be intensive (“clinical”, i.e. deep, sometimes lasting for hours) and focused on identifying a fairly narrow range of respondent's reactions. The purpose of a clinical interview is to obtain information about the internal motives, motives, inclinations of the interviewee, and a focused interview is to extract information about the subject's reactions to a given impact. With its help, they study, for example, to what extent a person reacts to individual components of information (from the mass press, lectures, etc.). Moreover, the text of information is pre-processed by content analysis. In a focused interview, they try to determine which semantic units of text analysis are at the center of the attention of the respondents, which are on the periphery, and which are not left in the memory at all.

4) The so-called undirected interviews are "therapeutic" in nature. The initiative for the flow of the conversation here belongs to the respondent himself, the interviewer only helps him “pour out his soul”.

5) Finally, according to the method of organization, interviews are divided into group and individual. The former are used relatively rarely; this is a planned conversation, during which the researcher seeks to provoke a discussion in the group. the methodology for conducting reader's conferences resembles this procedure. Telephone interviews are used to quickly solicit opinions.

Questionnaire survey. This method involves a rigidly fixed order, content and form of questions, a clear indication of the methods of answer, and they are recorded by the respondent either alone (correspondence survey) or in the presence of the questionnaire (direct survey).

Questionnaires are classified primarily by the content and design of the questions asked. Distinguish between open polls, when respondents speak freely. In a closed questionnaire, all answers are provided in advance. Semi-closed questionnaires combine both procedures. A probing or express poll is used in public opinion surveys and contains only 3-4 items of basic information plus a few items related to the demographic and social characteristics of the respondents. Such questionnaires are reminiscent of sheets of popular referendums. A survey by mail is distinguished from a survey on the spot: in the first case, the return of the questionnaire is expected by prepaid postage, in the second, the questionnaire collects the completed sheets. Group surveys are different from individual surveys. In the first case, up to 30-40 people are questioned at once: the questionnaire gathers the respondents, instructs them and leaves them to fill out the questionnaires, in the second case, he addresses each respondent individually. The organization of “distributing” surveys, including surveys at the place of residence, is naturally more laborious than, for example, surveys through the press, which are also widely used in our and foreign practice. However, the latter are not representative of many groups of the population, so they can rather be attributed to the methods of studying the public opinion of readers of these publications.

Finally, when classifying questionnaires, numerous criteria related to the topic of surveys are also used: event questionnaires, questionnaires for clarifying value orientations, statistical questionnaires (in population censuses), timing of daily time budgets, etc.

When conducting surveys, one should not forget that they reveal subjective opinions and assessments that are subject to fluctuations, the influence of the conditions of the survey and other circumstances. To minimize the data distortion associated with these factors, any kind of survey methods should be carried out in a short time. Poll cannot be extended long time, since external circumstances may change by the end of the survey, and information about its conduct will be transmitted by the respondents to each other with some comments, and these judgments will begin to influence the nature of the answers of those who later fall into the composition of the respondents. Whether we use interviews or questionnaires, most of the problems associated with the reliability of information are common to them.

In order for the questionnaire survey to be more effective, it is necessary to follow a number of rules that help to correctly set the course of the survey and reduce the number of errors in the study. Questions addressed to the respondents are not isolated - they are links of one chain, and as links, each of them is connected with the previous and subsequent ones (L.S. Vygodsky called this relationship “the influence of meanings”). The questionnaire is not a mechanical sequence of questions that can be placed in it in any way or as convenient for the researcher, but a special whole. It has its own properties, which are not reducible to a simple sum of the properties of the individual questions that make it up.

At the very beginning, they ask simple questions, and not according to the logic of the researcher contained in the program, so as not to bring down serious questions on the answerer right away, but to let him get used to the questionnaire and gradually move from simple to more complex (funnel rule). The radiation effect - when all questions are logically interconnected and logically narrow the topic, the respondent has a certain attitude according to which he will answer them - this influence of the question is called the radiation effect or the echo effect and it manifests itself in the fact that the previous question or questions direct the respondents' thoughts in a certain direction, they create a certain mini-coordinate system within which a quite definite answer is formed or chosen. level. The methodological problem lies in the division of sociology into fundamental and applied. The choice is determined by the object of study, the degree of its problematic complexity and relevance.

