Information support for decision making. Information support of management decision

In organizational management structures, decision-making processes are constantly implemented. Management decisions are made in situations:

The emergence of new conditions, circumstances that violate the normal functioning of the organization in order to return it to the optimal level;

The need to maintain the created conditions unchanged if the mode of functioning of the organization is optimal;

The need to transfer the organization to a new mode of operation, due to new goals.

The adoption of a managerial decision involves actions aimed at

–> to restore control over the course of events;

–> adjusting the standards for evaluating business information in accordance with the situation;

–> use of the opened opportunities

Management decisions are made at all levels of the hierarchical structure of the enterprise. At the same time, goals, forms of activity, resources, opportunities, difficulties and ways to overcome them are determined. All these moments are formed in the form of a management decision.

Management decision– creative, volitional action of the subject of management based on knowledge of the objective laws of the functioning of the controlled subsystem, analysis of information about its state, consisting in choosing the goal, program and methods of the team's activities to resolve the problem.

Management decisions are characterized by:

purposefulness;

Volitional character;

Directiveness;

Concreteness.

A problem is a situation characterized by such a difference between the desired and existing state of the controlled subsystem, which prevents its development and normal functioning.

The statement of the occurrence of the problem and its description are as follows:

Specification of the content of the problem;

Localization of the place of occurrence of the problem;

Determination of the moment of occurrence of the problem;

Establishment of trends in the development of the problem from the moment of occurrence to the statement;

Determination of the need for action to eliminate the problem before finding out the causes of its occurrence.

The main ways to distribute the causes of the problem:

kvvad identification of changes in the control object and the external environment that precede the occurrence of the problem;

kvvad identification of objects similar to the one under consideration, where such a problem did not arise, and the establishment of differences in objects;

kvvad construction of a cause-and-effect diagram;

kvvad opinion mapping.

Problems can be caused by the following factors:

kvvad incorrect principles on which the activity of the enterprise is based;

kvvad overestimated or underestimated criteria;

kvvad mistakes made in the course of current activities;

kvvad unforeseen circumstances.

Basic terms of security High Quality and effectiveness of the management decision:

–> application of scientific management approaches to the development of a management decision;

–> study of the influence of economic laws on the effectiveness of management decisions;

–> supplying the decision maker with quality information;

–> application of methods of functional cost analysis, forecasting, modeling and economic justification of each decision;

–> structuring the problem and building a tree of goals;

–> ensuring comparability of solutions;

–> providing multivariate solutions;

–> legal validity of the decision;

–> automation of the process of collecting and processing information, the process of developing and implementing solutions;

–> development and functioning of a system of responsibility and motivation for a high-quality and effective solution;

–> the presence of a mechanism for implementing the solution.

6.2. Types of management decisions

Reflecting the versatility and complexity of the interaction of objective and subjective factors operating in production systems, management decisions are distinguished by a variety of forms. Classification management decisions allows you to systematize information and situations (Table 6.1).

Usually, in making a managerial decision, three points are present to varying degrees: intuition, judgment and rationality.

The method of making a managerial decision based only on judgment is not very reliable, since common sense is quite rare, although the method is quite cheap and fast.

The judgment very often cannot be correlated with the situation that has taken place before, and the manager tends to act as he acted before in another situation, and therefore risks missing a good result in a new situation, consciously or unconsciously refusing to analyze it in detail.

Intuitive Solutions based on the feeling that the person's choice is correct. Typical for operational management.

Table 6.1

Classification of management decisions

At the core decisions based on judgment knowledge, meaningful experience of the past and common sense. Typical for operational management.

Rational Decisions based on methods economic analysis, substantiation and optimization. Characteristic for strategic and tactical management.

A manager who focuses only on intuition becomes a hostage to chance, and his chances of choosing the right solution are not very high.

Management decisions are made by people, and therefore their nature largely depends on the personality of the manager directly involved in their development.

Balanced Decisions accepts a manager who is attentive and critical of his actions, put forward hypotheses and their testing.

impulsive decisions are characteristic of a manager who easily generates a wide variety of ideas in unlimited quantities, but is not able to properly verify, clarify, and evaluate them.

Inert solutions is the result of a careful search for a manager. In them, clarifying and controlling actions prevail over the generation of ideas, where it is difficult to detect originality, innovation, brilliance.

If the manager does not need a thorough substantiation of his hypotheses, is confident in himself, then he may not be afraid of any difficulties and accept risky decisions.

Cautious Decisions appear when the manager carefully evaluates all options, approaches the matter critically. Solutions are not new and original.

6.3. Requirements for a management decision

The management decision taken by the manager must meet the following requirements:

Be scientifically sound, competent;

Accepted on the basis of reliable, complete and timely information with an analysis and evaluation of possible alternatives;

Be consistent;

Have a clear direction and targeting;

Differ in timeliness and speed;

Be precise and clear;

be controlled;

be complex;

Have authority;

Be economical and efficient.

The process of preparing and implementing a management decision provides for the execution in a certain sequence of a number of works, including the adoption phase and the implementation phase of a management decision (Fig. 6.1).

Rice. 6.1. Algorithm for the preparation and implementation of management decisions

When developing a management decision, it is very important to choose the right criteria– indicators that characterize decision options and are used for evaluation and selection.

At the same time, it is very important to determine the weight (significance) of the criterion - a quantitative expression of the relative importance of each criterion used for evaluation and selection in comparison with other criteria.

The effectiveness of the management decision made by the manager essentially depends on the correct choice of the degree of participation of subordinates in the adoption and implementation of the decision. In this case, both complete non-participation of subordinates (the decision is made by the manager alone) and joint development and decision-making with the manager (collective decision) are possible.

The main factors in choosing the degree of participation are the qualifications of subordinates, their conscientiousness and responsibility.

In the management decision-making system, a management operation and a management procedure are distinguished.

Management operation– technologically inseparable process of processing management information received by a given structural unit(Fig. 6.2).

Rice. 6.2. Management operation

management procedure– a set of interrelated management operations and documents in a certain order aimed at achieving a fixed goal(Fig. 6.3).

The complexity and interdependence of technical, organizational, socio-economic and other aspects of management have led to the need to develop special methods that facilitate the justification and choice of management decisions under conditions of uncertainty.

To eliminate the uncertainty caused by the presence of many criteria, experience and intuition of the decision maker are used.

Uncertainty is understood as the incompleteness or inaccuracy of information about the conditions for the implementation of the decision, including the costs and results associated with them. Uncertainty associated with the possibility of adverse situations and consequences arising during the implementation of the solution is characterized by the concept of risk.

Rice. 6.3. management procedure

6.4. Information support of management decisions

The value and timeliness of a managerial decision to a large extent depend on the manager's ability to collect, analyze and interpret information at the right time.

Information Support - one of the most important supporting functions, the quality of which is a determining factor in the validity of the decision and the effectiveness of the management system. In dynamics, information support as a process is included in the concept of "communication".

Communication– the process of exchanging information between two or more people.

Communication goals:

kvvad ensuring effective exchange of information between the object and the subject of management;

kvvad improvement of interpersonal relations in the process of information exchange;

kvvad creation of information channels for the exchange of information between individual employees and groups, for the coordination of their tasks and actions;

kvvad regulation and rationalization of information flows.

Depending on the method of information exchange, there are:

Interpersonal, or organizational, communications based on oral communication (Fig. 6.4);

Communication based on the written exchange of information. Informal communications play a special role. The presence of informal communications is associated with the desire of employees to know the information that they cannot obtain through formal organizational communications.

Information transmitted through informal communication channels primarily relates to new penalties, changes in the structure of the organization, conflicts in the leadership of the organization, etc. The system of informal communications is capable of creating rumors, which can adversely affect the effectiveness of communications.

