Cheat sheet on world history. Kudryavtseva I.A. General history
1500 BC The beginning of the penetration of Aryan tribes into India
605-582 BC. Reign of Nebuchadnezzar II in Babylon
594 BC Solon's reforms in Athens
558-530 BC. Reign of Cyrus II in Persia
522-486 BC. Reign of Darius I in Persia
510 BC Fall of tyranny in Athens
510 BC The Rise of the Roman Republic
500-449 BC. Greco-Persian Wars
486 BC Death of Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha)
479 BC Death of Confucius
444-429 BC. Pericles at the head of Athens
431-404 BC. Peloponnesian War in Greece
338 BC Battle of Chaeronea between Greeks and Macedonians
336-323 BC. Reign of Alexander the Great
334-325 BC. Eastern campaigns of Alexander the Great
268-231 BC. Reign of Ashoka in India
250-130 BC. Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
250 BC - Parthian Kingdom 130 AD
246-210 BC. Reign of Qin Shi Huang in China
229-201 BC. 2nd Punic War of Rome and Carthage
206 BC - Han Dynasty in China
44 BC Assassination of Julius Caesar in Rome
30 BC-192 AD Early Roman Empire (principate)
30 BC - 14 AD Reign of Octavian Augustus in Rome
1-400 AD Kushan kingdom
226-552 Sasanian kingdom
306-337 The reign of Constantine in the Roman Empire
313 Edict of Milan on Toleration
325 First Ecumenical Council christian church in Nicaea
330 Transfer of the capital of the Roman Empire to Constantinople
394 Christianity declared the state religion of the Roman Empire
395 Division of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern
410 Capture of Rome by the Visigoths
418-714 Kingdom of the Visigoths
439-534 Kingdom of the Vandals
476 Fall of the Western Roman Empire
481-511 Reign of Clovis in the Frankish Kingdom
493-555 Ostrogothic kingdom
527-565 Justinian I's reign Byzantine Empire
568-774 Lombard Kingdom
622 Flight of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina (Hijri)
630 Formation of the Arab Caliphate
661-750 Umayyad Caliphate
679-1018 First Bulgarian Kingdom
732 Victory of Charles Martell over the Arabs at Poitiers
750-1055 Abbasid Caliphate
756 Formation of the Papal State
768-814 Reign of Charlemagne in the Frankish State
8OO Proclamation of Charlemagne as Emperor
843 Partition of the Frankish Empire
863 Mission of Cyril and Methodius to the Great Moravian State
882 Unification of Rus' under the rule of Oleg
907, 911, 944 Treaties between Rus' and Byzantium
912-945 Igor's reign in Rus'
936-973 Reign of Otgon I in Germany
967-971 Campaigns of the Russian Prince Svyatoslav
969-1279 Song Dynasty in China
980-1015 The reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavich in Rus'
987-1328 Capetian Dynasty in France
988 Baptism of Rus'
1001 Beginning of Muslim conquests in India
1019-1054 The reign of Yaroslav the Wise in Rus'
1054 Final division of the Christian Church into Catholic and Orthodox
1055 Capture of Baghdad by Seljuk Turks
1066 Norman conquest of England
1072 Creation of the “Russian Truth” of the Yaroslavichs in Rus'
1096-1099 First Crusade
1097 Lyubech Congress of Russian Princes
1113-1125 Board of Vladimir Monomakh in Kyiv
1147 First mention of Moscow
1176 Battle of Legnano
1187-1396 Second Bulgarian Kingdom
1198-1216 Pope Innocent III
1200 The emergence of the University of Paris
1204 Capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders
1211 Beginning of the Mongol conquests led by Genghis Khan
1212 Battle of Las Navas de Tolos
1215 Magna Carta signed in England
1223 Battle of Kalka
1237-1240 Batu's invasion of Rus'. The beginning of the Horde yoke
1240 Battle of the Neva
1242 Battle on the Ice
1265 Parliament begins in England
1279-1368 Mongol Yuan Dynasty in China
1291 Swiss Confederation begins
1325-1340 Board of Ivan Kalita in Moscow
1328-1589 Valois dynasty in France
1337-1453 Hundred Years' War
1348-1349 "Black Death" (plague) in Europe
1359-1389 The reign of Dmitry Donskoy in Rus'
1368-1644 Ming Dynasty in China
1370-1405 Timur's reign in Samarkand
1380 Battle of Kulikovo
1389 Battle of Kosovo
1410 Battle of Grunwald
1419-1434 Hussite Wars
1425-1462 The reign of Vasily II the Dark in Rus'
1429-1430 Victories of Joan of Arc in France
1439 Florentine Union of Catholic and Orthodox churches
1445 Invention of printing by Gutenberg
1453 Capture of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks
1455-1485 War of the Roses in England
1461-1483 Reign of Louis XI in France
1462-1505 The reign of Ivan III in Rus'
1478 Annexation of Novgorod to Moscow
1479 Unification of Aragon and Castile into the Kingdom of Spain
1480 Liberation of Rus' from the Horde yoke
1485-1603 Tudor dynasty in England
1492 Completion of the Reconquista on the Iberian Peninsula
1492 Discovery of America by Columbus
1494-1559 Italian Wars of France
1497-1498 Opening sea route to India by Vasco da Gama
1497 Code of Laws of Ivan III
1500-1537 Russo-Lithuanian wars (intermittent)
1505-1533 Reign of Vasily III in Rus'
1517 Luther's speech. Beginning of the Reformation
1519-1521 Circumnavigation of Magellan and his companions
1519-1521 Conquest of Mexico by Cortez
1520-1566 Reign of Suleiman I the Magnificent in Turkey
1524-1525 Peasants' War in Germany
1526 Babur's conquest of North India.
1532-1536 Spanish conquest of Peru
1533-1583 Reign of Ivan IV the Terrible in Russia
1540 Papal approval of the Jesuit Order
1547 Ivan the Terrible crowned king
I 549 First Zemsky Sobor in Russia
1552 Annexation of the Kazan Khanate to Russia
1555 Augsburg religious world
1556 Annexation of the Astrakhan Khanate to Russia
1556-1605 Akbar's reign in the Mughal Empire of India
1558-1583 Livonian War
1558-1603 Elizabeth's reign in England
1562-1598 Religious wars in France
1566-1572 Oprichnina in Russia
1566-1609 Dutch liberation struggle against Spain
1569 Formation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
1572 Battle of Molodi
1572 St. Bartholomew's Night in France
1581-1585 Ermak's campaign in Siberia
1581-1597 Decrees on the enslavement of peasants in Russia
1588 England defeats the Spanish “Invincible Armada”
1598 Edict of Nantes by Henry IV in France
1598-1605 The reign of Boris Godunov in Russia
1600 Founding of the East India Company in England
1605-1613 Time of Troubles in Russia
1612 Liberation of Moscow by the militia of K. Minin and D. Pozharsky
1613-1645 The reign of Mikhail Romanov in Russia
1618-1648 Thirty Years' War
1624-1642 Reign of Cardinal A. Richelieu in France
1632-1634 Smolensk War
1639 Beginning of the Tokugawa Shogunate in Japan
1640 The beginning of the English Revolution of 1642-1649. English Civil War
1643-1715 Reign of Louis XIV in France (independently - after 1661)
1644 Beginning of the Manchu Qing dynasty in China
1645-1676 The reign of Alexei Mikhailovich in Russia
1648-1650 Urban uprisings in Russia
1653-1658 Cromwell Lord Protector of England
1654-1667 Russian-Polish War
1670-1671 Uprising led by S. Razin in Russia
1676-1681 Russo-Turkish War
1682-1725 Reign of Peter 1 the Great in Russia (independent - in 1689)
1687, 1689 Crimean campaigns V.V. Golitsyna
1688 "Glorious Revolution" in England
1695, 1696 Azov campaigns of Peter I
1700-1721 North War
1701-1714 War of the Spanish Succession
1703 Founding of St. Petersburg
1709 Battle of Poltava
1711 Establishment of the Senate in Russia
1711 Prut campaign
1714 Battle of Gangut
1730-1740 The reign of Anna Ioannovna in Russia
1735-1739 Russo-Turkish War
1741-1761 The reign of Elizaveta Petrovna in Russia
1755 Creation of Moscow University
1756-1763 Seven Years' War
1757-1762 Russia's participation in Seven Years' War
1762 Manifesto on the freedom of the nobility in Russia
1762-1796 Reign of Catherine II in Russia
1767 Convening of the Legislative Commission in Russia
1768-1774 Russo-Turkish War
1770 Battles of Larga, Kagul, Chesma
1772, 1793, 1795 Sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
1773-1775 Uprising led by E. Pugachev in Russia
1776-1783 American Revolutionary War
1776 US Declaration of Independence
1783 Crimea annexed by Russia
1787-1791 Russo-Turkish War
1789 Beginning of the French Revolution
1792 Proclamation of France as a republic
1793 Execution of Louis XVI 1796-1801 Reign of Paul I in Russia
1799 Italian and Swiss hiking A.V. Suvorov
1799 Napoleon's reign in France begins
1801-1825 Reign of Alexander I in Russia
1804 Proclamation of Napoleon as Emperor
1804-1813, Russian-Iranian wars 1826-1828.