4. The problems of sociological research in medical science and in the healthcare system are interconnected with the natural growing interest in the sociology of medicine in modern domestic science. This interest is determined by the fact that within its framework a sociological understanding of the state of the health care system can be carried out, as the most important sphere of society and its social institutions, the role and place of medicine, health care, the doctor and the patient.

In the context of transformations in the social formation and related social changes, including in healthcare policy, it is very important to consider the ongoing processes of modernization of healthcare as a social institution in the context of changes in political, economic, sociocultural and other factors, i.e. it is necessary to take into account in a timely manner not only the impact of changing conditions on a person, but also a possible range of reactions - social actions and their consequences on the development of medical science and education, organization medical care, changes in the mobility of the population and the medical-industrial complex of the country as a whole. It should be noted that the domestic sociology of medicine has the necessary potential for this. Some domestic research and developments carried out over the past decades are comparable to the world level. In terms of setting tasks and the proposed methods for their implementation, they correspond to the modern level of research in this area, conducted in European countries and USA. However, this is the outer side of the phenomenon. In fact, the growing mutual influence of medicine and sociology is, apparently, the result of a change in the social healthcare paradigm, which in the modern post-industrial society is becoming completely different.

In the XVIII - XIX centuries. doctors mostly encountered acute ailments, often of an infectious nature and threatening the lives of patients. The leading causes of death, for example, in 1900, were influenza, pneumonia, tuberculosis, while at the end of the 20th century. the main ones were heart disease, malignant neoplasms, cerebrovascular accidents and accidents. Other causes of morbidity in the XX century. associated with population aging and lifestyle changes.

In the second half of the XX century. Physicians have already begun to deal mainly with long-term chronic disorders that interfere with the patient's optimal social functioning.

The change in the nature of pathology gave rise in sociology and clinical medicine to a new concept - "holistic medicine", in which microorganisms as the main etiological factor began to displace stress, and the concept of "treatment" is increasingly replaced by the concepts of "rehabilitation" and "social security". As a result, general practitioners have a need for medical and sociological knowledge, since the existing competence in the physiological, chemical and biological aspects of the disease is no longer enough without additional information.

Since the sociology of medicine is interested in the whole person in the context of his medical and social environment, it can make an important contribution to the medical perception and understanding of the problem of disease in modern society. In the new socio-economic conditions, the importance and necessity of giving a new impetus to the domestic sociology of medicine become obvious. Unfortunately, traditionally, the reasons for the backwardness of the sociology of medicine are stubbornly seen not where they exist (for example, incomplete scientific competence), but in the insufficient practical usefulness of ongoing medical sociological research. These attitudes now and again break through into the official medical press, for example, in the form of demands to teach doctors not sociological theories, but to give them more practical skills. With such an attitude (especially in the context of market realities), Russian healthcare will quickly begin to turn into a consumer of Western medical technologies.

The task of medical and sociological systematization of various approaches developed in the course of research into the problems of medicine, health care, medical education and science is difficult, but extremely relevant for the development of science.

Knowledge of approaches, mastering the methodological tools of medical and sociological research is ultimately necessary for a successful analysis of the prospects for the development of modern Russian medicine, health care, medical science and education. It is these analytical capabilities that primarily determine the relevance of the sociology of medicine as a scientific discipline, because its immediate goal is to present detailed theoretical and empirical descriptions of the problems of health, medicine and health care in Russia, of course, in comparison with historical experience and similar systems in other countries and determine prospects. their development.

Meanwhile, the existing methodology for researching medical and sociological phenomena and processes requires serious revision. The subject of the sociology of medicine is defined in them only phenomenologically, through a list of topics studied, such as, for example, the ecology and etiology of diseases, a healthy lifestyle, the attitude of the population to medical care, etc. There is still no holistic view of the content of the subject of the sociology of medicine, a one-sided picture of the reflection of phenomena (materialistic) dominates, and even, moreover, disputes continue about the legitimacy of the given name of a scientific discipline and academic subject. The need for deep generalizations in the field of social medicine is recognized not only by sociologists, but also by physicians. recent times On the pages of the Russian press there is a lively discussion on many fundamental issues of the theory of public health. Many participants in the discussion, concerned about the state of affairs in this area, note that over the last quarter of the 20th century. the study of social health problems has acquired a medico-sociological character, and empirical research has greatly strengthened its theoretical positions. The general approach to the sociology of medicine often comes down to the following: the basic categories of sociology are taken and filled with this or that medical and social content. It is hardly possible and hardly advisable to completely abandon such a medico-sociological reengineering of the basic concepts of sociology. However, it must be understood that this approach, which considers the sociology of medicine as a practical application of sociological theories, ultimately replaces the subject matter of the sociology of medicine. It has its own subject area and is not limited to the political and economic theories of the sociology of society. In the process of applying sociological concepts in the field of health care, it has developed its own logic and its own models, which must be distinguished and described.