When organizing communication networks in an enterprise, it is necessary to take into account the specifics various types and communication channels at each of the following stages of the communication process:

–> the birth of an idea or the selection of information;

–> choice of information transmission channel;

–> message transmission;

–> message interpretation.

There are four basic elements in the communication process:

- the sender;

- message;

– channel or means of information transmission;

- recipient.

Communication is considered successful if the recipient of information understands its content adequately to the meaning that the sender (manager) puts into it.

Rice. 6.4. Interpersonal communications

Anything that has the potential to reduce the degree of uncertainty should be considered information. Information is facts, estimates, forecasts, generalization of communications, rumors, etc.

Basic requirements for the quality of information:

kvvad complexity information system;

kvvad timeliness;

kvvad reliability (with a certain probability);

kvvad sufficiency;

kvvad reliability;

kvvad targeting;

kvvad legal correctness;

kvvad multiple use;

kvvad high speed of selection, processing and transmission;

kvvad encoding capability;

kvvad topicality.

Today, information is seen as global process associated with fundamental changes in the structure and nature of world economic and social development, with the transition to new generations of science-intensive technologies, systems of equipment and materials, and new types of information exchange, decisively changing the nature of work and human living conditions.

Informatization– a united and natural stage through which, in one form or another, every society that has embarked on the path of intensive development must pass.

There are two stages of informatization in the 21st century. First stage informatization includes the solution of the following main problems:

Preparation, maintenance, adjustment of legal and economic norms that ensure the functioning of information as a commodity, taking into account the norms generally recognized in world practice;

Formulation and introduction of basic standards regulating the form of presentation, methods of processing and transmitting information (exchange protocols, interfaces, etc.) taking into account international standards of a similar purpose;

Ensuring computer literacy and information culture of the population; restructuring of the educational process and development of a network of retraining of personnel with the wide involvement of international training centers;

Creation and development of the main components of the informatization infrastructure: a nationwide data transmission system, a state database system, a unified automated communication system;

Development and beginning of the formation of a market for information products and services participating in the global division of labor;

The use of economic mechanisms of central planning, indicative management and the free market in order to ensure the priority development of the production of new generation materials, microelectronics and radio electronics.

On the second stage development of informatization, the following tasks can be set:

Meeting the needs of all spheres of socio-economic development in the use of distributed databases;

Implementation of the full interaction of national information infrastructures through international communication networks with databases and knowledge;

Implementation of large-scale application of integrated information processing systems;

Use of systems of mass information service of the population through e-mail and the Internet;

Creation of competitive intellectual productions of information products and services;

Development fundamental research in the field of artificial intelligence, which provides for the solution of many problems;

Creation of high-performance computing facilities with non-traditional architecture (multiprocessor, neutron, optical, molecular, etc.);

Development of fundamental works in cooperation with international scientific centers, the creation of open "science parks" in the field of creating artificial intelligence systems;

Active use of information multimedia technologies in open education.

In management practice, it is used control technology, which is an interconnected complex of technical means designed for mechanization and automation information processes in the management system of the organization in order to develop rational decisions. Allocate means of collecting and registering, transmitting, inputting, accumulating, processing, outputting, displaying and reproducing information.

Means of collecting and registering information fixing the primary information at the place of its occurrence on a documentary or machine medium (tapes, disks) with simultaneous receipt of a machine document on a printing device or display (monitor).

Means of information transfer carry out the transmission of information from the source of the message to the recipient through the channels of postal, telephone, telegraph, mobile, optical, radio or space communications over a considerable distance. They can significantly reduce the time and speed of information transfer compared to courier and postal communications.

Means of input-output information are intended for entering initial data into a computer from a human voice, manual documents, magnetic media and display screens, as well as for outputting effective information in the form of speech information, machine documents on paper, display screens or the same magnetic media.

Means of information accumulation designed to store documentary information or systematized coded information on machine media with erasable records (magnetic disks, floppy disks, tapes, cassettes).

Information processing tools perform arithmetic and logical operations on the input information according to programs previously compiled by a person. The processing program can be changed and improved, with the exception of the information processing program in calculators, in which it is rigidly determined by the design of the machine.

Means of displaying information carry out the presentation of alphanumeric and graphical information on a mnemonic diagram, a display screen or in the form of a drawing on a graph plotter. Information is displayed by computer commands or from a stand-alone magnetic disk drive.

Means of reproduction of information produce copies of documents and drawings with a possible change in their geometric dimensions. The means provide for the reproduction of information using special light, photo and heat-sensitive paper or film.

Situations for discussion

1. Comment on Hall's law: "The approach to the problem is more important than its solution."

2. How relevant today is Van Harpen's statement: "The solution to a problem lies in finding people who will solve it."

3. In the world of business, there are two main types of decision making: through the market and through the hierarchy. Explain.

4. Who owns the information, he has the right to success. Give examples to support this statement.

5. What can be sources of information when collecting information about the market for some products? Does the composition of information sources change if the company operates in a foreign market?

Topic: "Information support for the process of making managerial decisions."

	Introduction……………………………………………………………………………
	The essence of management decisions……………………………………………..
	The concept and classification of management decisions…………………………
	Factors affecting the quality and efficiency of management decisions…………………………………………………………………………………..
	The process of making managerial decisions………………………………….
	Principles of the process of making managerial decisions……………………
	Stages of the process of making managerial decisions…………………………
	Information tools for ensuring management decision-making…………………………………………………………………………………..
	Types of information media………………………………………………..
	The influence of information on the effectiveness of managerial decision-making…………………………………………………………………………………..
	Conclusion………………………………………………………………………
	Bibliography……………………………………………………………...
	Appendix……………………………………………………………………..

Introduction

Improving the organization of management is one of the important problems of the modern economy. The most important reserve for improving management efficiency is improving the quality of decisions made, which is achieved by improving the decision-making process.

Decision making is an integral part of any managerial function. The need to make a decision permeates everything that a manager does, setting goals and achieving them. Therefore, understanding the nature of decision making is extremely important for anyone who wants to excel in the art of management.

Effective decision-making is necessary for the performance of managerial functions. Improving the process of making informed objective decisions in situations of exceptional complexity is achieved by using a scientific approach to this process, models and quantitative decision-making methods. Information is required to make any decision, moreover, than harder decision, the more information is needed. In addition, the information must meet certain requirements. Be complete, accurate and timely.

Problem formulation. Based on the foregoing, the problem can be formulated as follows: the need to provide (support) decision-making with information that is properly selected, summarized, systematized and analyzed, that is, suitable for making the right and informed decision in each specific situation. Another problem is the timeliness of information. In this regard, it is possible to set such a goal for this term paper: to determine the ways of the most effective collection, systematization and analysis of information necessary for making managerial decisions. As well as finding the possibility of quickly obtaining the necessary information.

One of the objectives of this work is the detailed development of specific methods for solving the set goal. Finding out the advantages and disadvantages existing methods solving similar problems and finding possible ways to improve them.

1. The essence of management decisions

The concept and classification of management decisions

The most important reserve for increasing the efficiency of all social production is to improve the quality of decisions made by managers.

The concept of "solution" in modern life is very ambiguous. It is understood both as a process, and as an act of choice, and as a result of choice. The main reason for the ambiguous interpretation of the concept of “solution” is that every time this concept is given a meaning that corresponds to a specific area of research.

The decision as a process is characterized by the fact that it, flowing in time, is carried out in several stages. In this regard, it is appropriate here to talk about the stages of preparation, adoption and implementation of decisions 1 . The decision-making stage can be interpreted as an act of choice carried out by an individual or group decision maker (DM) with the help of certain rules.

The decision as a result of the choice is usually recorded in written or oral form and includes a plan (program) of actions to achieve the goal.