1805-1815 Napoleonic Wars
1805-1807 Russia's participation in Napoleonic wars
1806-1812 Russo-Turkish War
1808-1809 Russo-Swedish War
1810 Creation of the first independent states in Latin America
1812 Patriotic War in Russia. Battle of Borodino
1813-1814 Foreign campaign of the Russian army
1814-1815 Congress of Vienna
1815-1825 National Liberation War in Latin America
1823 Proclamation of the Monroe Doctrine
1825 Decembrist uprising in Russia
1825-1855 Reign of Nicholas I in Russia
1830 Formation of Belgium
1830-1831 Uprising in Poland, Russian-Polish War
1836-1848 Chartist movement in England
1837-1841 Reform of state peasants in Russia
1845-1846, Anglo-Sikh wars in India
1846-1848 Mexican-American War
1848-1849 Revolutions in European countries
1850-1864 Taiping Rebellion in China
1851 Opening railway Moscow-St. Petersburg
1553-1856 Eastern (Crimean) War
1855-1881 Reign of Alexander II in Russia
1857-1859 Sinai revolt in India
1861-1865 American Civil War
1861 Abolition of serfdom in Russia
1861-1870 Unification of Italy
1862-1890 Bismarck at the head of Prussia and Germany
1864 Zemstvo and judicial reforms in Russia
1867 Beginning of the Meiji Revolution in Japan
1869 Suez Canal opens
1870-1871 Franco-Prussian War
1871 German unification, proclamation German Empire
1877-1878 Russo-Turkish War
1881-1894 Governing body Alexandra III in Russia
1882 Creation of the Triple Alliance
1891 Construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway begins
1891-1907 Creation of the Entente
1894-1917 Reign of Nicholas II
1894-1895 Sino-Japanese War
1898 American-Spanish War
1899-1902 Boer War
1904-1905 Russo-Japanese War
1905-1907 First Russian Revolution
1906 Beginning of the Stolypin agrarian reform in Russia
1908 Young Turk Revolution
1910-1917 Mexican Revolution
1911-1913 Xinghai Revolution in China
1912-1913 Balkan Wars
1914 Panama Canal opens
1914-1918 First World War
1917 Revolution in Russia
1918 Revolution in Germany
1918 Collapse of Austria-Hungary, formation of Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia
1918-1920 Russian Civil War
1918-1923 Kemalist revolution in Turkey
1919 Treaty of Versailles
1919-1943 Activities of the Comintern
1919 Establishment of the League of Nations
1921 Transition to NEP in Soviet Russia
1922 Fascists come to power in Italy
1922 Creation of the USSR
1925-1927 Great national revolution in China
1929-1933 World economic crisis
1929 Beginning of mass collectivization in the USSR
1931 Japanese capture of Manchuria
1933 Establishment of the Nazi regime in Germany
1933 The beginning of F. Roosevelt’s “new course” in the USA
1936-1939 Spanish Civil War
1937-1938 "Great Terror" in the USSR
1937 Japanese invasion of Central China
1938 German takeover of Austria
1938 Munich Agreement
1939 Signing of the Soviet-German non-aggression pact
1939-1945 The Second World War
1941-1945 The Great Patriotic War
1943 Tehran Conference
1944 Opening of the Second Front in Europe
1945 Yalta Conference 1945 Potsdam Conference
1945 Atomic bombing USA Hiroshima and Nagasaki
1945 Adoption of the UN Charter
1946-1954 French War in Vietnam
1947 India and Pakistan gain independence
1948 Formation of Israel, Arab-Israeli War
1949 NATO is formed. Education CMEA
1949 End civil war in China, formation of the People's Republic of China
1950-1953 Korean War
1953 Death of J.V. Stalin
1954-1962 French War in Algeria
1955 ATS education
1956 Suez crisis
1956 Uprising in Hungary
1957 Treaty of Rome establishing the EEC
1957 Launch of the first artificial Earth satellite
1959 Revolution in Cuba
1960 Year of Africa
1961 Yuri Gagarin's flight into space
1961 Berlin crisis
1962 Cuban Missile Crisis
1965 Beginning economic reform in the USSR 1965-1973. US War in Vietnam
1966 " Cultural Revolution" in China
1967 Arab-Israeli War
1968 Prague Spring
1971 Indo-Pakistan War
1972 Nuclear Missile Limitation Treaty nuclear weapons(OSV)
1973 Arab-Israeli War
1975 Signing Final Act CSCE in Helsinki
1978 Reforms begin in China
1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran 1979 Entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan 1985 Beginning of perestroika in the USSR 1989-1991 Removal of communists from power in Eastern Europe
1990 German reunification
1991 Operation Desert Storm against Iraq 1991 Collapse of Yugoslavia
1991 Collapse of the USSR, creation of the CIS
1992 Maastricht Agreements on the EU 1992-1997. War in Bosnia
1993 Collapse of Czechoslovakia
1993 Constitution adopted Russian Federation
1991, 1996, 2000, Russian Presidential Elections
2004 1993, 1995, 1999, Elections State Duma Russia
1994 Fall of the apartheid regime in South Africa 1998. Transition of Hong Kong (Hong Kong) to the jurisdiction of the PRC
1999 NATO aggression against Yugoslavia
2001 Terrorist attacks in the USA
2002 Operation of the United States and its allies in Afghanistan
2003 Operation of the United States and its allies in Iraq
The World History
Lecture course
Moscow 2008
Reviewers: Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor,
Honored Scientist of the Russian Federation A.A. Korolev,
Doctor of Historical Sciences
Professor V.V. Ganin
Alekseev S.V. General history: Course of lectures. M.: Moscow University for the Humanities Publishing House, 2010.
The author's course of lectures by Doctor of Historical Sciences S.V. Alekseev covers general history from ancient times to the present day. The publication includes lists of recommended literature and sources. The course is taught at the Faculty of International Relations of Moscow University for the Humanities.
© S.V. Alekseev, 2010
Preface
The course of lectures “World History” is addressed to first-year students of the Faculty of International Relations studying in the specialty “International Relations”. The course is designed to give students a general understanding of the history of the world from ancient times to the present day.
The course is devoted primarily to events in general history. The concept of “general history” is used in relation to the history of foreign countries. It should be distinguished from the concept of “world history,” which refers to the history of the entire world as a whole, including Russia. The history of Russia is devoted to the training course “National History”, taught in parallel with the course “World (synchronous) history”, therefore Russian material in this course is presented only as a comparative one, synchronously with the events of world history. But it is obvious that taking into account huge role of our Fatherland in world history no consideration of general history can be successful without information from Russian history.
The course of lectures is the author’s and, of course, does not avoid the author’s point of view on the issues being studied. At the same time, the author saw his task not in presenting his own assessments, but in communicating objective factual information about historical events. The course of lectures is provided with a detailed bibliography. It - for each topic - takes into account the main, general literature on the course, publications historical sources, the most important scientific monographs.
Topic 1. History: subject, method, approaches
Like all key scientific concepts, the word “history” has many definitions. All of them, again as in most cases, have the right to life. However, they can all still be boiled down to two basic dictionary definitions. Firstly, by history we mean the entire past of humanity. Secondly, history is called science that studies the past of mankind.
The scope and clarity of these generally accepted definitions makes it possible to clearly prefer them to more detailed ones. However, the same capacity may, from a different point of view, turn out to be a weak side, because it does not cover the entire richness of the subject. Let’s take, for example, the very concept of “past.” What does it mean exactly. When exactly does the “past” of humanity end and the “present” begin? Having thought about this question, we can easily come to the conclusion that the object historical research enriches itself literally every second. Every action committed in the “present”, every word spoken in the “present” becomes “history”, “past” - at the moment of commission and utterance. It is hardly worth separating the “present” from the “past” studied by history. This is hardly possible.
But is history limited to the “past” and the moment-to-moment “present”? No. The main goal of a scientist-historian, like any researcher, is to identify either certain patterns in the past, or, at a minimum, certain “lessons” for the future. This means that history is a science that addresses the future and, moreover, tries to predict it. Thus, from a dry and brief, completely “dictionary” definition, with a careful look we move on to much more impressive images of historical knowledge. History resembles a bridge from the past to the future, thrown across the ever-flowing “river” of the present.
History is often called the “science of sciences,” a comprehensive science. The reasons for this are obvious. All sciences (including historical science itself) developed within the framework of the historical process. Because they become subjects of study by historians. The same can be said, by the way, about literature and art. All great achievements, discoveries and theories in other areas of knowledge and culture of mankind are integral parts of history.
The beginnings of historical knowledge appeared in the unwritten millennia of primitive society. Few sciences can compete with ancient history. History, undoubtedly, earlier than other sciences, was clothed in the form of a text - a historical legend or epic. In the era of ancient civilizations, history, along with philosophy and partly philology, became the ancestor of all other humanities. All of them at one stage or another separated from the named ancient ones. The oldest scientific texts of many civilizations are historical. Over time, a critical approach to the material being studied develops, and history turns from a recording of legends into a genuine science. The names of the “fathers of history” - Herodotus(c. 484-425 BC) in Ancient Greece, Sima Qian(c. 140 -86 BC) in Ancient China - entered the treasury of world culture.
Of course, the historical theories and ideas of antiquity were significantly different from modern ones. Historical knowledge has come a long way to become a real science. And an equally long road lay ahead before the development of a developed historical method and holistic historical concepts.
At the dawn of primitiveness, in the era of the tribal system, ideas about the historical process as such did not yet exist. All time was divided in the consciousness of primitive man into two segments of incomparable importance. The first was the distant mythological “time of dreams” - the era of the life of revered ancestors, so distant from the present time and unlike it that it is like a dream. The only “historical” texts of the tribal period told about this era - myths. The second, much less important, was the present time, the eternal “now”, consisting of an unreflective sequence of routine, repeating events. Only something unusual at this time (for example, an encounter with the supernatural, incomprehensible) was worth remembering.
Already in late primitive times the situation changed. The sharply increased role of the individual and the awareness of this role gave rise to the image of a cultural hero, reorganizing the world in his own way. The actions of the leaders and prominent people of the tribe were perceived as a direct continuation of the exploits of the semi-divine ancestor. The myth entered real history and gave it value. History in ancient legends and epics was the history of individual outstanding personalities, aimed at glorifying them and their native tribe. Naturally, the element of the mythical was very strong here. But at the same time, an idea of the development of history over time appears. In this form, historical knowledge passed on to ancient civilizations, which gave rise to the first historical works.
“Pre-scientific” history had, first of all, two characteristic features that distinguished it from scientific history. Firstly, it was the history of exclusively one people. The history of “strangers” was of interest to the first historians of even ancient civilizations only insofar as these “strangers” came into contact with “their own.” Check the history of “your people” using historical memory“strangers”, it didn’t even occur to me to objectively compare the information.
Secondly, and this is even more significant, the question of the meaning of history, of its laws, was not even raised. Historical theory was replaced by mythological one. In the minds of early historians, the world was a playground for many gods, devoid of integrity and only inevitably passing through “eternal return.” Like nature throughout the year, the world of polytheistic religions went through birth, flourishing and death over and over again.
Since history did not have an independent meaning (except for the exaltation of the royal family), it was only a continuation of the myth, an addition to it. That's why she looks mythological. The kings and heroes of the past are often credited with reigns of many thousands of years, physical descent from the gods, and regular, beyond all likelihood, communication with them. All this is perceived as “reality” - although not ordinary, but special, mythological. In some ancient civilizations - for example, in the highly intellectually developed Indian civilization - special genre historical writing has not developed at all.