Modern methods of medical and sociological knowledge strive to take into account all the achievements of social and humanitarian knowledge, including taking into account the achievements of computer science, cybernetics, synergetics, systems theory, catastrophe theory, which have significantly enriched all sciences. Most of the methods of the sociology of medicine are tools for theoretical and empirical research.

Representing the sociology of medicine as a research process, we strive to follow the actual medical and sociological logic of the subject and the construction of a medical and sociological model of healthcare. This approach is based on the methodology of analysis of institutional changes. By institutional analysis in the sociology of medicine, we mean the analysis of the health care system based on the ideas of the traditional sociological view of medicine and health care as social institutions of society, and the newest view of social institutions as the main tools of any specific social interaction, which makes it possible to obtain fundamental results in modern institutional economics. We believe that the application of the methodology of analysis of institutional changes in the sociology of medicine is, in fact, a change in its scientific paradigm. The development of the methodology of institutional analysis in the sociology of medicine in the future may lead to a closer integration of medico-sociological and socio-economic descriptions of the processes of historical evolution of the complex relationships between anthropological, biocentric, psychoanalytic, gender, economic, sociological and political points of view on the formation of models of medicine and healthcare.

questions to review

What are the types of sociological research to obtain information?

Tell about the structure of sociological research: definition, stages, main types, program.

What is a sampling research method? Sample types?

How to draw up a working plan for sociological research?

Tell about the methods of interviewing respondents: the method of questionnaire survey and the requirements for conducting a survey.

Talk about the interview method: types of interviews.

Tell about the methods of sociological research: observation, experiment, analysis of documents.

Features of the methodology and practice of sociological research in the healthcare system and medical science.

Variants of the final test in sociology

I. True (false) "+" or "-".

1. The inductive method of research is used in sociology much more often than the deductive one.

2. European schools of sociology are distinguished by a tilt towards theoretical sociology, while American schools are towards applied sociological research.

3. Social institution - a stable set of formal and informal rules, principles, norms, attitudes that regulate various areas of human activity.

4. Traditional is usually called an industrial society.

5. Social stratification should be understood as a structurally regulated inequality in which people are ranked according to the social significance that social roles and various activities have.

6. In sociology, preventive and specific mobility are distinguished.

7. In the 90s of the 20th century in Russia, the process of "erosion" of the middle social strata proceeded much faster than the formation of the "middle" class.

8. In the conditions of modern Russia, students are a marginal group, whose political weight significantly exceeds the share of this group in the country's population.

9. A family based not only on marriage, but also on consanguinity is called nuclear.

10. A family that includes a husband, wife and their children is called a nuclear family.

11. Choose one of the four options.

1. The founder of sociology is:

a) O. Comte, b) G. Hegel, c) A. Toynbee, d) Socrates.

2. The classic of the "sociological school" is:

a) F. Feuerbach, b) Fichte, c) F. Bacon, d) E. Durkheim.

3. The main types of sociological research are:

a) reconnaissance and descriptive, b) reconnaissance and epistemological, c) descriptive and limiting, d) pilot and selective.

4. The main elements of society do not include:

a) social institutions and organizations, b) social norms and values,

c) social connections and actions, d) social representations and expectations.

5. In sociology, the division of societies into two types is widely used: a) traditional and industrial, b) traditional and developed, c) industrial and ethnic, d) socialist and capitalist.

6. The training of universities for a low-skilled specialist (illiterate) is a function that can be designated as:

a) overt function, b) overt dysfunction, c) latent function, d) latent dysfunction.

7. Not included in the main three interrelated elements of the social structure of society:

a) normal b) social status, c) social role, d) social goals.

8. What status socially characterizes a person who is:

a) the father of the family, b) a philatelist, c) a member of the Liberal Democratic Party, d) a doctor.