The decision is one of the types of mental activity and a manifestation of the human will. It is characterized by the following features:

the ability to choose from a variety of alternative options: if there are no alternatives, then there is no choice and, therefore, there is no solution;

the presence of a goal: an aimless choice is not seen as a decision;

the need for a volitional act of the decision maker when choosing a solution, since the decision maker forms a decision through the struggle of motives and opinions.

Accordingly, management decision (RM) means:

search and finding the most effective, most rational or optimal variant of the manager's actions;

the end result of the formulation and development of SD.

Of greatest interest is the process of making and implementing decisions as a successive change of interrelated stages, stages various activities leader, revealing the technology of mental actions, the search for truth and the analysis of delusions, the ways of moving towards the goal and the means to achieve it. Only this approach makes it possible to understand the fixed act of a managerial decision, the sources of its origin.

There are a number of requirements for management decisions, which include:

comprehensive justification of the decision;

timeliness;

the necessary completeness of the content;

authority;

consistency with previous decisions.

The comprehensive validity of the decision means, first of all, the need to make it on the basis of the most complete and reliable information. However, this alone is not enough. It should cover the entire range of issues, the entirety of the needs of the managed system. This requires knowledge of the features, ways of development of the controlled, control systems and the environment. A thorough analysis of resource provision, scientific and technical capabilities, target development functions, economic and social prospects of the enterprise, region, industry, national and world economy is required. The comprehensive validity of decisions requires the search for new forms and ways of processing scientific, technical and socio-economic information, that is, the formation of advanced professional thinking, the development of its analytical and synthetic functions. 2

The timeliness of a managerial decision means that the decision made should neither lag behind nor outstrip the needs and tasks of the socio-economic system. A prematurely made decision does not find a prepared ground for its implementation and development and can give impetus to the development of negative trends. Belated decisions are no less harmful to society. They do not contribute to the solution of already “overripe” tasks and further exacerbate the already painful processes.

The necessary completeness of the content of decisions means that the decision should cover the entire managed object, all areas of its activity, all areas of development. In the most general form management decision should cover:

a) the goal (set of goals) of the functioning and development of the system;

b) means and resources used to achieve these goals;

c) the main ways and means of achieving goals;

d) the timing of the achievement of goals;

e) the procedure for interaction between departments and performers;

f) organization of work at all stages of the implementation of the solution.

An important requirement of a managerial decision is the authority (authority) of the decision - strict observance by the subject of management of those rights and powers that are granted to him by the highest level of management 3 . The balance of rights and responsibilities of each body, each link and each level of management is a constant problem associated with the inevitable emergence of new development tasks and the system of regulation and regulation lagging behind them.

Consistency with earlier decisions also means the need to observe a clear causal relationship of social development. It is necessary to observe the traditions of respect for the law, regulations, orders. At the level of an individual firm, it is necessary for the implementation of consistent scientific, technical, market and social policy, accurate functioning of the production apparatus.

Consistency with earlier decisions also means the need to observe a clear causal relationship of social development. If necessary, earlier decisions that have come into conflict with the new conditions for the existence of the system should be canceled. The appearance of decisions that contradict each other is, first of all, a consequence of poor knowledge and understanding of the laws of social development, a manifestation of a low level of managerial culture.

The adoption of SD requires a high level of professionalism and the presence of certain socio-psychological qualities of a person, which not all specialists with a professional education possess, but only 5-10% of them.

The main factors influencing the quality of a management decision are: the application of scientific approaches and principles, modeling methods to the management system, automation of management, motivation for a quality decision, etc.

Usually in making any decision there are three points in varying degrees: intuition, judgment and rationality.

When making a purely intuitive decision, people are based on their own feeling that their choice is correct. There is a “sixth sense” here, a kind of insight, visited, as a rule, by representatives of the highest echelon of power. Middle managers rely more on the information they receive and the help of computers. Despite the fact that intuition sharpens along with the acquisition of experience, the continuation of which is precisely a high position, a manager who focuses only on it becomes a hostage to chance, and from a statistical point of view, his chances of making the right choice are not very high.

Judgment-based decisions are in many ways similar to intuitive ones, probably because at first glance their logic is poorly visible. But still, they are based on knowledge and meaningful, in contrast to the previous case, the experience of the past. Using them and relying on common sense, with the amendment for today, the option that brought the greatest success in a similar situation in the past is selected. However, common sense is rare among people, so this method of decision-making is also not very reliable, although it captivates with its speed and cheapness.

DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT

COURSE WORK

in the discipline "Fundamentals of Management"

Topic: Information support for managerial decision-making.

Group: 203

Scientific adviser: ______________ Nabieva L.G.

Date of delivery to the department: ________________

Review date: _________________

Date of protection: _________________

Grade: _________________

KAZAN - 2004

Conclusion 38

REFERENCES 39

Introduction

To make any decision, information is required, and the more complex the decision, the greater the amount of information required. In addition, the information must meet certain requirements. Be complete, accurate and timely.

Problem formulation. Based on the foregoing, the problem can be formulated as follows: the need to provide (support) decision-making with information that is properly selected, summarized, systematized and analyzed, that is, suitable for making the right and informed decision in each specific situation. Another problem is the timeliness of information.

In this regard, we can set the following goal of this course work: to determine the most effective ways to collect, systematize and analyze the information necessary for making managerial decisions. As well as finding the possibility of quickly obtaining the necessary information.

One of the objectives of this work is the detailed development of specific methods for solving the set goal. Finding out the advantages and disadvantages of existing methods for solving such problems and finding possible ways to improve them.

1. The essence of management decisions

1.1 The concept and classification of management decisions

The most important reserve for increasing the efficiency of all social production is to improve the quality of decisions made by managers.

The concept of “solution” in modern life very significant. It is understood both as a process, and as an act of choice, and as a result of choice. The main reason for the ambiguous interpretation of the concept of “solution” is that every time this concept is given a meaning that corresponds to a specific area of research.

The decision as a process is characterized by the fact that it, flowing in time, is carried out in several stages. In this regard, it is appropriate to talk about the stages of preparation, adoption and implementation of decisions. The decision-making stage can be interpreted as an act of choice carried out by an individual or group decision maker (DM) with the help of certain rules.

The decision as a result of the choice is usually recorded in written or oral form and includes a plan (program) of actions to achieve the goal.

The decision is one of the types of mental activity and a manifestation of the human will. It is characterized by the following features:

the ability to choose from a variety of alternative options: if there are no alternatives, then there is no choice and, therefore, there is no solution;

the presence of a goal: an aimless choice is not seen as a decision;

the need for a volitional act of the decision maker when choosing a solution, since the decision maker forms a decision through the struggle of motives and opinions.

Accordingly, under managerial decision(UR) is understood as:

search and finding the most effective, most rational or optimal variant of the manager's actions;
the end result of the formulation and development of SD.

Of greatest interest is the process of making and implementing decisions as a successive change of interrelated stages, stages of various actions of the leader, revealing the technology of mental actions, the search for truth and analysis of delusions, ways to move towards the goal and means to achieve it. Only this approach makes it possible to understand the fixed act of a managerial decision, the sources of its origin.

There are a number of requirements for management decisions, which include:

comprehensive justification of the decision;

timeliness;

the necessary completeness of the content;

authority;

consistency with previous decisions.

The necessary completeness of the content of decisions means that the decision should cover the entire managed object, all areas of its activity, all areas of development. In its most general form, a management decision should cover:

a) the goal (set of goals) of the functioning and development of the system;

b) means and resources used to achieve these goals;

c) the main ways and means of achieving goals;

d) the timing of the achievement of goals;

e) the procedure for interaction between departments and performers;

f) organization of work at all stages of the implementation of the solution.