The first step towards creating a holistic picture of history and giving it independent value was the activity of the “fathers of history” in Greece and China. Herodotus and Sima Qian, and after them their followers, decisively separated history from myth. They even went further (too far, admittedly), trying to rationally interpret the myth itself, turning gods and demigods into ancient kings. Ancient Greek scientists, in addition, were the first to study foreign historical sources, creating truly global histories. For China, which considered itself the “Middle State” of the “Celestial Empire,” this was uncharacteristic. To be fair, we note that at first it was impossible due to the lack of neighboring civilizations.
That Greece and China were the centers of change is not surprising. It was here that it developed rapidly in the 1st millennium BC. secular philosophy that fostered a skeptical attitude towards ancient myths. On the wave of this skepticism, emerging from the shadow of polytheistic religiosity, scientific history. But, like early philosophy itself, it continued to adhere to the mythological theory of the development of the world in a circle, the “eternal return.” In this context, history, which was acquiring the scientific method, still did not make sense. In the most powerful powers Far East and in antiquity, court chroniclers saw such meaning only in strengthening their own states. The task of the “Middle State”, imperial China, is to resist the non-stop whirlwind of “changes”, to conquer and civilize the “barbarians” four sides Sveta". The mission of the Roman Empire is to turn the wheel of history, returning the “golden age” to earth and uniting the whole world in eternal peace. Unfortunately, reality rather quickly historically destroyed these hopes.
The next and decisive step in the development of history as a science was made with the spread of the world's monotheistic religions - Christianity and Islam. It was in the Middle Ages that the teleology– the doctrine of purposefulness and, therefore, internal integrity historical process. This was due to a number of characteristic features of Christian and Muslim monotheism ( monotheism).
First of all, within the framework of monotheism, the world seems united and logically arranged. Its source is the will and creativity of the only Creator. Accordingly, humanity is finally realized as a single whole, originating from a single source and having a common meaning of existence. This meaning, naturally, was understood religiously.
Another important feature of monotheism was the rejection of mythology in the proper sense of the word. The sacred writings of monotheistic religions spoke not so much about the supernatural itself, but about the interaction of the supernatural with people. Real story was still full of supernatural meaning, but now in its own right. The main attention was focused not on myths about the incarnations of natural forces, but on the “sacred history” of humanity itself.
These features were already present in the national monotheistic religions of the pre-Christian era (Old Testament Hebrew and ancient Iranian, close to monotheism). But it was with the advent of Christianity that their potential was fully revealed. Having become a world religion, Christianity (and then Islam) united many peoples with different historical memories into a single cultural whole. The history of this whole could no longer be written based on anyone's tribal tradition. Historians of each new people of the new religious “universe” had to coordinate their information about their native tribe with the already written world history. The key point in determining the purpose of world history now became the very fact of the emergence of world religion as a result of Divine Revelation. The coming of Jesus Christ, the incarnation of God - in Christianity. The chain of prophecies revealing the fullness of faith, crowned with the mission of Muhammad, is in Islam.
Thanks to the existence of the institution of a single Church, the teleology of monotheism took on its most holistic and complete character in Christianity. Taking shape over several centuries, the historical theory of Christians was clearly formulated Augustine Aurelius(354 – 430) in the work “On the City of God”. However, throughout the Middle Ages, many Christian authors in both the Orthodox East and the Catholic West continued to refine it.
In the minds of Christian theologians and historians, history is no longer a closed wheel, but an arrow directed towards a goal. It represents a single and unique work of God, created in voluntary collaboration with humanity. Its beginning is the creation of the world, its goal and end are the eternal bliss of the righteous in a renewed world, cleansed of sin and already “non-historical.” History can also be imagined as a river with many channels, but with a single source and a single mouth. Man is given free will, including the freedom to deviate from the will of God - but all his actions fit into the pattern of Providence. The consequences of each option are foreseen and taken into account by God. The meaning of the story, ultimately, is the confrontation between God, who protects his creation from a voluntary fall, and sin. The culmination is the sacrificial incarnation of Christ and his resurrection from the dead, a guarantee of the future resurrection of all people.
History is filled with a higher meaning, and every human act becomes important in its context. But still, its content is, first of all, religious. Not a single accomplishment of people seems eternal. All human powers, “earthly cities,” are transitory and sinful, although each of them has its own role in Providence. Only the City of God, embodied on earth by the Christian Church, is eternal.
For a Christian author, the category of historical truth becomes extremely important. This was connected not only with the already mentioned rational motive - the need to agree with “external” sources. The Christian historian saw himself as a co-author of the "Book of Life", a witness to Last Judgment, interpreter of what God has already created.
It was on Christian soil in the late Middle Ages that scientific history (like other sciences) reached a new level of development. This was due to a special attention to human affairs (due to the concept of free will), as well as the desire to explain history from a human point of view. In Islam in the 9th century. the theory of free will was condemned (though not unconditionally), and the main emphasis was placed on the incomprehensibility of Allah's will. However, this “advantage” of Christian culture contained both a prospect for the development of science and a threat to the Christian worldview itself. This was especially true of Western Christianity, where the desire to rationalize theological theories already by the 15th – 16th centuries. spilled over into a total “scientific” criticism of religion. Accordingly, historical science began to become grounded and lose its religious content.
The development of a renewed historical science in the West, and then in the East of Europe in the 16th – 17th centuries. was largely chaotic in nature. Many authors returned to ancient models aimed solely at praising their peoples. As a result, monumental and absolutely fantastic works arose, glorifying the ancient virtues of the ancestors of the French, Germans, Czechs, and Poles. The art of creating equally fantastic noble genealogies blossomed magnificently. But, on the other hand, a scientific-critical method was also developed. The first classifications of historical sources arose, the foundations of scientific chronology were laid, and archeology was born.
In the 18th century both in Western Europe and in Russia there has been a turning point in favor of scientific-critical trends. It is then that historical science as we know it takes shape. At the same time, theories of the historical process that exist to this day begin to take shape.
Among the enlighteners of the 18th century. an idea takes shape progress– the non-stop movement of society and culture for the better. Now it seemed possible to build an ideal society on earth with the hands of people, and numerous recipes were proposed. This contradicted the Christian theory, according to which all human aspirations are darkened by sin, and the result of the independent development of humanity will be the Antichrist. Nevertheless, during the Enlightenment, the optimism of its ideologists seemed justified.
The bloody events of the turn of the 18th – 19th centuries, the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars did not shake him too much. Belief in the ability of man to change society to an ideal state and the inevitability of such changes was preserved, taking on new forms. The most influential in the 19th century. the concept of progress was based on the philosophy of the German thinker Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel(1770-1831). He went down in history as the creator dialectical development theories. According to Hegel, each round of development repeats the previous one, but at a new level. Applied to history, this meant that each stage of endless progress passes through the stages of origin, flourishing, obsolescence and death. After death, he is replaced by the next one, but more perfect. History, without returning to the meaningless turning of the wheel, turned from a finite arrow into a spiral directed into eternity.
In the middle of the 19th century. emerges positive(positive) science and later philosophy positivism. According to the ideas of positivists, science can only be based on visible, verifiable facts. The goal of science is to identify clear laws of the processes being studied. Positive science has also looked for such clear, irrevocable laws in history. Most positivists came to the conclusion that the laws of history lie rather in the sphere of economics and sociology. Some, on this basis, generally denied history the right to be considered a science.
In the middle of the 19th century. The first widely recognized periodization of the historical process also appears. American historian Lewis Henry Morgan(1818-1881) divided the entire history of mankind into three stages - savagery, barbarism And civilization. These terms took root and were later actively used in historical works.
Morgan was a supporter of the theory of universal progress, according to which all nations go through the same stages in their progressive development. At the same time, some peoples can “lag behind”, while others get ahead. Studying the life of the American Indians and the archaeological material already known in his time, Morgan identified three stages in the history of the world. He based his periodization on archaeological features as the most material and obvious. The first stage, “savagery,” begins with the history of man and ends with the advent of pottery. The latter, according to Morgan (and this was confirmed by later research), coincides with the transition of people from hunting and gathering to agriculture and cattle breeding. Thus, Morgan's "wildness" coincides with the Paleolithic and Mesolithic on the modern archaeological scale.
The second stage is “barbarism”. It covers the period from the advent of pottery to the advent of writing. This corresponds to modern concepts, Neolithic, but among most peoples “barbarism” persisted for a long time into the Metal Age. Morgan himself studied “barbarism” using the example of the Indians of the USA and Canada - primarily the tribal association of the Iroquois.
Barbarism is finally being replaced by civilization. Morgan considered the emergence of writing to be the defining feature of civilization. At the same time, he viewed civilization as an “urban” level of culture - this is precisely the meaning of this Latin word. In Morgan's time there was little reason to doubt that writing appeared with or after cities.
Morgan scheme ( evolutionism), despite its conventionality, has gained many supporters. In modern Western science it remains one of the fundamental ones. True, Morgan's followers significantly complicated his historical scale. The era of civilization is currently itself divided into several stages. More “backward” and more “advanced” civilizations are distinguished. Early civilization – agricultural, that is, it is predominantly agricultural in nature. With the increasing activity of urban life and the development of crafts, civilization becomes handicraft and agricultural. It is gradually being replaced by civilization industrial, that is, industrial. Finally, modern civilization, where industry gives way to so-called “high” technologies based on mental labor, is defined as post-industrial or informational.
On the basis of Hegelian philosophy, evolutionism and the ideas of positive science about the clear laws of any development, the formation of the most influential theories of history took place late XIX– beginning of the 20th century. Were it Marxism And social Darwinism. Both of these theories are options world-historical approach to history, presupposing uniform patterns or trends in the historical process for the whole world.
The founders of Marxism - Karl Marx(1813-1883) and Friedrich Engels(1820-1895). Engels initially borrowed Morgan's progress scheme. But for Engels and other Marxists, the transition from “barbarism” to civilization coincides with the birth class society. Class society in Marxism is a society divided into classes with divergent and often colliding interests. For example, the ancient slave society was divided into classes of slave owners, slaves, free peasants, etc. Namely class struggle Marxist science pays the main attention. Over time, the terms inherited from Morgan almost ceased to be used in it as “obsolete.”