9. The movement of people from one social group to another, their promotion to positions with higher prestige, income and power, or movement to lower hierarchical positions is:

a) social stratification, b) migration, c) marginalization, d) social mobility.

10. According to Durkheim, the reason for the "solidarity of citizens in society":

a) the need for protection and freedom, b) a common religion,

c) division of labor, d) common national interests.

When conducting sociological research, the following main methods of collecting information are most often planned, which are included in the methodological part of the program (Fig. 2).

Fig.2. Classification of sociological research methods

Document Analysis . This method allows you to get information about past events that are no longer monitored.

The study of documents helps to identify trends and dynamics of their changes and development. The source of sociological information is usually text messages contained in protocols, reports, resolutions and decisions, publications, etc. A special role is played by social statistical information, which in most cases is used to characterize the development of the process or phenomenon under study.

Equally important is coitent-aiali h, which is actively used in media research, being an indispensable method of grouping texts. The analysis is based on the use of uniform indicators (indicators) for searching, accounting and calculating the mass character of certain characteristics of the text.

The tasks solved by this method follow a simple scheme: who said what, to whom, how, with what purpose and with what result.

Poll - the most common method of collecting primary information. Almost 90% of all sociological data are obtained with its help.

In each case, the survey involves an appeal to a direct participant and is aimed at those aspects of the process that are little or not amenable to direct observation at all. That is why the survey is indispensable when it comes to the study of those meaningful characteristics of social, group and interpersonal relations that are hidden from the outside eye and reveal themselves only in certain conditions and situations.

During the study, the following types of surveys are used (Fig. 3).

Fig.3. Survey types

Depending on the source (carrier) of primary sociological information, mass and specialized surveys are distinguished. AT mass poll The main source of information is representatives of various social groups whose activities are not directly related to the subject of analysis.

Participants in mass surveys are called respondents.

AT specialized surveys The main source of information is competent persons whose professional or theoretical knowledge and life experience allow authoritative conclusions to be drawn. In fact, the participants in such surveys are experts who are able to give a balanced assessment of the issues of interest to the researcher.

Hence another widely used name in sociology for such surveys - expert polls or ratings.

There are three main types of sociological survey: questioning, conversation and interviewing.

Questionnaire – a written survey conducted according to a certain plan, involving the receipt of respondents' answers to a list of questions and statements ordered by content, either one-on-one or in the presence of a questionnaire.

The following types of surveys are used (Fig. 4).

Fig.4. Types of survey

Questionnaire (French - investigation) - a questionnaire, independently filled out by the interviewee according to the rules specified in it.

Questionnaire- a series of questions and statements ordered in content and form, presented in the form of a questionnaire, which has a rigidly fixed order and structure.

Press survey- This is a type of survey in which questionnaires are published in print. This type of questioning practically excludes the possibility of the researcher to influence the formation of the sample.

Handout survey provides for the personal delivery of the questionnaire to the respondent. Its advantages are in the personal contact of the researcher with the respondent, it makes it possible to advise the respondent on the rules for filling out the questionnaire, to assess the respondent's compliance with the intended sample.

Question - a thought expressed in an interrogative expression aimed at clarifying or supplementing knowledge.

Closed questions are accompanied by possible answers, while open questions require a direct answer to the question. The main tools used in the course of the survey are questionnaires.

Interview - An oral survey conducted according to a certain plan, in which there is direct contact between the interviewer and the respondent, and the latter's answers are recorded either by the interviewer (his assistant) or mechanically.

During the interview, the following types of interviews are used (Fig. 5)

Fig.5. Types of interview

Free interviews use verbatim recording, tape recording, or recording from memory. In standardized interviews, responses are coded according to the questionnaire.

The following requirements are imposed on the interview: the correct choice of the place of the interview; the need for an introductory speech (introduction, purpose of the study, importance of the study, guarantee of anonymity); the neutral position of the interviewer during the conversation; creating a favorable atmosphere for communication; recording interview data.

Conversation - a type of survey based on a thoughtful and carefully prepared conversation between a researcher and a competent person (respondent) or a group of people in order to obtain information on the issue under study.

The conversation should be conducted in an atmosphere of relaxed and mutual trust according to a predetermined, well-thought-out plan, highlighting issues to be clarified.

Observation is a purposeful and systematized perception of the process or phenomenon being studied, the features, properties and features of which are recorded by the researcher. The forms and methods of fixation can be different: an observation form or diary, a photo, television or movie camera, and other technical means.