An important requirement of a managerial decision is the authority (authority) of the decision - strict observance by the subject of management of those rights and powers that are granted to him by the highest level of management. The balance of rights and responsibilities of each body, each link and each level of management is a constant problem associated with the inevitable emergence of new development tasks and the system of regulation and regulation lagging behind them.

Consistency with earlier decisions also means the need to observe a clear causal relationship of social development. It is necessary to observe the traditions of respect for the law, regulations, orders. At the level of an individual company, it is necessary for the implementation of a consistent scientific, technical, market and social policy, and the efficient functioning of the production apparatus.

The main factors that influence the quality of a management decision are: the application of scientific approaches and principles, modeling methods to the management system, automation of management, motivation for a quality decision, etc.

Usually in making any decision there are three points in varying degrees: intuition, judgment and rationality.

Upon acceptance purely intuitive solution people are based on their own feeling that their choice is the right one. There is a “sixth sense” here, a kind of insight, visited, as a rule, by representatives of the highest echelon of power. Middle managers rely more on the information they receive and the help of computers. Despite the fact that intuition sharpens along with the acquisition of experience, the continuation of which is precisely a high position, a manager who focuses only on it becomes a hostage to chance, and from a statistical point of view, his chances of making the right choice are not very high.

Solutions, based on judgment, are in many ways similar to intuitive ones, probably because at first glance their logic is poorly visible. But still, they are based on knowledge and meaningful, in contrast to the previous case, the experience of the past. Using them and relying on common sense, with the correction for today, the option that brought the greatest success in a similar situation in the past is selected. However, common sense is rare among people, so this method of decision-making is also not very reliable, although it captivates with its speed and cheapness.

Another weakness is that the judgment cannot be correlated with a situation that has not taken place before, and therefore there is simply no experience of solving it. In addition, with this approach, the manager tends to act mainly in those directions that are familiar to him, as a result of which he risks missing a good result in another area, consciously or unconsciously refusing to intrude into it.

A powerful factor activating the decision-making process are modern facilities office equipment, including computer networks. This requires a high level of culture in the field of mathematics and programming, the technology of using technical means. However, the process of making a decision, choosing a specific option will always be creative and depend on the individual.

The classification of SD is necessary to determine general and specific approaches to their development, implementation and evaluation, which makes it possible to improve their quality, efficiency and continuity. SD can be classified in a wide variety of ways (Appendix A). The most common are the following principles of classification:

by functional content;

by the nature of the tasks to be solved (scope);

according to the management hierarchy;

by the nature of the development organization;

by the nature of the goals;

for reasons of occurrence;

by initial development methods;

in organizational design.

SD can be classified according to the functional content, i.e. in relation to general control functions, for example:

a) planned decisions;

b) organizational;

c) controlling;

d) predictive.

Typically, such decisions affect, to one degree or another, all management functions, but in each of them it is possible to single out the main core associated with some main function.

Another classification principle is related to the nature of the tasks being solved:

a) economic;

b) organizational;

c) technological;

d) technical;

e) environmental and others.

Most often, SD is associated not with one, but with a number of tasks, to some extent having a complex character.

According to the levels of the hierarchy of control systems, SD is distinguished at the BS level; at the level of subsystems; at the level of individual elements of the system. Usually, system-wide solutions are initiated and then brought to the elementary level, but the opposite is also possible.

Depending on the organization of the development of solutions, the following SDs are distinguished:

a) sole proprietors;

b) collegiate;

c) collective.

The preferred method of organizing the development of SD depends on many factors: the competence of the manager, the skill level of the team, the nature of the tasks, resources, etc.

By the nature of the goals, the decisions made can be represented as:

a) current (operational);

b) tactical;

c) strategic.

According to the reasons for the occurrence of SD, they are divided into:

a) situational, related to the nature of the circumstances that arise;

b) by order (order) of higher authorities;

c) software related to the inclusion of this control object in

a certain structure of program-target relations, activities;

d) proactive, associated with the manifestation of the initiative of the system, for example, in the production of goods, services, intermediary activities;

e) episodic and periodic, arising from the periodicity of reproductive processes in the system (for example, the seasonality of agricultural production, river rafting, geological work).

An important classification approach is the initial methods for developing SD. These include:

a) graphic, using graphic-analytical approaches (network models and methods, strip plots, block diagrams, decomposition of large systems);

b) mathematical methods involving the formalization of representations, relationships, proportions, timing, events, resources;

c) heuristic, associated with the widespread use of expert assessments, scenario development, situational models.

According to the organizational design, SD are divided into:

a) rigid, unambiguously setting the further path of their implementation;

b) orienting, determining the direction of development of the system;

c) flexible, changing in accordance with the conditions of functioning and development of the system;

d) normative, setting the parameters of the processes in the system.

Since decisions are made by people, their character largely bears the imprint of the personality of the manager involved in their birth. In this regard, it is customary to distinguish between balanced, impulsive, inert, risky and cautious decisions.

Balanced Decisions are accepted by managers who are attentive and critical of their actions, put forward hypotheses and their testing. Usually, before starting to make a decision, they have formulated the initial idea.

impulsive decisions, whose authors easily generate a wide variety of ideas in unlimited quantities, but are not able to properly verify, clarify, and evaluate them. Decisions therefore turn out to be insufficiently substantiated and reliable;

Inert solutions are the result of a careful search. In them, on the contrary, control and clarifying actions prevail over the generation of ideas, so it is difficult to detect originality, brilliance, and innovation in such decisions.

risky decisions differ from impulsive ones in that their authors do not need a thorough substantiation of their hypotheses and, if they are confident in themselves, they may not be afraid of any dangers.

Cautious Decisions are characterized by the thoroughness of the manager's assessment of all options, a supercritical approach to business. They are even less than inert ones, they are distinguished by novelty and originality.

1.2 Factors that determine the quality and effectiveness of management decisions

The quality of managerial decisions should be understood as the degree of its compliance with the nature of the tasks to be solved for the functioning and development of production systems. In other words, to what extent SD provides further development paths production system in the conditions of formation of market relations.

Factors that determine the quality and effectiveness of management decisions can be classified according to various signs– both factors of an internal nature (associated with the control and managed systems) and external factors (environmental influence). These factors include:

the laws of the objective world associated with the adoption and implementation of SD;

a clear statement of the goal - why SD is being adopted, what real results can be achieved, how to measure, correlate the goal and the results achieved;

the volume and value of the available information - for the successful adoption of SD, the main thing is not the volume of information, but the value determined by the level of professionalism, experience, intuition of personnel;

SD development time - as a rule, a managerial decision is always made in conditions of time pressure and emergency circumstances (lack of resources, activity of competitors, market conditions, inconsistent behavior of politicians);

organizational structures of management;

forms and methods of implementation of management activities;

methods and techniques for the development and implementation of SD (for example, if the company is in the lead, the methodology is one, if it follows others, it is different);

subjectivity of the evaluation of the solution choice option. The more extraordinary SD is, the more subjective the assessment.

the state of the control and managed systems ( psychological climate, the authority of the leader, the professional and qualification composition of personnel, etc.);

a system of expert assessments of the level of quality and effectiveness of SD.

2. The process of making managerial decisions

2.1. Principles of the process of making managerial decisions

Sooner or later, managers must move from the analysis of past events to action. Ideally, if an action is motivated by a correct analysis of the problem, the search for causes narrows down to the point where it is safe to proceed to solve the problem. It is important, however, to remember that all actions are motivated by the need to respond to a problem. Experienced managers are constantly taking action to improve the situation, increase performance requirements and prevent problems, which may threaten to disrupt the implementation of current plans.

Being in the present tense, the manager chooses actions (alternatives) that can often be realized in the future. The problem is that sometimes you even have to compare the relative effects of alternatives without sound evidence. There is no way to know exactly what will happen if another alternative is chosen. The manager must consider the alternatives, confidently take a stand and state that, say, alternative A will serve the goals better than alternative B or C. However, this is a complex process of moving towards the truth.