Developed by Marx and developed by Engels, the new doctrine of periodization and development of world history was called formational. According to this theory, society goes through a number of large stages in its development, each of which corresponds to a specific socio-economic formation. Formations differ in character industrial relations. In total, Marx identified six formations - primitive communal system, Eastern (Asian) production method, slavery(ancient slavery), feudalism, capitalism And communism. Of these, communism was presented as the final stage in the development of society, the perfect system of the future, the conditions for which are only created by capitalism.
The engine of history in the primitive era was the struggle of man with the surrounding wild nature. The development of society in these conditions led to the emergence of opposing classes and the apparatus of power of the ruling classes - the state. This was a necessary condition for progress. However, subsequent formations are assessed by Marxism as antagonistic(from class antagonism), based on operation person by person. The main engine of history from now on is the class struggle. Communism is about ending exploitation and class division.
Later, with the modification of the Marxist ideology itself, there was also a modification of the formation theory. Founder of modern social democracy Eduard Bernstein(1850-1932) put forward the concept of communism as an unattainable ideal. The desire for it encourages us to change existing society for the better. Theorists of social democracy contrasted the Marxist idea of the revolutionary breakdown of capitalism with the idea of peaceful evolution towards “democratic socialism”.
The leaders of revolutionary, left-wing Marxism, on the contrary, began to practically implement its ideals. However, again contrary to the founders, this process began in Russia, which was still far from classical capitalism. Bolshevik leader V.I.Lenin(1870-1924) began the process of reworking formation theory for practical purposes. He believed that revolution could well, and even more likely, occur where the previous formation had not exhausted its resources - not “already” weak, but “still” weak. In addition, he was the first to admit the possibility of a transition from feudalism directly to a higher formation. However, Engels already admitted the possibility of such “leaps” - from primitiveness to feudalism.
I.V.Stalin(1879-1953), being an undivided authority in ideology, tried to mold the Soviet version of formation theory into a clear system devoid of internal contradictions. In an effort to reduce the diversity of ancient civilizations to uniform patterns, he removed the “eastern mode of production” from the scheme, leaving only slavery. On the other hand, already for political purposes, he began to consider socialism as the first, indefinitely long phase of communism. Socialism was understood as a society already devoid of exploitation, but preserving the state, monetary relations and division into classes.
Already in the 50s and 60s, however, discussions began in Soviet science on certain contradictory aspects of the resulting “five-fold structure.” The very possibility of “leaps” through formation (if not from feudalism to socialism, then from primitiveness to feudalism) was often disputed. Some scientists, not without reason, resurrected the concept of the Eastern mode of production, characterizing with it the ancient and medieval history of the East. Primitive times began to be divided into eras of clan and tribal systems. Since the 80s, under the conditions of perestroika, a “three-term” version of formation theory appeared in Russia. It recognizes only three formations - primitiveness, feudalism and capitalism. Proponents of this version declared “barracks socialism” a variant of feudalism.
Meanwhile, thanks primarily to Western social democrats, Marx’s economic and historical constructions have won recognition among non-Marxist science. This is especially typical for the second half of the twentieth century. At the same time, the preference given to economic history in classical Marxism evokes widespread criticism even among some Marxists. Characteristic approaches of French historical schools « Annals", which flourished in the middle of the 20th century. Having adopted a lot from formation theory, the ideologists of the school at the same time placed the main emphasis on research in the field of culture, religion, and social mentality. The approaches developed by the Annales school, which led away from the limitations of positivism, long prevailed in Western science and influenced further development.
The main competitor of Marxism until the mid-twentieth century. Social Darwinism remained, whose ideas were adopted by representatives of a wide variety of ideologies - from liberals to fascists. The ideas of social Darwinism were based on the theory of biological evolution Charles Darwin(1809-1882). According to it, the formation of new species occurs as a result natural selection, whose main instrument is the cruelest struggle for existence. Darwinism also recognizes the role of artificial selection carried out consciously by man. Social Darwinism takes the next step, applying the ideas of the struggle for existence, natural and sometimes artificial selection to human society.
The foundations of social Darwinism are associated with the name of Darwin’s younger contemporary and opponent, the creator of his own theory of “universal evolution” of the English philosopher and ethnographer Herbert Spencer(1820-1903). Spencer was one of the ideologists of positivism, and social Darwinism can be considered as a response to Marxism from the bourgeois spirit of positivist philosophy. Everything in the world, according to Spencer, evolves from less perfect to more perfect. All living things, including humans, struggle for existence. Scientific and technological progress is a way of biological improvement of man and his struggle for self-affirmation in nature.
The struggle for existence also occurs within human society. As a result, the most adapted, developed individuals and classes are selected. Class struggle is understood as a form of interspecies struggle. During its course, non-viable, backward and stagnant forms are either destroyed or die off on their own. Wars and revolutions, according to the concept of social Darwinism, act as an important tool of progress. As an example of the extermination of weak, degenerate individuals, they presented, for example, anti-feudal revolutions and the industrial revolution that destroyed the village.
Progress is cruel, but necessary. As in nature, in society the strongest survives, capable of giving impetus to further development. However, the very arguments about the cruelty of progress, from the point of view of positivism, are meaningless. Morality is the very result of progress. There is no “eternal” morality, a point on which Spencer agreed with Marx. Each new winner formulates his own morality that meets his biological and economic interests. Only that which is beneficial is true and moral.
All this, however, did not mean that for the current moment there cannot be some better social order. Humanity, according to social Darwinism, has always strived for a society that is as free as possible, but protected by the state from anarchy. Such a society both meets the interests of the struggle for existence and prevents it from destroying society itself. It was not for nothing that Spencer became one of the ideologists of English liberalism, and the ideas of social Darwinism dominated the liberal environment for a long time. Social Darwinism provided liberals and the ruling circles of the West with a logical and “scientific” justification for their understanding of the historical process. He also gave justification for their specific actions - up to and including colonial conquests. Leonard Hobhouse(1864-1929) became the founder of sociobiology, which was based on the theory of artificial selection. According to him, the ideal person of the new era can be bred, just as breeds of domestic animals are bred.
However, there was also a deep contradiction with the proclaimed ideals of liberalism - first of all, with the idea of the equality of all peoples and races, their future merger into a single whole. After all, if the “backward” classes turned out to be dead-end branches of evolution, then this was even more true for the “backward” peoples. Already at the beginning of the twentieth century. this was openly proclaimed, for example, in the USA. And the first half of the twentieth century. became the heyday of racism and fascism. German socialist philosopher Ludwig Woltmann(1871-1907) was the first to combine social Darwinism with German nationalism and racism. He declared the “Teutonic spirit” to be the engine of progress and developed the theory of the biological superiority of the Germans over all peoples. Very soon these ideas were adopted by National Socialism.
The crimes of the Nazis did not contribute to the popularity of social Darwinist ideas. For some time they developed by inertia, but by the end of the 60s they were fading away. Theorist of modern postpositivism Karl Popper(1902-1994) sought to morally justify progress, showing that humanity is striving for a world order that is truly best for itself. This world order is based on “universal human values.” But they are essentially identified with values Western world, an “open society” designed for human self-realization. Popper sharply criticized the formation theory. In his opinion, there are no objective laws of social development. Therefore, the further course of human history cannot be predicted with accuracy. However, there are certain trends in the development of society. They arise under the influence of the collective aspirations of people, those same “universal human values.” As has already been said, the “open society” answers them.
With the collapse of the USSR, the West began to expect “ end of history" This is exactly what the American scientist of Japanese origin titled his work Francis Fukuyama. He counted on the spread of the Western social order and way of life throughout the world - and thereby the completion of the historical process. However, the events of the beginning of the 21st century. refuted this prospect, which was bright for many. In turn, this gave rise to a crisis in the world-historical approach to history as such - not the first for two centuries.
The world-historical approach is generally opposed local historical, or civilizational. According to this approach, world-historical progress does not exist. Individual cultures or civilizations go through different stages in their development independently of each other, according to their own laws. At the same time, it is natural to see both the flourishing and the decline of cultures. Civilizational approach in our time it is quite popular and competes on equal terms with the world historical. Its founders were the Russian philosopher Nikolay Danilevsky(1822 – 1885) and German Oswald Spengler (1880 – 1936).
According to Danilevsky, history is the independent development of civilizations, or cultural-historical types, isolated from each other. Each corresponds to some community of peoples - Western Europeans, for example, or Slavs. Each “type” goes its own way, in its own time, not coinciding with the other. Cultural-historical types resemble plants, animals or people in this respect. Any culture begins its journey with “childhood” and ends with “old age”. There is a struggle for existence between cultures, they are displacing each other from the face of the Earth. Danilevsky considered the Slavic type of culture to be the most resilient.
To Spengler, culture also seemed similar to a living organism and unique, having its own “soul.” Each culture is a self-contained unit, monad. Its average lifespan is 1000 years. Spengler defined the concept of “civilization” in his own way. For him, civilization is a culture in decline, when its main forces are concentrated in cities and it begins to decay. In the place of a lost culture, a new one may arise, but not necessarily a more perfect one. All this was reminiscent of the hopeless wheel of history from ancient polytheistic beliefs. The title of Spengler's main work emphasized the pessimistic pathos of his theory - “The Decline of Europe.”
The Englishman inherited the concept of “monads” from Spengler Arnold Toynbee(1889-1975). He designated only “monads” with the usual word “civilization.” Toynbee contrasted civilization with primitive society, where development proceeds much more slowly. Toynbee explained this feature of primitiveness by the fact that primitive people follow the example of their elders, using the experience of previous generations. A civilized person takes as an example a hero, a leader, a creative personality, which moves civilization forward. The transition from imitation of elders to imitation of leaders is the line that separates primitiveness from civilization.
Thus, progress is the work of the creative minority. It is precisely this that develops civilization, taking on the challenges of a hostile environment. But ultimately these efforts are in vain. Toynbee shared Spengler's views on the inevitability of the aging of civilization. But progress, according to Toynbee, is primarily cultural and spiritual development. Hence the conclusion was drawn about the possibility of breaking the bad sequence of birth and death of civilizations. World religions break open the boundaries of monads and transform them into a new quality. From the old civilization a new, more perfect one can be born directly. Toynbee therefore looked with hope into the future of humanity.