Focus groups , the methodology of which comes down to conducting an interview according to a pre-prepared scenario in the form of a discussion with a small group of “ordinary people” (as opposed to experts in an expert survey, “brainstorming”, etc.).

The main methodological requirement for the composition of this discussion group is its homogeneity, which eliminates the possibility of direct or indirect pressure of some members of the group on others. Therefore, researchers select focus groups from people who do not know each other of approximately the same age, the same sex, and a similar level of income. The formation of these groups should cover the main groups of the population so that the prevailing orientations in the minds and behavior of people can be represented. An important requirement is the size of this group, which allows you to support the discussion (with 4-5 participants, it can quickly die out, and with a significant number - 20-25 people, it will not allow all participants to fully express themselves).

interpersonal relationships

scientific hypothesis

Research types

Before proceeding to consider the main methods of sociological research, it is worth examining their varieties. They are divided into three large groups: by goals, by duration and depth of analysis.

According to the goals, sociological research is divided into fundamental and applied. Fundamental define and study social trends and patterns community development. The results of these studies help solve complex problems. In turn, applied studies study specific objects and solve problems. certain problems that are not global.

All methods of sociological research differ from each other in their duration. Yes, there are:

Long-term studies that last more than 3 years.
Medium-term validity period from six months to 3 years.
Short-term last from 2 to 6 months.
Express studies are carried out very quickly - from 1 week to 2 months maximum.

Also, studies are distinguished by their depth, while dividing into search, descriptive and analytical.

Exploratory research is considered the simplest, they are used when the subject of research has not yet been studied. They have a simplified toolkit and program, most often used in the preliminary stages of larger studies in order to set guidelines on what and where to collect information.

Through descriptive research, scientists gain a holistic view of the phenomena being studied. They are carried out based on the full program of the chosen method of sociological research, using detailed tools and a large number of people to conduct surveys.

Analytical studies describe social phenomena and their causes.

About methodology and methods

Reference books often contain such a concept as methodology and methods of sociological research. For those who are far from science, it is worth explaining one fundamental difference between them. Methods are methods of using organizational and technical procedures designed to collect sociological information. Methodology is the totality of all possible research methods. Thus, the methodology and methods of sociological research can be considered related concepts, but by no means identical.

All methods that are known in sociology can be divided into two large groups: methods that are designed to collect data, and those that are responsible for their processing.

In turn, the methods of sociological research responsible for collecting data are divided into quantitative and qualitative. Qualitative methods help the scientist understand the essence of the phenomenon that has occurred, while quantitative methods show how massively it has spread.

To the family quantitative methods sociological research include:

Poll.
Content analysis of documents.
Interview.
observation.
Experiment.

Qualitative methods of sociological research are focus groups, case studies. It also includes unstructured interviews and ethnographic research.

As for the methods of analysis of sociological research, they include all kinds of statistical methods, such as ranking or scaling. To be able to apply statistics, sociologists use a special software such as OSA or SPSS.

opinion poll

The first and main method of sociological research is considered to be a social survey. A survey is a method of collecting information about an object under study during a survey or interview.

With the help of a sociological survey, you can get information that is not always displayed in documentary sources or cannot be noticed during the experiment. A survey is resorted to when the necessary and only source of information is a person. Verbal information obtained through this method is considered more reliable than any other. It is easier to analyze and turn into quantitative indicators.

Another advantage of this method is that it is universal. During the interview, the interviewer records the motives and results of the individual's activities. This allows you to get the information that is not able to give any of the methods of sociological research. In sociology, such a concept as the reliability of information is of great importance - this is when the respondent gives the same answers to the same questions. However, under different circumstances, a person can answer in different ways, so how the interviewer knows how to take into account all conditions and influence them is of great importance. It is necessary to maintain in a stable state as many factors that affect reliability as possible.

Each begins with an adaptation phase, when the respondent receives a certain motivation to answer. This phase consists of a greeting and the first few questions. The content of the questionnaire, its purpose and the rules for completing it are explained to the respondent beforehand. The second stage is the achievement of the goal, that is, the collection of basic information. During the survey, especially if the questionnaire is very long, the respondent's interest in the task may fade. Therefore, the questionnaire often uses questions whose content is interesting for the subject, but may be absolutely useless for research.