The existing uncertainty in the decision-making process can create a number of situations in which confusion between the concepts of "decisiveness" and "decision-making" is not ruled out. In many enterprises, managers are evaluated and rewarded for how quickly and confidently they make decisions. Uncertainty in this case is seen as a sign of weakness. Managers are expected to be quick and decisive in their judgments, and their willingness to implement decisions in the face of difficulties is highly valued. Theoretically, this is correct, but in practice this is not always the best course of action.

In management, decisiveness is seen as the ability to make a decision and turn it into reality. And decision making is the ability to analyze the most important information and make the best choice. It is important to properly combine both of these abilities. Paralyzing oneself with endless analysis is just as undesirable as making decisions on a whim, spontaneously.

At the heart of the decision-making process for the management of the firm are four basic principles, ignoring which (total or partial) can lead to erroneous decisions and unsatisfactory results. Compliance with these principles makes it possible to make quality decisions at all levels of the organization.

First principle This is the principle of organizational fit. The form of organization must be adapted to the smooth implementation of communications, which facilitates both the decision-making process and control over their implementation. It is impossible not to take into account the fact that powers and responsibilities are increasingly passing "from hand to hand". Only by making managers responsible for the results of their decisions can the best leadership be produced.

Second principle: Policies, strategies and objectives should be so clearly defined that they allow for decisions of a general nature regarding new activities that go beyond today's needs.

Third principle requires a sufficient amount of reliable data on the changing environment necessary to maintain effective communication between managers top level and lower levels of the functioning units of the organization. It is extremely important to select available data in such a way that top-level managers have at their disposal only the facts that they really need and are not overloaded with irrelevant factual material.

Fourth principle provides for flexibility, without which countless possibilities may remain untapped. Under ideal conditions (accurate criteria, clear goals, and complete information), there would be little need for decision makers. A computer could answer any question. Unfortunately, we live far from ideal world, and there is a constant need for qualified managers to determine the best course of action for the organization. By their nature, the listed principles are universal and must be adhered to in managerial and entrepreneurial activities.

We note, continuing the conversation in this perspective, that managers usually make decisions that are associated with certain obligations and the need to implement them. Once a decision is made, it is difficult to change it. The procedure for analyzing alternatives in decision making is different from the procedure for causal analysis.

The decision itself can take a number of forms and represent: a standard decision, for which there is a fixed set of alternatives; binary decision (yes or no); multivariate solution (there is a very wide range of alternatives); an innovative solution when action is required but there are no viable alternatives.

The most common type of solution is the standard solution. The analytical steps required to make it apply to other types of decisions as well. When making any type of decision, the experience of a manager is included from the first step and is used throughout this process. If in causal analysis it is necessary to be wary of the "favorite causes" of managers, then in decision making one can become a victim of "favorite alternatives". In this case, the preference for the "favorite option" can distort the entire analysis and lead to a previously known choice. one

2.2. Stages of the managerial decision-making process

As a rule, for the successful implementation of the managerial decision-making process, a manager needs to go through eight main stages.

On the first stage the main task is to correctly set the goal of the solution. Any decision-making process must begin with an awareness of the need to make a decision. It is important, first of all, to ask the question about the very choice that is to be made. Such questions contribute to the fulfillment of three tasks: to show the connection of the decision with the need to make a choice; set the direction in the search for alternatives; exclude alternatives that lie outside the goal.

Manage – means to decide.
Commandment of management

A good solution can be successfully applied to any problem.
The Universal Law of Management

The essence of management decisions, their characteristics

In organizational management structures, decision-making processes are constantly implemented. Management decisions are made in situations:

the emergence of new conditions, circumstances that violate the normal functioning of the organization in order to return it to the optimal level;
the need to maintain the created conditions unchanged if the mode of functioning of the organization is optimal;
the need to transfer the organization to a new mode of operation, due to new goals.

Making a management decision involves actions aimed at:

to regain control over the course of events;
adjustment of standards for evaluating business information in ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙii with the situation;
use of open opportunities.

Management decisions are made at all levels of the hierarchical structure of the enterprise. With ϶ᴛᴏm, goals, forms of activity, resources, opportunities, difficulties and ways to overcome them are determined. All these moments are formed in the form of a management decision.

Management decision – creative, volitional action of the subject of management based on knowledge of the objective laws of the functioning of the controlled subsystem, analysis of information about its state, consisting in choosing the goal, program and methods of the team's activities to resolve the problem.

Management decisions are characterized by:

purposefulness;
strong-willed character;
directiveness;
concreteness.

A problem is a situation characterized by such a difference between the desired and the existing state of the controlled subsystem that hinders its development and normal functioning.

The statement of the occurrence of the problem and its description are as follows:

specifying the content of the problem;
localization of the place of occurrence of the problem;
determination of the moment of occurrence of the problem;
establishing trends in the development of the problem from the moment of occurrence to the statement;
determining the need for action to eliminate the problem before finding out the causes of its occurrence.

The main ways to distribute the causes of the problem:

identification of changes in the control object and the external environment that precede the occurrence of the problem;
identifying objects similar to the one under consideration, where such a problem did not arise, and establishing differences in objects;
construction of a cause-and-effect diagram;
opinion mapping.

Problems can be caused by the following factors:

incorrect principles on which the activity of the enterprise is based;
overestimated or underestimated criteria;
mistakes made in the course of current activities;
unseen circumstances.

The main conditions for ensuring high quality and efficiency of a management decision:

application to the development of management solutions of scientific approaches of management;
study of the influence of economic laws on the effectiveness of management decisions;
supplying the decision maker with quality information;
application of methods of functional cost analysis, forecasting, modeling and economic justification of each decision;
structuring the problem and building a tree of goals;
ensuring comparability of solutions;
providing multivariate solutions;
legal validity of the decision;
automation of the process of collecting and processing information, the process of developing and implementing solutions;
development and functioning of a system of responsibility and motivation for a high-quality and effective solution;
the presence of a mechanism for implementing the solution.

Types of management decisions

Reflecting the versatility and complexity of the interaction of objective and subjective factors operating in production systems, management decisions are distinguished by a variety of forms. The classification of management decisions allows you to systematize information and situations (Table 6.1)

Usually, in making a managerial decision, three points are present to varying degrees: intuition, judgment and rationality.

The method of making a managerial decision based only on judgment is not very reliable, since common sense is quite rare, although the method will be quite cheap and fast.

The judgment very often cannot be correlated with the situation that took place before, and the manager strives to act as he acted before in another situation, and therefore risks missing a good result in a new situation, consciously or unconsciously refusing to analyze it in detail.

Intuitive Solutions based on the feeling that the person's choice is correct. Typical for operational management.

Table 6.1

At the core decisions based on judgment knowledge, meaningful experience of the past and common sense. Typical for operational management.

Rational Decisions are based on the methods of economic analysis, justification and optimization. Characteristic for strategic and tactical management.

A manager who focuses only on intuition becomes a hostage to chance, and his chances of choosing the right solution are not very high.

Management decisions are made by people, and therefore their nature largely depends on the personality of the manager directly involved in their development.

Balanced Decisions accepts a manager who is attentive and critical of their actions, put forward hypotheses and their verification.

impulsive decisions are characteristic of a manager who easily generates a wide variety of ideas in unlimited quantities, but is not able to properly verify, clarify, and evaluate them.

If the manager does not need a thorough justification of their hypotheses, is confident in himself, then he may not be afraid of any difficulties and accept risky decisions.

Cautious Decisions they will stay when the manager carefully evaluates all options, approaches the matter critically. Solutions are not new and original.