The number of theories of history is endless. Some of them, like Social Darwinism, were obvious ideological constructs. Others, such as formational and civilizational, may well exist in isolation from the ideologies that gave rise to them. Obviously, such theories are more useful to the objective researcher. Just remember that any such theory is not a dogma, but a toolkit. For example, for studying socio-economic history and comparing different countries and peoples, the formation concept is more suitable. To identify what is special, to highlight local historical regions, and to study culture and religion, a civilizational approach is more helpful.
When creating in the light of any theory, an honest researcher must proceed from the factual material available to him. Such material is provided to the historian historical sources. The source must be clearly distinguished from historiography- the totality of what was written by historians based on the same sources. Historiography is also naturally taken into account in historical research, but should not replace the source. Source study includes analysis and criticism of sources in order to determine the degree of their applicability and reliability. It is sometimes considered as a special science, and not just as a branch of history.
The modern classification of sources developed mainly in the middle of the twentieth century. The Annales school played a major role in its development, expanding the very concept of “source” far beyond the boundaries of written “documents.” But certain aspects of the classification are still the subject of heated scientific debate. The following are the most established divisions of the source material.
Sources are divided primarily into material(real) and written. Material sources - material remains of previous eras - play an exceptional role in the reconstruction of ancient and medieval history. A significant amount of them are archaeological sources obtained through archaeological excavations. At the same time, material sources play a significant role in the history of modern and contemporary times. Their range is extremely wide - from works of fine art and architecture to household items.
Written sources are usually divided into two large groups - narrative(narrative) and documentary. Narrative sources include historical works, memoirs, works of fiction, and scientific works of past eras. Documentary sources include acts, letters, mass documentation. For the history of antiquity and the Middle Ages, from which documents have not always been preserved, narrative sources play a key role. As we approach modern times, the number of documentary sources increases. For the history of modern times, it is customary to consider them as the main sources. A special group of modern written sources is the periodical press.
In addition to material and written ones, there are a number of other types of historical sources. These are, first of all, sources oral– folklore and oral stories. Next, sources are highlighted ethnographic– data on the way of life, everyday life of the population, folk culture, rituals. A special type is data language– results of research by linguists on the origin and connections of languages, the origin of individual words. For the history of human races and individual peoples, data plays an important role physical anthropology. In modern times, a new broad class of sources appears - photo-, phono- And film materials. Finally, modern times characterized by an ever-increasing number of previously unprecedented sources on electronic media (software, for example).
Some types of sources or methods of working with them are dealt with by special auxiliary historical disciplines. The main ones are the following. Paleography deals with the study of the external appearance of ancient handwritten texts, which is crucial for determining their authenticity. Epigraphy is a collection of inscriptions on stone and various objects, as well as an auxiliary historical discipline that studies them. Numismatics is studying coins. Subject of study sphragistics– act seals. Heraldry engaged in the study of coats of arms. Historical onomastics is at the intersection of history and linguistics, studying the origin of proper names, including geographical names. Genealogy– research of genealogies. Item chronology– dating of historical events.
Many auxiliary historical disciplines eventually develop into special scientific branches or even sciences. Many scientists consider it a special science archeology, which arose in the 18th century. as an auxiliary discipline dealing with the material remains of antiquity.
History is a dynamically developing and multifaceted area of scientific knowledge. Every year the volume of historical knowledge increases, and yet there are still many blank spots in history. This applies to both antiquity - archaeological discoveries occur with enviable regularity - and modernity, the study of which is often complicated by political vicissitudes. But this only means that many new achievements still await future historians.
Literature
Augustine Aurelius. About the City of God. M., 2009.
Blok M. Apology of history. M., 1986.
Danilevsky I.N. and others. Source study. M., 1998.
Danilevsky N.Ya. Russia and Europe. M., 2008.
Kovalchenko I.D. Methods of historical research. M., 2003.
Marx K. Capital. T.1-3. M., 2001.
Morgan L.G. Ancient society. M., 1934.
Popper K. Poverty of historicism. M., 1993.
Repina L.P., Zvereva V.V. History of historical knowledge. M., 2004.
Spencer G. Personality and State. M., 2007.
Toynbee A. Comprehension of history. M., 2010.
Febr L. Fights for history. M., 2000.
Spengler O. Decline of Europe. T. 1-2. M., 2009.
Engels F. Origin of the family, private property and state. M., 2010.
Universal history is the history of all humanity from the appearance of the first Homo sapiens to the present. The task of world history as a science is to understand the interconnections, to show the course of development of great events that connect and govern all peoples. Historical development humanity is realized in two ways: through a gradual increase in discoveries and discoveries, and also through qualitative leaps or revolutions that make up eras in material and spiritual evolution.
General history is the history of foreign countries and peoples. Many historians do not make a distinction between general and world history. General history is usually divided into national (ethnic) and regional. The first one studies history individual countries, state entities and peoples, the second unites the history of related general features cultural and historical development of various countries or peoples. The difficulty of studying regional history lies in the fact that the concept of “historical region” is very flexible and does not coincide with the stable concept of “geographical region”. As part of general history, we study: history of the ancient world, medieval studies ( history of the Middle Ages and early modern times), new and recent history of the countries of Europe and America, history of the southern and western Slavs (Slavic studies), history of neighboring countries, as well as the history of countries in other regions.
Historians of the ancient world pay considerable attention to the patterns of development of the ancient civilization of Greece and Rome, as well as the barbarian societies associated with them North Africa and Eurasia. One of the cardinal problems facing classical studies, including domestic science, is the formation and development of the polis - the main socio-economic, political, cultural and economic component of life ancient Greece. No less important is the problem of Greek colonization of the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions. The beginning of ancient civilization is considered to be the emergence of the kingdoms of Achaean Greece, which developed in the Balkans and in the basin Aegean Sea around the 20th century BC. The death of these early class societies in the 12th century. BC. attributed to natural disasters and the arrival of Dorian tribes from the north. Their settlement on the mainland in the XII-XI centuries. BC. marked the turn of the Bronze and Iron Ages and became the prologue to a new stage of development, and then the flourishing of ancient Greek society and culture. The first civil collectives began to take shape, in which the nobility in the person of the tribal aristocracy enjoyed full political rights. In historical science, this process is associated with the formation and formation of poleis, which became the basis of life not only in ancient Hellas, but throughout the ancient world.
One of the mass forms of migration of the Greek population was the Great Greek colonization of the 8th - 5th centuries. BC. Centers of Greek life and culture arose over a vast area from Spain and North Africa to the Middle East and the northern coast of the Black Sea. The tribes of the steppe and forest-steppe regions of the Black Sea region, the foothills of the Carpathians, the North Caucasus, and Transcaucasia came under the influence of the Greeks. The settlement of the Hellenes over vast areas and their contacts with barbarian peoples contributed to the progress of navigation, trade, crafts, and military affairs, and led to the relative stabilization of the internal political situation in Greece itself. The formation of policies in Greece and the colonies gave rise to such a phenomenon political power like democracy, i.e. the power of the majority.
Polis life, generally closed, was not homogeneous. The polis structure developed and evolved, as it depended on constantly changing forms and types of land ownership. Free members of the civil collectives of the policies were ruined, many of them were deprived not only of their means of production, but also their sources of livelihood, while the wealthy elite, on the contrary, were enriched. This led to the formation of a surplus population, which found itself outside of social production and was forced to look for sources of income on the side. Conditions were created for the development of mercenaries and new migrations. These phenomena, which became especially noticeable in the 4th century. BC, historians often associate it with the so-called process of “crisis of the polis.” The polis structure began to deplete; many polis-type states that occupied a leading position in Greece quickly lost their positions. Macedonia took advantage of this, establishing hegemony in Hellas and leading the process of spreading Greek-Macedonian culture to the East.
After the conquests of Alexander the Great and the fall of the Persian Empire, the last stronghold of despotic power of the “eastern” type, the Greek polis spread over a vast space from the Eastern Mediterranean to Central Asia. This period of ancient history is usually called Hellenism, the beginning of which is recorded by the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC. The Hellenistic period in the history of Europe and Asia is assessed differently in science: most of Foreign researchers tend to characterize it as a cultural and historical phenomenon. Domestic science has developed, as it seems, the most optimal point of view on the essence of this historical phenomenon. It is assessed not as a stage associated with the crisis of the slave-owning socio-economic formation, but as a stage in the development of the slave-owning mode of production, which is due to the mutual influence of Greek and eastern traditions in economics, politics, culture.
Historians who study ancient Rome also face unresolved and sometimes controversial questions. Among the socio-economic aspects that have been developed quite well and in detail in domestic science, the problem of slavery and the relationship between the civil community and the state, the development of the peasantry and its landlessness are highlighted. An equally important aspect of the history of Rome are the problems of patricians and plebeians, the clientele. Currently, historians of the ancient world are interested in the problem of the spread of Roman influence over a wide area of the ancient ecumene - what in modern science is called globalization. The issue of Romanization occupies a significant place in the study of this problem. But also at the center of Roman history, as understood by modern science, the community remains. The problem of community arises during the creation of the state; it plays a big role in the era of the Republic and Empire. As in Greece, the community played a significant role during the period of struggle between the Roman plebs and the clan nobility after the fall of the power of the kings. The role of the community and civitas, i.e. civil community in the era of empire. With the strengthening of the Roman power and its transformation into a global one, the independence of the civil community decreased. The stratification and destruction of the free peasantry in Rome, the creation of medium and large latifundial (estate) economies, the concentration of land, and the spread of Roman citizenship throughout Italy undermined traditional communal foundations. The civil community was replaced by cities, which became the stronghold of central power. The role of the community in the late antique period is especially indicative, when in the depths of the disintegrating empire, under the conditions of the barbarian conquest of Rome and the provinces, new relations of land dependence arose.
Historians of the ancient world do not deny the slave-owning essence of Greco-Roman civilization, although they do not insist on the predominance of slave labor in social production. In ancient society there were many other groups of the population, including community members and citizens, who played an important role in the production process. In Rome and partly in Greece, citizens were provided with land and craft workshops, given the opportunity to participate in public works, provided with various subsidies, rent, etc. And only if the need for labor increased, and fellow citizens could not satisfy this demand, additional slaves and captives turned into slaves were attracted.