The last stage of the poll is the completion of the work. At the end of the questionnaire, easy questions are usually written, most often this role is played by the demographic map. This method helps to relieve tension, and the respondent will be more loyal to the interviewer. After all, as practice shows, if you do not take into account the condition of the subject, then the majority of respondents refuse to answer questions already in the middle of the questionnaire.

Content analysis of documents

Also to sociological methods research refers to the analysis of documents. In terms of popularity, this technique is second only to opinion polls, but in some areas of research, it is content analysis that is considered the main one.

Content analysis of documents is widespread in the sociology of politics, law, civil movements etc. Very often, by examining documents, scientists derive new hypotheses, which are later tested by a survey method.

A document is a means of assuring information about facts, events or phenomena. objective reality. When using documents, it is worth considering the experience and traditions of a particular field, as well as related humanities. During the analysis, it is worthwhile to be critical of the information, this will help to correctly assess its objectivity.

Documents are classified according to different criteria. Depending on the ways of fixing information, they are divided into written, phonetic, iconographic. If we take into account the authorship, then the documents are official and personal origin. Motives also influence the creation of documents. So, provoked and unprovoked materials are distinguished.

Content analysis is the precise study of the content of a text array in order to determine or measure the social trends described in these arrays. This is a specific method of scientific and cognitive activity and sociological research. It is best used when there is a large amount of unorganized material; when the text cannot be examined without total scores or when a high level of accuracy is needed.

For example, literary critics have been trying for a very long time to establish which of the finals of the "Mermaid" belongs to Pushkin. With the help of content analysis and special computing programs, it was possible to establish that only one of them belongs to the author. Scientists made this conclusion, basing their opinion on the fact that each writer has his own style. The so-called frequency dictionary, that is, the specific repetition of various words. Having compiled the writer's dictionary and comparing it with the frequency dictionary of all options endings, found out that it was the original version of the "Mermaid" that was identical to Pushkin's frequency dictionary.

The main thing in content analysis is to correctly identify semantic units. They can be words, phrases and sentences. Analyzing documents in this way, a sociologist can easily understand the main trends, changes and predict further development in a particular social segment.

Interview

Another method of sociological research is the interview. It means personal communication between the sociologist and the respondent. The interviewer asks questions and records the answers. The interview can be direct, that is, face to face, or indirect, such as by phone, mail, online, etc.

According to the degree of freedom, interviews are:

Formalized. In this case, the sociologist always clearly follows the research program. In the methods of sociological research, this method is often used in indirect surveys.
Semi-formalized. Here, the order of the questions and their wording may change depending on how the conversation is going.
Unformalized. Interviews can be conducted without questionnaires, depending on the course of the conversation, the sociologist chooses questions himself. This method is used in pilot or expert interviews when it is not necessary to compare the results of the work done.

Depending on who is the carrier of information, polls are:

Mass. Here the main sources of information are representatives of various social groups.
Specialized. When only people who are knowledgeable in a particular survey are interviewed, which allows you to get completely authoritative answers. This survey is often referred to as an expert interview.

In short, the method of sociological research (in a particular case, interviews) is a very flexible tool for collecting primary information. Interviews are indispensable if you need to study phenomena that cannot be observed from the outside.

Observation in sociology

This is a method of purposeful fixation of information about the object of perception. In sociology, scientific and ordinary observation are distinguished. Character traits scientific research- purposefulness and planning. Scientific observation is subject to certain goals and is carried out according to a pre-prepared plan. The researcher records the results of the observation and controls their stability. There are three main features of observation:

The method of sociological research assumes that knowledge social reality is closely related to the personal preferences of the scientist and his value orientations.
The sociologist emotionally perceives the object of observation.
It is difficult to repeat the observation, since objects are always subject to various factors that change them.

Thus, when observing, the sociologist faces a number of difficulties of a subjective nature, since he interprets what he sees through the prism of his judgments. With regard to objective problems, here we can say the following: not all social facts can be observed, all observable processes are limited in time. Therefore, this method is used as an additional method for collecting sociological information. Observation is used if you need to deepen your knowledge or when it is impossible to obtain the necessary information by other methods.

The monitoring program consists of the following steps:

Definition of goals and objectives.
The choice of the type of observation that most accurately meets the tasks.
Identification of the object and subject.
Selecting a data capture method.
Interpretation of the received information.