Requirements for a management decision

The management decision taken by the manager must meet the following requirements:

be scientifically sound, competent;
be taken on the basis of reliable, complete and up-to-date information with an analysis and evaluation of possible alternatives;
be consistent;
have a clear focus and targeting;
differ in temporality and speed;
be precise and clear;
be controlled;
be complex;
have authority;
be economical and efficient.

Figure No. 6.1. Algorithm for the preparation and implementation of management decisions

When developing a management decision, it is very important to choose the right criteria – indicators that characterize decision options and are used for evaluation and selection.

It is very important for ϶ᴛᴏm to determine the weight (significance) of the criterion - a quantitative expression of the relative importance of each criterion used for evaluation and selection in comparison with other criteria.

The effectiveness of the management decision made by the manager essentially depends on the correct choice of the degree of participation of subordinates in the adoption and implementation of the decision. With ϶ᴛᴏm, both complete non-participation of subordinates is possible (the decision is made by the manager alone), and joint development and decision-making with the manager (collective decision)

The main factors in choosing the degree of participation are the qualifications of subordinates, their conscientiousness and responsibility.

In the management decision-making system, a management operation and a management procedure are distinguished.

– technologically inseparable process of processing management information received by a given structural unit(Fig. 6.2)

Figure No. 6.2. Management operation

– a set of interrelated management operations and documents in a certain order aimed at achieving a fixed goal(Fig. 6.3)

To eliminate uncertainty, the cause of which will be the presence of many criteria, use the experience, intuition of the decision maker.

Figure No. 6.3. management procedure

The value and timeliness of a managerial decision to a large extent depend on the manager's ability to collect, analyze and interpret information at the right time.

Information Support- one of the most important supporting functions, the quality of which will be the determining factor in the validity of the decision and the effectiveness of the management system. In dynamics, information support as a process is included in the concept of "communication".

Communication – the process of exchanging information between two or more people.

Communication goals:

ensuring effective exchange of information between the object and the subject of management;
improvement of interpersonal relations in the process of information exchange;
creation of information channels for the exchange of information between individual employees and groups, for the coordination of their tasks and actions;
regulation and rationalization of information flows.

Given the dependence on the method of information exchange, there are:

interpersonal, or organizational, communications based on oral communication (Fig. 6.4);
communication based on the written exchange of information.
It should be noted that informal communications play a special role. The presence of informal communications is associated with the desire of employees to know the information that they cannot obtain through formal organizational communications.

When organizing communication networks in an enterprise, it is extremely important to take into account the specifics of various types and channels of communication at each of the following stages of the communication process:

the origin of an idea or the selection of information;
choice of information transmission channel;
message transmission;
message interpretation.

There are four basic elements in the communication process:

sender;
message;
channel or means of information transmission;
recipient.

Communication is considered successful if the recipient of information understands its content adequately to the meaning that the sender (manager) puts into it

Figure No. 6.4. Interpersonal communications

Anything that has the potential to reduce the degree of uncertainty should be considered information. Information - ϶ᴛᴏ facts, estimates, forecasts, generalization of communications, rumors, etc.

Basic requirements for the quality of information:

complexity of the information system;
ϲʙᴏtemporality;
reliability (with a certain probability);
adequacy;
reliability;
targeting;
legal correctness;
repeated use;
high speed of selection, processing and transmission;
possibility of coding;
relevance.

Today, information is viewed as a global process associated with fundamental changes in the structure and nature of world economic and social development, with the transition to new generations of high technologies, systems of equipment and materials, and new types of information exchange, decisively changing the nature of labor and human living conditions.

Informatization – a united and logical stage through which every society that has embarked on the path of intensive development must pass in one form or another.

There are two stages of informatization in the 21st century. First stage informatization includes the solution of the following main problems:

preparation, maintenance, adjustment of legal and economic norms that ensure the functioning of information as a commodity, taking into account the norms generally recognized in world practice;
formulation and introduction of basic standards governing the form of presentation, methods of processing and transmitting information (exchange protocols, interfaces, etc.) taking into account international standards of a similar purpose;
ensuring computer literacy and information culture of the population; restructuring of the educational process and development of a network of retraining of personnel with the wide involvement of international training centers;
creation and development of the main components of the informatization infrastructure: a nationwide data transmission system, a state database system, a unified automated communication system;
development and the beginning of the formation of a market for information products and services participating in the global division of labor;
the use of economic mechanisms of centralized planning, indicative management and the free market in order to ensure the priority development of the production of new generation materials, microelectronics and radio electronics.

On the second stage development of informatization, the following tasks can be set:

meeting the needs of all spheres of socio-economic development in the use of distributed databases;
implementation of the full interaction of national information infrastructures through international communication networks with databases and knowledge;
implementation of large-scale application of integrated information processing systems;
use of systems of mass information service of the population through e-mail and the Internet;
creation of competitive intellectual productions of information products and services;
development of fundamental research in the field of artificial intelligence, providing for the solution of many problems;
creation of high-performance computing facilities with non-traditional architecture (multiprocessor, neutron, optical, molecular, etc.);
development of fundamental works in cooperation with international scientific centers, creation of open "science parks" in the field of creating artificial intelligence systems;
active use of information multimedia technologies in open education.

In management practice, it is used control engineering, which is an interconnected set of technical means designed to mechanize and automate information processes in the organization's management system in order to develop rational decisions. Allocate means of collecting and registering, transmitting, inputting, accumulating, processing, outputting, displaying and reproducing information.

Means of collecting and registering information carry out the fixation of primary information at the place of its occurrence on a documentary or machine medium (tapes, disks) with simultaneous receipt of a machine document on a printing device or display (monitor)

Means of information transfer carry out the transmission of information from the source of the message to the recipient through the channels of postal, telephone, telegraph, mobile, optical, radio or space communications over a considerable distance. It is worth noting that they can significantly reduce the time and speed of information transfer compared to courier and postal communications.

Means of information accumulation designed to store documentary information or systematized coded information on machine media with erasable records (magnetic disks, floppy disks, tapes, cassettes)

Situations for discussion

1. Comment on Hall's law: "The approach to the problem is more important than its solution."

2. How relevant today is the statement Do not forget that van Harpen: "The solution to the problem lies in the search for people who will solve it."

3. In the world of business, there are two main types of decision making: through the market and through the hierarchy. Explain.

4. Who owns the information, he has the right to success. Give examples confirming the correctness of the ϶ᴛᴏth position.

5. What can be sources of information when collecting information about the market of certain products? Does the composition of information sources change if the company operates in a foreign market?

Topic: "Information support for the process of making managerial decisions."
Plan:

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………

The essence of management decisions……………………………………………..

The concept and classification of management decisions…………………………

Factors affecting the quality and efficiency of management decisions…………………………………………………………………………………..

The process of making managerial decisions………………………………….

Principles of the process of making managerial decisions……………………

Stages of the process of making managerial decisions…………………………

Information tools for ensuring management decision-making…………………………………………………………………………………..

Types of information media………………………………………………..

The influence of information on the effectiveness of managerial decision-making…………………………………………………………………………………..

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………

Bibliography……………………………………………………………...

Appendix……………………………………………………………………..

Introduction

Effective decision-making is necessary for the performance of managerial functions. Improving the process of making informed objective decisions in situations of exceptional complexity is achieved by using a scientific approach to this process, models and quantitative decision-making methods. To make any decision, information is required, and the more complex the decision, the greater the amount of information required. In addition, the information must meet certain requirements. Be complete, accurate and timely.

Problem formulation. Based on the foregoing, the problem can be formulated as follows: the need to provide (support) decision-making with information that is properly selected, summarized, systematized and analyzed, that is, suitable for making the right and informed decision in each specific situation. Another problem is the timeliness of information. In this regard, we can set the following goal of this course work: to determine the most effective ways to collect, systematize and analyze the information necessary for making managerial decisions. As well as finding the possibility of quickly obtaining the necessary information.