A significant contribution to the study of the history of the Ancient World was made by such researchers as Jean-Francois Champollion, Theodor Mommsen, Avdiev V.I., Blavatsky V.D., Dyakonov I.M., Knorozov Yu.V., Latyshev V.V., Mashkin N.A., Rostovtsev M.I., Struve V.V., Turaev B.A. and etc.
We have only touched general issues, some of which have been developed in detail in science, while others require new approaches and research. IN short essay It is impossible to identify all the problems that ancient historians deal with. Therefore, we limited ourselves to only general conceptual issues that allow us to highlight the general and special in the development of ancient Eastern societies and ancient Greco-Roman civilization.
Persons:Herder Johann Gottfried; Dyakonov Igor Mikhailovich; ; Crusades ; International protection of national minorities; Nation-state building; National-state conflicts;
“A Brief World History” tells about the long and difficult path traveled by humanity from ancient times to the present day.
Of course, given the small size of the publication, it is impossible to cover equally fully and in detail all the events of centuries-old history - the formation of man, ancient civilization, campaigns and conquests of the Middle Ages, the great upsurges of the social struggle of modern times - revolutions, the crown of which was the Great October Socialist Revolution, which ushered in a new era of world stories. The reader will become acquainted with only the most important and striking events that were significant for the course of world history. But this is enough to get an idea of driving forces and the direction of the historical process.
PRIMITIVE SOCIETY.
The history of mankind begins with the appearance of man on earth, and the age of mankind is determined by a figure of approximately a million years. Ancient period This history, when there were no separate peoples or separate states, and people lived in small groups, clans, tribes, is called the era of primitive society.
The so-called archaeological periodization divides the entire history of mankind into three centuries: the Stone Age, the Bronze Age and the Iron Age. As is easy to see, this periodization bases the division on the material from which the tools were made.
However, it turned out to be insufficient, especially for the earliest periods primitive history that lasted for many, many millennia. Therefore, the periodization was further refined. The Stone Age was divided into three parts or periods: Paleolithic (Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) and Neolithic (New Stone Age). The Paleolithic, like the Neolithic, in turn were divided into early and late.
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The following textbooks and books:
- Early civilizations of the Middle East, History of the emergence and development of the most ancient states on earth, Jean Verkutter, Jean Bottero, Adam Falkenstein, 2016
CHRONOLOGY OF WORLD HISTORY
| Parameter name | Meaning |
| Article topic: | CHRONOLOGY OF WORLD HISTORY |
| Rubric (thematic category) | Story |
(the dating of most events in the history of the Ancient World and a number of other periods is approximate)
10000 - 8000 gᴦ. BC. The origins of agriculture and cattle breeding
in Western Asia
3400 -2000 gᴦ. BC. Sumerian civilization
3000 - 2800 gᴦ. BC. Previously a kingdom in Egypt
2800 -2250 gᴦ. BC. Ancient (old) kingdom in Egypt
2599-1500 BC. Indus (Harappan) civilization
2050-1750. BC. Middle Kingdom in Egypt
1792-1750. BC. Hammurabi's reign in Babylon
1766-1122. BC. Shang (Yin) period in China
1750-1400. BC. Minoan civilization on Crete
1650-1200. BC. Hittite kingdom
1600-1200. BC. Mycenaean civilization in Greece
1580-1085. BC. New Kingdom in Egypt
1500 ᴦ. BC. The beginning of the penetration of the Aryan tribes
1365-1330. BC. Akhenaten's reign in Egypt
1301-605. BC. Assyrian kingdom
1280-1270. BC. Trojan War (according to Herodotus)
1200 ᴦ. BC. Beginning of the Dorian invasion of Greece
1122 - 770 BC. Western Zhou period in China
950 - 928 gᴦ. BC. Solomon's reign in Israel
800 - 500 gᴦ. BC. Great Greek Colonization
776 ᴦ. BC. Beginning of the Olympic Games
753 ᴦ. BC. Founding of Rome
605 - 582 gᴦ. BC. Reign of Nebuchadnezzar II in Babylon
594 ᴦ. BC. Solon's reforms in Athens
558 - 530 gᴦ. BC The reign of Cyrus II in Persia
522 - 486 gᴦ. BC. Reign of Darius I in Persia
510 ᴦ. BC. Fall of tyranny in Athens
510 ᴦ. BC. The Rise of the Roman Republic
500 -449 gᴦ. BC. Greco-Persian Wars
486 ᴦ. BC. Death of Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha)
479 ᴦ. BC. Death of Confucius
444 - 429 gᴦ. BC. Pericles at the head of Athens
431-404 gᴦ. BC. Peloponnesian War in Greece
338 ᴦ. BC. Battle of Chaeronea between the Greeks
and the Macedonians
336 - 323 gᴦ. BC. Reign of Alexander the Great
334 - 325 gᴦ. BC. Eastern campaigns of Alexander the Great
268 - 231 gᴦ. BC. Reign of Ashoka in India
250-130 gᴦ. BC. Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
250 ᴦ. BC - Parthian Kingdom
246 - 210 gᴦ. BC. Reign of Qin Shi Huang in China
229 - 201 BC. 2nd Punic War of Rome and Carthage
206 ᴦ. BC - Han Dynasty in China
44 ᴦ. BC. Assassination of Julius Caesar in Rome
30 ᴦ. BC-192 ᴦ. AD Early Roman Empire (principate)
30 ᴦ. BC - 14 ᴦ. AD Reign of Octavian Augustus in Rome
1-400 gᴦ. AD Kushan kingdom
226 - 552 gᴦ. Sasanian kingdom
306 - 337 gᴦ. The reign of Constantine in the Roman Empire
313 ᴦ. Edict of Milan on Tolerance
325 ᴦ. First Ecumenical Council of Christian
churches in Nicaea 330 ᴦ. Transfer of the capital of the Roman Empire
to Constantinople
394 ᴦ. Declaration of Christianity as a state
Noah religion of the Roman Empire
395 ᴦ. The division of the Roman Empire into the West
New and Eastern 410 ᴦ. Capture of Rome by the Visigoths
418 - 714 gᴦ. Kingdom of the Visigoths
439 - 534 gᴦ. Kingdom of the Vandals
476 ᴦ. Fall of the Western Roman Empire
481-511 Reign of Clovis in the Frankish Kingdom
493 - 555 gᴦ. Ostrogothic kingdom
527 -565 gᴦ. Reign of Justinian I in the Byzantine Empire
empire 568 -774. Lombard Kingdom
622 ᴦ. Flight of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina
(Hijri) 630 ᴦ. Formation of the Arab Caliphate
661-750 gᴦ. Umayyad Caliphate
679-1018 First Bulgarian Kingdom
732 ᴦ. Victory of Charles Martell over the Arabs
at Poitiers 750-1055. Abbasid Caliphate
756 ᴦ. Formation of the Papal State
768 -814 gᴦ. Reign of Charlemagne in Frankish
state NOO ᴦ. Proclamation of Charlemagne as Emperor
843 ᴦ. Division of the Frankish Empire
863 ᴦ. Mission of Cyril and Methodius to Great Britain
Moravian state
882 ᴦ. Unification of Rus' under the rule of Oleg
907, 911, 944. Treaties between Rus' and Byzantium
912 - 945 Igor's reign in Rus'
936 - 973 Reign of Otgon I in Germany
967 - 971 Campaigns of the Russian Prince Svyatoslav
969 -1279 Song Dynasty in China
980-1015 The reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavich in Rus'
987-1328. Capetian Dynasty in France
988 ᴦ. Baptism of Rus'
1001 ᴦ. Beginning of Muslim conquests in India
1019-1054. The reign of Yaroslav the Wise in Rus'
1054 ᴦ. The final division of Christian
churches into Catholic and Orthodox
1055 ᴦ. Capture of Baghdad by the Seljuk Turks 1066 ᴦ. Norman conquest of England
1072 ᴦ. Creation of the “Russian Truth” by the Yaroslavichs
1096-1099 First Crusade
1097 ᴦ. Lyubech Congress of Russian Princes
1113-1125. Board of Vladimir Monomakh in Kyiv
1147 ᴦ. The first mention of Moscow
1176 ᴦ. Battle of Legnano
1187-1396. Second Bulgarian Kingdom
1198 - 1216 Pope Innocent III
1200 ᴦ. The emergence of the University of Paris
1204 ᴦ. Capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders
1211 ᴦ. Beginning of the Mongol conquests led by
with Genghis Khan
1212 ᴦ. Battle of Las Navas de Tolos
1215 ᴦ. Signing of the Magna Carta
1223 ᴦ. Battle of Kalka
1237-1240. Batu's invasion of Rus'. Start
Horde yoke
1240 ᴦ. Battle of Neva
1242 ᴦ. Battle on the Ice
1265 ᴦ. Beginning of Parliament in England
1279-1368. Mongol Yuan Dynasty in China
1291 ᴦ. Beginning of the Swiss Union
1325-1340. Board of Ivan Kalita in Moscow
1328-1589. Valois dynasty in France
1337-1453. Hundred Years' War
1348-1349. ʼʼBlack Deathʼʼ (plague) in Europe
1359-1389. The reign of Dmitry Donskoy in Rus'
1368-1644. Ming Dynasty in China
1370-1405. Timur's reign in Samarkand
1380 ᴦ. Battle of Kulikovo
1389 ᴦ. Battle of Kosovo Field
1410 ᴦ. Battle of Grunwald
1419-1434. Hussite Wars
1425-1462. The reign of Vasily II the Dark in Rus'
1429-1430. Victories of Joan of Arc in France
1439 ᴦ. Florentine Catholic Union
and Orthodox churches 1445 ᴦ. Invention of printing by Gutenberg
1453 ᴦ. Capture of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks
1455-1485. War of the Roses in England
1461 - 1483. Reign of Louis XI in France
1462-1505. The reign of Ivan III in Rus'
1478ᴦ. Annexation of Novgorod to Moscow
1479ᴦ. Unification of Aragon and Castile
to the Spanish Kingdom
1480 ᴦ. Liberation of Rus' from the Horde yoke
1485-1603. Tudor dynasty in England
1492 ᴦ. Completion of the reconquista in the Iberian
peninsula 1492 ᴦ. Discovery of America by Columbus
1494-1559. Italian Wars of France
1497-1498. Opening of the sea route to India |1||
Vasco da Gama 1497ᴦ. Code of Law of Ivan III
1500-1537. Russo-Lithuanian wars (intermittent)
1505-1533. Reign of Vasily III in Rus'
1517 ᴦ. Luther's speech. Beginning of the Reformation
1519-1521. Magellan's circumnavigation of the world
and his companions 1519-1521. Conquest of Mexico by Cortez
1520-1566. Reign of Suleiman I the Magnificent
in Turkey 1524-1525. Peasants' War in Germany
1526 ᴦ. Babur's conquest of North India.