Types of observation

Each specific method of sociological observation is classified according to various signs. The observation method is no exception. According to the degree of formalization, it is divided into structured and not structured. That is, those that are carried out according to a pre-planned plan and spontaneously, when only the object of observation is known.

According to the position of the observer, experiments of this kind are included and not included. In the first case, the sociologist is directly involved in the object under study. For example, contacts with the subject or participates with the studied subjects in one activity. When observation is not included, the scientist simply watches how events unfold and fixes them. According to the venue and conditions of observation, there are field and laboratory. For the laboratory, candidates are specially selected and some kind of situation is played out, and in the field, the sociologist simply watches how individuals act in their natural environment. There are also observations systematic, when carried out repeatedly to measure the dynamics of change, and random(i.e. disposable).

Experiment

For sociological research methods, the collection of primary information plays a paramount role. But it is not always possible to observe a certain phenomenon or find respondents who have been in specific social conditions. So sociologists start experimenting. This specific method is based on the fact that the researcher and the subject interact in an artificially created environment.

An experiment is used when it is necessary to test hypotheses regarding the causes of certain social phenomena. Researchers compare two phenomena, where one has a hypothetical cause of the change, and the second does not. If, under the influence of certain factors, the subject of the study acts as previously predicted, then the hypothesis is considered proven.

Experiments happen research and confirming. Research helps to determine the cause of the occurrence of certain phenomena, and confirming ones establish how true these reasons are.

Before conducting an experiment, the sociologist must have all necessary information about the research problem. First you need to formulate the problem and define key concepts. Next, designate the variables, in particular external ones, which can significantly affect the course of the experiment. Special attention should be given to the selection of subjects. That is, take into account the characteristics of the general population, modeling it in a reduced format. Experimental and control subgroups should be equivalent.

During the experiment, the researcher has a direct influence on the experimental subgroup, while the control subgroup does not have any effect. The resulting differences are independent variables, from which new hypotheses are subsequently derived.

Focus group

Among the qualitative methods of sociological research, focus groups have long been in the first place. This method of obtaining information helps to obtain reliable data without requiring lengthy preparation and significant time costs.

To conduct a study, it is necessary to select from 8 to 12 people who were not previously familiar with each other, and appoint a moderator, the one who will conduct a dialogue with those present. All participants in the study should be familiar with the study problem.

A focus group is a discussion of a specific social problem, product, phenomenon, etc. The main task of the moderator is not to let the conversation come to naught. It should encourage participants to express their opinion. To do this, he asks leading questions, quotes or shows videos, asking for comments. At the same time, each of the participants must express their opinion without repeating the remarks that have already been made.

The whole procedure lasts approximately 1-2 hours, is recorded on video, and after the participants leave, the received material is reviewed, data is collected and interpreted.

case study

Method No. 2 of sociological research in modern science These are cases, or special cases. It originated in the Chicago School in the early twentieth century. AT literal translation from English case study means "case analysis". This is a kind of research, where the object is a specific phenomenon, case or historical figure. Researchers pay close attention to them in order to be able to predict the processes that may take place in society in the future.

There are three main approaches to this method:

Nomothetic. A single phenomenon is reduced to a general one, the researcher compares what happened with the norm and concludes how likely the mass distribution of this phenomenon is.
Ideographic. The singular is considered unique, the so-called exception to the rule, which cannot be repeated in any social environment.
Integrated. The essence of this method is that during the analysis the phenomenon is considered as unique and as general, this helps to find the features of the pattern.

Ethnographic research

Ethnographic research plays a significant role in the study of society. The main principle is the naturalness of data collection. The essence of the method is simple: the closer to Everyday life there will be a research situation, the real results obtained after the collection of materials.

The task of researchers who work with ethnographic data is to describe in detail the behavior of individuals under certain conditions and to give them a semantic load.

The ethnographic method is represented by a kind of reflective approach, in the center of which is the researcher himself. He studies materials that are informal and contextual. These can be diaries, notes, stories, newspaper clippings, etc. On their basis, the sociologist must create a detailed description of the life world of the public under study. This method of sociological research makes it possible to obtain new ideas for research from theoretical data that were not previously taken into account.

It depends on the problem of study which method of sociological research the scientist chooses, but if this is not found, a new one can be created. Sociology is a young science that is still developing. Every year there are more and more new methods of studying society, which allow predicting its further development and, as a result, preventing the inevitable.