1. The essence of management decisions

The concept and classification of management decisions

The most important reserve for increasing the efficiency of all social production is to improve the quality of decisions made by managers.

The decision as a process is characterized by the fact that it, flowing in time, is carried out in several stages. In this regard, it is appropriate to talk about the stages of preparation, adoption and implementation of decisions1. The decision-making stage can be interpreted as an act of choice carried out by an individual or group decision maker (DM) with the help of certain rules.

The decision as a result of the choice is usually recorded in written or oral form and includes a plan (program) of actions to achieve the goal.

The decision is one of the types of mental activity and a manifestation of the human will. It is characterized by the following features:

The ability to choose from a variety of alternative options: if there are no alternatives, then there is no choice and, therefore, there is no solution;

Presence of purpose: aimless choice is not seen as a decision;

The need for a volitional act of the decision maker when choosing a decision, since the decision maker forms a decision through the struggle of motives and opinions.

Accordingly, management decision (RM) means:

Search and finding the most effective, most rational or optimal variant of the manager's actions;

The end result of the formulation and development of SD.

There are a number of requirements for management decisions, which include:

Comprehensive validity of the decision;

Timeliness;

The required completeness of the content;

authority;

Consistency with previous decisions.

A) the goal (set of goals) of the functioning and development of the system;

B) the means and resources used to achieve these goals;

C) the main ways and means of achieving goals;

D) the timing of the achievement of goals;

E) the procedure for interaction between departments and performers;

E) organization of work at all stages of the implementation of the solution.

An important requirement of a managerial decision is the authority (authority) of the decision - strict observance by the subject of management of those rights and powers that are granted to him by the highest level of management3. The balance of rights and responsibilities of each body, each link and each level of management is a constant problem associated with the inevitable emergence of new development tasks and the system of regulation and regulation lagging behind them.

Consistency with earlier decisions also means the need to observe a clear causal relationship of social development. It is necessary to observe the traditions of respect for the law, regulations, orders. At the level of an individual company, it is necessary for the implementation of a consistent scientific, technical, market and social policy, and the efficient functioning of the production apparatus.

Usually in making any decision there are three points in varying degrees: intuition, judgment and rationality.

A powerful factor activating the decision-making process is modern office equipment, including computer networks. This requires a high level of culture in the field of mathematics and programming, the technology of using technical means. However, the process of making a decision, choosing a specific option will always be creative and depend on the individual.

By functional content;

By the nature of the tasks to be solved (scope);

By hierarchy of control;

By the nature of the development organization;

By the nature of the goals;

For reasons of occurrence;

According to the original development methods;

By organizational design.

SD can be classified according to the functional content, i.e. in relation to general control functions, for example:

A) planned decisions;

B) organizational;

B) controlling;

D) predictive.

Typically, such decisions affect, to one degree or another, all management functions, but in each of them it is possible to single out the main core associated with some main function.

Another classification principle is related to the nature of the tasks being solved:

A) economic;

B) organizational;

B) technological;

D) technical;

D) environmental and others.

Most often, SD is associated not with one, but with a number of tasks, to some extent having a complex character.

Depending on the organization of the development of solutions, the following SDs are distinguished:

A) sole proprietors;

B) collegiate;

B) collective.

The preferred method of organizing the development of SD depends on many factors: the competence of the manager, the skill level of the team, the nature of the tasks, resources, etc.

By the nature of the goals, the decisions made can be represented as:

A) current (operational);

B) tactical;

B) strategic.

According to the reasons for the occurrence of SD, they are divided into:

A) situational, related to the nature of the circumstances that arise;

B) by order (order) of higher authorities;

C) program related to the inclusion of this control object in a certain structure of program-target relations, activities;

D) proactive, associated with the manifestation of the initiative of the system, for example, in the production of goods, services, intermediary activities;

E) episodic and periodic, arising from the periodicity of reproductive processes in the system (for example, the seasonality of agricultural production, river rafting, geological work).

An important classification approach is the initial methods for developing SD. These include:

A) graphic, using graphic-analytical approaches (network models and methods, strip charts, block diagrams, decomposition of large systems);

B) mathematical methods, involving the formalization of representations, relationships, proportions, timing, events, resources;

C) heuristic, associated with the widespread use of expert assessments, scenario development, situational models.

According to the organizational design, SD are divided into:

A) rigid, unambiguously setting the further path of their implementation;

B) orienting, determining the direction of development of the system;

C) flexible, changing in accordance with the conditions of functioning and development of the system;

D) normative, setting the parameters of the processes in the system.

Balanced decisions are made by managers who are attentive and critical of their actions, put forward hypotheses and their testing. Usually, before starting to make a decision, they have formulated the initial idea.

Impulsive decisions, the authors of which easily generate a wide variety of ideas in unlimited quantities, but are not able to properly verify, clarify, and evaluate them. Decisions therefore turn out to be insufficiently substantiated and reliable;

Inert solutions are the result of a careful search. In them, on the contrary, control and clarifying actions prevail over the generation of ideas, so it is difficult to detect originality, brilliance, and innovation in such decisions.

Risky decisions differ from impulsive ones in that their authors do not need to carefully substantiate their hypotheses and, if they are confident in themselves, may not be afraid of any dangers.

Cautious decisions are characterized by the thoroughness of the manager's assessment of all options, a supercritical approach to business. They are even less than inert ones, they are distinguished by novelty and originality.

The listed types of decisions are made mainly in the process of operational personnel management. For the strategic and tactical management of any subsystem of the management system, rational decisions are made based on the methods of economic analysis, justification and optimization.6
1.2 Factors that determine the quality and effectiveness of management decisions.
The quality of managerial decisions should be understood as the degree of its compliance with the nature of the tasks to be solved for the functioning and development of production systems. In other words, to what extent SD provides further ways for the development of the production system in the conditions of the formation of market relations.

Factors that determine the quality and effectiveness of management decisions can be classified according to various criteria - both factors of an internal nature (associated with the control and managed systems) and external factors (environmental influence). These factors include:

Laws of the objective world related to the adoption and implementation of SD;

A clear statement of the goal - why SD is being adopted, what real results can be achieved, how to measure, correlate the goal and the results achieved;

The volume and value of the available information - for the successful adoption of SD, the main thing is not the volume of information, but the value determined by the level of professionalism, experience, intuition of personnel;

SD development time - as a rule, a management decision is always made in conditions of time pressure and emergency circumstances (lack of resources, activity of competitors, market conditions, inconsistent behavior of politicians);

Organizational structures of management;

Forms and methods of implementation of management activities;

Methods and techniques for the development and implementation of SD (for example, if the company is in the lead, the methodology is one, if it follows others, it is different);

Subjectivity of the assessment of the solution choice option. The more extraordinary SD is, the more subjective the assessment.

The state of the control and managed systems (psychological climate, the authority of the leader, the professional and qualification composition of personnel, etc.);

The system of expert assessments of the level of quality and effectiveness of SD.

Management decisions should be based on objective laws and patterns of social development. On the other hand, SD significantly depends on many subjective factors - the logic of developing solutions, the quality of assessing the situation, structuring tasks and problems, a certain level of management culture, the mechanism for implementing decisions, executive discipline, etc. At the same time, it must always be remembered that even carefully thought-out decisions may be ineffective if they cannot anticipate possible changes in the situation, the state of the production system. 7
2. The process of making managerial decisions
2.1. Principles of the process of making managerial decisions
Sooner or later, managers must move from the analysis of past events to action. Ideally, if an action is motivated by a correct analysis of the problem, the search for causes is narrowed down to the point where it is safe to start solving the problem. It is important, however, to remember that all actions are motivated by the need to respond to a problem. Experienced managers are constantly taking action to improve the situation, increase performance requirements and prevent the occurrence of problems that could threaten the implementation of current plans.