Formation of the Mughal Empire 1532-1536. Spanish conquest of Peru
1533-1583. Reign of Ivan IV the Terrible in Russia
1540 ᴦ. Approval by the Pope of the Jesuit Order
1547 ᴦ. The crowning of Ivan the Terrible
I 549 ᴦ. The first Zemsky Sobor in Russia
1552 ᴦ. Annexation of the Kazan Khanate to Russia
1555ᴦ. Augsburg religious world
1556ᴦ. Annexation of the Astrakhan Khanate
to Russia 1.556-1605. Akbar's reign in the Empire of the Great Ones
Mughals in India 1558-1583. Livonian War
1558-1603. Elizabeth's reign in England
1562-1598. Religious wars in France
1566-1572. Oprichnina in Russia
1566-1609. Dutch liberation struggle
against Spain
1569 ᴦ. Formation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
1572 ᴦ. Battle of Molodi
1572 ᴦ. St. Bartholomew's Night in France
1581 - 1585. Ermak's campaign in Siberia
1581 - 1597 Decrees on the enslavement of peasants in Russia
1588 ᴦ. The defeat of the Spanish "Unconquerable Armada" by England
1598 ᴦ. Edict of Nantes by Henry IV in France
1598-1605. The reign of Boris Godunov in Russia
1600 ᴦ. Founding of the East India Company in England
1605-1613. Time of Troubles in Russia
1612 ᴦ. Liberation of Moscow by militia
K. Minin and D. Pozharsky
1613-1645. The reign of Mikhail Romanov in Russia
1618-1648. Thirty Years' War
1624-1642. Reign of Cardinal A. Richelieu in France
1632-1634. Smolensk War
1639ᴦ. Beginning of the Tokugawa Shogunate in Japan
1640ᴦ. The beginning of the English Revolution of 1642-1649. English Civil War
1643-1715. Reign of Louis XIV in France
(independently - after 1661 ᴦ.)
1644 ᴦ. Beginning of the Manchu Qing Dynasty in China
1645-1676. The reign of Alexei Mikhailovich in Russia
1648-1650. Urban uprisings in Russia
1653-1658. Cromwell - Lord Protector of England
1654-1667. Russian-Polish War
1670-1671. Uprising led by
S. Razin in Russia
1676-1681. Russo-Turkish War
1682-1725. Reign of Peter 1 the Great in Russia
(independent - in 1689 ᴦ.)
1687, 1689. Crimean campaigns of V.V. Golitsyn
1688 ᴦ. "Glorious Revolution" in England
1695, 1696. Azov campaigns of Peter I
1700-1721. North War
1701 - 1714. War of the Spanish Succession
1703 ᴦ. Founding of St. Petersburg
1709 ᴦ. Battle of Poltava
1711 ᴦ. Establishment of the Senate in Russia
1711 ᴦ. Prut campaign
1714 ᴦ. Battle of Gangut
1730-1740. The reign of Anna Ioannovna in Russia
1735-1739. Russo-Turkish War
1741 - 1761 The reign of Elizaveta Petrovna in Russia
1755 ᴦ. Creation of Moscow University
1756-1763. Seven Years' War
1757-1762. Russian participation in the Seven Years' War
1762 ᴦ. Manifesto on the freedom of the nobility in Russia
1762-1796. Reign of Catherine II in Russia
1767 ᴦ. Convening of the Legislative Commission in Russia
1768-1774. Russo-Turkish War
1770 ᴦ. Battles of Larga, Kagul, Chesma
1772, 1793, 1795. Sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
1773-1775. Uprising led by
E. Pugacheva in Russia
1776-1783. American Revolutionary War
1776 ᴦ. Declaration of American Independence
1783 ᴦ. Annexation of Crimea to Russia
1787-1791 Russo-Turkish War
1789 ᴦ. Beginning of the French Revolution
1792ᴦ. Proclamation of France as a republic
1793ᴦ. Execution of Louis XVI 1796-1801. Reign of Paul I in Russia
1799 ᴦ. Italian and Swiss campaigns
A.V.Suvorova
1799 ᴦ. Beginning of Napoleon's reign in France
1801 - 1825 ᴦ. Reign of Alexander I in Russia
1804 ᴦ. Proclamation of Napoleon as Emperor
1804-1813, Russian-Iranian wars 1826-1828.
1805-1815. Napoleonic Wars
1805-1807. Russian participation in the Napoleonic wars
1806-1812. Russo-Turkish War
1808-1809. Russo-Swedish War
1810 ᴦ. . Creation of the first independent states
in Latin America
IX12 ᴦ. Patriotic War in Russia.
Battle of Borodino
1X13-1814. Foreign campaign of the Russian army
1X14-1815. Congress of Vienna
1X15-1825 gᴦ. National Liberation War
in Latin America
1X23 ᴦ. Proclamation of the Monroe Doctrine
1X25 ᴦ. Decembrist uprising in Russia
1X25- 1855. Reign of Nicholas I in Russia
1830 ᴦ. Education Belgium
1830-1831. Uprising in Poland, Russian-Polish War
1X36 - 1848. Chartist movement in England
1837-1841. Reform of state peasants in Russia
1845-1846, Anglo-Sikh wars in India 1X48-1849.
1846-1848. Mexican-American War
1848-1849. Revolutions in European countries
1850-1864. Taiping Rebellion in China
1851 ᴦ. Opening of the railway
Moscow-St. Petersburg
1553-1856. Eastern (Crimean) War
1855-1881. Reign of Alexander II in Russia
1857-1859. Sinai revolt in India
1861 - 1865. American Civil War
1861 ᴦ. Abolition of serfdom in Russia
1861 -1870. Unification of Italy
1862-1890. Bismarck at the head of Prussia and Germany
1864 ᴦ. Zemstvo and judicial reforms in Russia
1867 ᴦ. Beginning of the Meiji Revolution in Japan
1869 ᴦ. Opening of the Suez Canal
1870-1871. Franco-Prussian War
1871 ᴦ. Unification of Germany, proclamation
German Empire
1877-1878. Russo-Turkish War
1881 - 1894. Reign of Alexander III in Russia
1882 ᴦ. Creation of the Triple Alliance 1891 ᴦ. Beginning of construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway 1891 - 1907. Creation of the Entente 1894-1917. Reign of Nicholas II
1894-1895. Sino-Japanese War
1898 ᴦ. American-Spanish War
1899-1902 Boer War
1904-1905. Russo-Japanese War
1905-1907. First Russian Revolution
1906 ᴦ. Beginning of the Stolypinskaya
agrarian reform in Russia
1908 ᴦ. Young Turk Revolution
1910-1917. Mexican Revolution
1911 - 1913. Xinghai Revolution in China
1912-1913. Balkan Wars
1914 ᴦ. Opening of the Panama Canal
1914-1918. World War I
1917ᴦ. Revolution in Russia
1918ᴦ. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
1918 ᴦ. Revolution in Germany
1918 ᴦ. Collapse of Austria-Hungary, formation of Austria,
Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia
1918-1920. Russian Civil War
1918-1923. Kemalist revolution in Turkey
1919 ᴦ. Treaty of Versailles 1919-1943. Activities of the Comintern 1919 ᴦ. Establishment of the League of Nations
1921 ᴦ. Transition to NEP in Soviet Russia
1922 ᴦ. The rise of the fascists to power in Italy
1.922 ᴦ. Creation of the USSR
1925-1927. Great National Revolution in China
1929-1933 World economic crisis
1929 ᴦ. The beginning of mass collectivization in the USSR
1931 ᴦ. Japanese capture of Manchuria
1933 ᴦ. Establishment of the Nazi regime
in Germany 1933 ᴦ. The beginning of F. Roosevelt's “New Deal” in the USA
1936-1939. Spanish Civil War
1937-1938. The “Great Terror” in the USSR
1937ᴦ. Japanese invasion of Central China
1938ᴦ. German capture of Austria
1938ᴦ. Munich Agreement
1939, Signing of the Soviet-German
non-aggression treaty 1939-1945. The Second World War
1941 - 1945. The Great Patriotic War
troops near Moscow
1943ᴦ. Tehran Conference
1944ᴦ. Opening of the Second Front in Europe
1945ᴦ. Yalta Conference 1945 ᴦ. Potsdam Conference
1945 ᴦ. US atomic bombing of Hiroshima
and Nagasaki 1945 ᴦ. Adoption of the UN Charter
1946-1954. French War in Vietnam
1947 ᴦ. Indian independence
and Pakistan
1948 ᴦ. Education of Israel, Arab-Israeli
1949 ᴦ. NATO formation. Education CMEA 1949 ᴦ. End of the Chinese Civil War
formation of the People's Republic of China 1950-1953. Korean War
1953 ᴦ. Death of I.V. Stalin
1954-1962. French War in Algeria
1955ᴦ. ATS education
1956ᴦ. Suez crisis
1956ᴦ. Uprising in Hungary
1957ᴦ. Treaty of Rome establishing the EEC
1957 ᴦ. Launch of the first artificial satellite
Earth 1959 ᴦ. Revolution in Cuba
1960ᴦ. Year of Africa
1961ᴦ. Yuri Gagarin's flight into space
1961ᴦ. Berlin crisis
1962ᴦ. Caribbean crisis
1965ᴦ. The beginning of economic reform in the USSR 1965-1973. US War in Vietnam
1966ᴦ. "Cultural Revolution" in China
1967ᴦ. Arab-Israeli War
1968ᴦ. Prague Spring
1971ᴦ. Indo-Pakistani War
1972ᴦ. Missile Limitation Treaty
and nuclear weapons (SALT)
1973 ᴦ. Arab-Israeli War
1975 ᴦ. Signing of the Final Act
CSCE in Helsinki
1978ᴦ. The beginning of reforms in China
1979ᴦ. Islamic revolution in Iran 1979 ᴦ. Entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan 1985 ᴦ. The beginning of perestroika in the USSR 1989-1991. Removal of communists from power
in Eastern European countries
1990ᴦ. Unification of Germany
1991ᴦ. Operation Desert Storm against Iraq 1991. Collapse of Yugoslavia
1991ᴦ. Collapse of the USSR, creation of the CIS
1992ᴦ. Maastricht Agreements on the EU 1992-1997. War in Bosnia
1993ᴦ. Collapse of Czechoslovakia
1993 ᴦ. Adoption of the Russian Constitution
Federation
1991, 1996, 2000, Russian Presidential Elections 2004.
1993, 1995, 1999, Elections to the State Duma of Russia 2003.
1994 ᴦ. The fall of the apartheid regime in South Africa 1998.ᴦ. Transition of Hong Kong (Hong Kong)
under the jurisdiction of the People's Republic of China
1999 ᴦ. NATO aggression against Yugoslavia
2001ᴦ. Terrorist attacks in the USA
2002ᴦ. Operation of the United States and its allies
in Afghanistan
2003 ᴦ. Operation of the United States and its allies in Iraq APPENDIX 2TOPICS FOR ABSTRACTS
1. Problems of the truth of historical knowledge.
2.Features and role of auxiliary historical disciplines.
3. Civilizational and formational concepts of historical development.
4.Modern ideas about the origin of man.
5. Main features of primitive society.
6. Reasons and prerequisites for the emergence of civilization.
7.The origin of religion and art.
8. Features of the most ancient states.
9. Reasons and consequences of the emergence of the first great powers.
10. Features of development Ancient India And Ancient China
11.Ancient Greek civilization.
12.Ancient Roman civilization.
13. Main features of the culture of the Ancient World.
14. Religions of the Ancient World.
15.Great historical figures of antiquity (using the example of one figure).
16. The death of ancient civilization and the formation of barbarian kingdoms.
17. Charlemagne as a statesman.
18.Carolingian Revival.
19.Modern views on the essence of feudalism.
20. The phenomenon of a medieval city.
21. Was there feudalism in the East?
22.Feudal fragmentation in Western Europe.
23.Crusades: causes and consequences.
24.The largest states of Western Europe in the Middle Ages.
25. Formation of centralized states in Western Europe.
26.Medieval culture of Western Europe.
27. The phenomenon of Byzantine civilization.
28.Catholic Church in the Middle Ages.
29.Medieval heresies in Western Europe.
30. The phenomenon of monasticism in the Middle Ages.
31.The emergence of Islam.
32. Arab conquests and their consequences.
33.India and China in the Middle Ages.
34.Medieval culture of the countries of the East.
35. Pre-Columbian America.
36. Formation of the Old Russian state.
37. Socio-political and socio-economic system of Ancient Rus'.
38. Problems of studying the baptism of Rus'.
39. Fragmentation in Rus': causes and consequences.
40.Old Russian culture.
41.Mongol-Tatar invasion and Mongol-Tatar yoke in Rus'.
42. The beginning of the revival of Rus'.
43. Formation of the Russian centralized state.
44.Ivan III is the creator of the Russian state.
45.Russian culture of the XIV-early XVI centuries.
46.Russian Orthodox Church at the beginning of the 16th century.
47.Russian monasteries.
48.Great historical figures of the Middle Ages (using the example of one figure).
49.What is New Time?
50.Great geographical discoveries and their consequences.
51. The beginning of the colonial expansion of European countries.
52.Economy of Western European countries at the beginning of modern times.
53.Renaissance and humanism.
54.Reformation: causes and consequences.
55.Religious wars in Europe XVI-XVII centuries.
56.Modern views on the causes of the origin and essence of absolutism.
57. English Revolution mid-17th century V. and its consequences.
58.The Age of Enlightenment in Western Europe.
59.The War of Independence and the formation of the United States.
60. The Great French Revolution: causes, course, consequences.
61. Figures of the Great French Revolution.
62.European culture in the XVII-XVIII centuries.
63. Development of European science and technology in the XVII-XVIII centuries.
64.Napoleon as a politician.
65.Napoleonic wars.
66. Industrial revolution and its consequences.
67.The emergence of the bourgeoisie and proletariat in Western Europe.
68. The beginning of industrialization of Western European countries.
69.Political movements in European countries of the 19th century.
70. Revolutions of 1848-1849. in Europe.
71. The largest countries of Western Europe in the 19th century.
72. Formation of colonial empires.
73.Unification of Germany and Italy.
74. Development of the USA in the 19th century.
75. Western European culture of the 19th century.
76. Development of European science and technology in the 19th century.
77. Formation, development, decline of the Ottoman Empire.
78.India and China in modern times.
79.Japan in the Middle Ages and Modern Times.
80.The struggle for independence and the formation of independent states in Latin America.
81. Views of historians on the development of Russia during the reign of Ivan the Terrible.
82. Time of Troubles in Russia.
83. Development of Russia in the 17th century.
84. Schism in the Russian Orthodox Church.
85. Development of Siberia by Russian people in the 17th century.
86.Russian culture XVI-XVII centuries.
87.Peter the Great as a politician.
88.Reforms of Peter the Great.
89. Economic development of Russia during the reign of Peter the Great.
90. Foreign policy of Peter the Great.
91. Changes in the sphere of culture and life during the reign of Peter the Great.
92.Era palace coups in Russia.
93.Catherine the Great as a politician.
94. Popular movements in Russia in the 17th - 18th centuries.
95. Great Russian commanders and naval commanders of the 18th century.
96.Features of Russian absolutism.
97.Features of the Age of Enlightenment in Russia. ‣‣‣
98.Russian culture in the 18th century.
99.Attempts at reforms in Russia in early XIX V.
100.Russia’s struggle with Napoleonic France.
101.Decembrist movement.
102.The peasant question in Russia in the first half of the 19th century.
103.Spiritual quest in Russian society in the 30s -50s. XIX century
104.Golden age of Russian culture (first half of the 19th century)
105.Abolition of serfdom in Russia.
106. Reforms of the 60s and 70s. XIX century in Russia.
107. Counter-reforms of the 80s and 90s. XIX century in Russia.
108. Populist movement in Russia.
109.Industrial revolution in Russia.
110.Liberal movement in Russia in the second half of the 19th century.
Russian conservatives of the 19th century.
112. Economic development of Russia in the 19th century.
113.Russian agriculture after the reform of 1861 ᴦ.
114.Russian culture of the second half of the 19th century.
115.Russian Orthodox Church in the 18th -19th centuries.
116.International relationships in the 16th century
117.International relations in the 17th century.
118.International relations in the 18th century. I 19. International relations in the 19th century.
120.Great historical figures of modern times (using the example of one figure).
121.Development of the leading countries of Western Europe at the beginning of the 20th century.
122.ʼʼAwakening of Asiaʼʼat the beginning of the 20th century.
123.International relations in 1900-1914.
124.The First World War: causes, course, consequences.
125. Russia in 1900-1904.
126.Revolution of 1905-1907. in Russia: causes, course, consequences.
127. Social democratic movement in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century.
128. Socialist Revolutionary movement in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century.
129.The origin of Russian parliamentarism.
130.Stolypin reform in Russia.
131. Silver age of Russian culture.
132.Russian society during the First World War.
134. Development of Russia in February-October 1917 ᴦ.
136.Civil war in Russia.
137.White movement in Russia.
138.'Green' during the Civil War.
139.Development of the leading countries of Europe and America in the 20s. XX century
140.Economic crisis of 1929-1933.
141.'New Deal' of President F. Roosevelt in the USA.
142.The coming of the fascists to power in Italy and Germany.
143.Nazi regime in Germany.
145. Western European culture in the first half of the 20th century.
146.India and China in the 20s and 30s. XX century
147.Japan in the 20s and 30s. XX century
148.The essence and consequences of the NEP in Russia.
149.Education of the USSR.
150.V.I.Lenin as a political figure.
151.Soviet society in the 20s. XX century
152.Industrialization in the USSR.
153.Collectivization in the USSR.
154.Soviet society in the 30s. XX century
155. The era of the “great terror” in the USSR.
156.I. V. Stalin as a political figure.
157.Soviet culture in the 20s and 30s. XX century
158.USSR on the eve of the Great Patriotic War.
159.International relations in the 20s and 30s. XX century
160.Causes of the Second World War.
161. The beginning of the Second World War (1939-1941).
164.The main battles of the Great Patriotic War.
165.Soviet rear during the Great Patriotic War.
166.Partisan movement in the USSR during the Great Patriotic War.
167.Soviet commanders of the Great Patriotic War.
168.German policy in the occupied territory of the USSR.
169. Actions of the USSR allies during the Second World War.
170.War in the Pacific.
171.Anti-fascist coalition during the Second World War.
172. Reasons, significance and price of the victories of the USSR in the Great Patriotic War.
173. Post-war world structure.
174.European countries after the Second World War.
175. Development of the leading countries of Western Europe in the second half of the 20th century.
176.European integration in the second half of the 20th century.
177. Western European culture in the second half of the 20th century.
178.USA in the second half of the 20th century.
179.The struggle of the colonies for independence.
180. Year of Africa.
181.India in the second half of the 20th century.
182.China in the second half of the 20th century.
183.Japan in the second half of the 20th century.
184 Latin America in the second half of the 20th century.
185 Countries ʼʼ people's democracyʼʼEastern Europe in the late 40s and late 80s. XX century
186 ʼʼ Velvet revolutionsʼʼ in Eastern European countries.
187Armed conflicts of the 40-80s. XX century
188The world at the end of XX - beginning of XXI V.
189Restoration of the USSR economy after the Great Patriotic War.
190Soviet society in the late 40s and early 50s. XX century
191Development of the USSR in the 50-80s. XX century
192Economic reforms in the USSR in the 50s and 60s. XX century
193Soviet society in the 50s. XX century
194Soviet society in the 60s and 70s. XX century
195Perestroika in the USSR and its consequences.
196The collapse of the USSR: a pattern or an accident?
197The formation of a new Russia.
198Economic reforms in Russia in the 90s. XX century
199Russian society in the 90s. XX century
200Russia at the beginning of the 21st century.
CHRONOLOGY OF WORLD HISTORY - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "CHRONOLOGY OF WORLD HISTORY" 2017, 2018.