Being in the present tense, the manager chooses actions (alternatives) that can often be implemented in the future8. The problem is that sometimes you even have to compare the relative effects of alternatives without sound evidence. There is no way to know exactly what will happen if another alternative is chosen. The manager must consider the alternatives, confidently take a stand and state that, say, alternative A will serve the goals better than alternative B or C. However, this is a complex process of moving towards the truth.

The existing uncertainty in the decision-making process can create a number of situations in which confusion between the concepts of “decisiveness” and “decision-making” is not ruled out. In many enterprises, managers are evaluated and rewarded for how quickly and confidently they make decisions. Uncertainty in this case is seen as a sign of weakness. Managers are expected to be quick and decisive in their judgments, and their willingness to implement decisions in spite of difficulties is highly valued. In theory this is correct, but in practice it is not always the best course of action.

In management, decisiveness is seen as the ability to make a decision and turn it into reality. Decision making is the ability to analyze essential information and make the best choice. It is important to properly combine both of these abilities. Paralyzing oneself with endless analysis is just as undesirable as making decisions on a whim, spontaneously.

The first principle is the principle of organizational fit. The form of organization must be adapted to the smooth implementation of communications, which facilitates both the decision-making process and control over their implementation. It is impossible not to take into account the fact that powers and responsibilities are increasingly passing "from hand to hand". Only by making managers responsible for the results of their decisions can the best leadership be produced.

The second principle is that policies, strategies and objectives must be so clearly defined that they allow general decisions to be made concerning new activities that go beyond today's needs.

The third principle requires having sufficient reliable data about the changing environment necessary to maintain effective communication between top-level managers and lower levels of the functioning units of the organization. It is extremely important to select available data in such a way that top-level managers have at their disposal only the facts that they really need and are not overloaded with irrelevant factual material.

The fourth principle provides for flexibility, without which countless possibilities may remain untapped. At ideal conditions(having precise criteria, clear goals and complete information) there would be little need for decision makers. A computer could answer any question. Unfortunately, we live in a far from ideal world, and there is a constant need for qualified managers to determine the best directions for the organization. By their nature, the listed principles are universal and must be adhered to in managerial and entrepreneurial activities.

The most common type of solution is the standard solution. The analytical steps required to make it apply to other types of decisions as well. When making any type of decision, the experience of a manager is included from the first step and is used throughout this process. If in cause-and-effect analysis it is necessary to be wary of the “favorite causes” of managers, then in decision making one can become a victim of “favorite alternatives”. In this case, preference for the “favorite option” may skew the entire analysis and lead to a known choice.10
2.2. Stages of the managerial decision-making process
As a rule, for the successful implementation of the managerial decision-making process, a manager needs to go through eight main stages.

At the first stage, the main task is to correctly set the goal of the solution. Any decision-making process must begin with an awareness of the need to make a decision. It is important, first of all, to ask the question about the very choice to be made. Such questions contribute to the fulfillment of three tasks: to show the connection of the decision with the need to make a choice; set the direction in the search for alternatives; exclude alternatives that lie outside the goal.

In an effort to ensure the correctness of the statement of the goal of the decision, the manager must answer the following questions:

1. What choice am I trying to make? This question provides a starting point. It will be clarified by the next two questions.

2. Why is this solution necessary?

3. What was the last decision? This question stems from the concept that all decisions form a chain. Therefore, it is very important to find the place of this solution in it. For example, suppose that the goal of the decision is to select a training program for the implementation of measures to improve working conditions. Before setting such a goal, it is necessary to answer the question: “Are we sure that the improvement of working conditions will solve the problem of improving the moral climate in the team?” If this is the case, then there is new question: "Are we convinced that a training program is required?" Only by answering these questions, one can move on, based on the fact that previous decisions were obtained as a result of serious analysis.

The second stage is related to the establishment of decision criteria. Since decisions are judged primarily by the results obtained, it is reasonable to begin the selection process from their consideration. These outcomes are referred to as "decision criteria" and represent the basis of the choices actually made. It is important for managers to be clear about what they want to achieve. The key question in this case is: “What factors should be considered when making a choice?” This question gives rise to a number of factors that must be taken into account when choosing a solution. In a situation of group decision-making, posing such a question assumes that the persons whose activities should be affected by this decision will have the opportunity to express their assumptions and requirements.

In the third stage, the manager divides the criteria according to their importance to the organization. The criteria have different meanings. For example, some criteria are mandatory constraints, while others merely capture desirable characteristics. to make a sufficiently effective decision, it is necessary to divide the criteria into hard constraints and desirable characteristics, without which one could do without. Then it is important to rank the criteria classified as desirable. In making managerial decisions, of course, compromises are inevitable. For example, would you prefer a faster delivery to a lower price? Are you willing to sacrifice repair speed for better service?

The fourth stage is the development of alternatives. When discussing standard solutions, this is not a problem. For example, when comparing various places the location of the new food outlet. When considering other types of solutions, especially innovative ones, this step is more difficult.

The fifth stage is allocated to compare the alternatives developed at the previous stage. Skilled decision making requires developing a number of alternatives, comparing them and choosing the best one. Sometimes all solutions look good and none seem superior. Therefore, in order to make a choice, the manager needs some means to compare alternatives.

Let's consider some of them. So, first of all, it is desirable to start with collecting information about alternatives. In many cases, the alternatives are initially described in very general terms, such as "We can arrange for all this work to be done on the side" or "We can hire temporary workers." But in order to be able to compare alternatives, it is necessary to understand the essence of the choice, answering, for example, such questions as: “How much will it cost to do the work on the side?”, “Can it be efficiently done on the side?”, “When will the work finished?" and etc.

Without sufficient data on the alternatives, it is hardly possible to compare their relative merits. The collected information will help to measure the degree of satisfaction of the requirements for each of the criteria. Data collection is a planned process, not an arbitrary response to information as it becomes available. Once the manager has clearly defined alternatives, the question may come to the fore: “How to systematize and compare data?” Here it is necessary to adhere to the following fundamental principle: “Always compare solutions with criteria, never compare one solution with another. It is important to avoid decision blindness, the malady that afflicts those managers who continually compare alternatives and eventually lose sight of the goals and outcomes of the decision.

At the same stage of the search for effective solutions, another ailment may occur - analytical "paralysis". It arises when the collection of information about alternatives becomes an end in itself. Decision making is the process of finding the best option based on the best available information. Meanwhile, it is hardly possible to achieve such a situation that all the facts, data, necessary materials to make decisions. The process of matching alternatives against criteria is an attempt to help the decision maker focus on key sources of information. Both of these "ailments" of decision making can be "cured" by focusing primarily on criteria rather than alternatives.

The criterion for evaluating the consequences of various options is usually determined by the purpose of the decisions. At the same time, there is a need to measure the degree to which a certain event contributes to the achievement of the goal12. To resolve conflicts, a common unit of measurement of consequences is needed. Without it, it is impossible, for example, to compare an alternative that leads to minimizing the cost of transporting goods with an alternative that allows minimizing the delivery time. to compare the consequences of these alternatives, they must belong to the same class. How do we translate measurements on one scale (delivery cost) into consequences on another scale (delivery time), or measure both on a third scale? In addition, we must know how to correlate gains on different scales.

With regard to the economy, we can say that, unfortunately, it is impossible to express all the consequences in terms of their impact on costs and profits, so using money as a universal unit of measure can be difficult.

At the sixth stage, the risk that the firm may be exposed to if a particular alternative is chosen is determined. In business, risk identification can range from complex probabilistic analyzes in operations research models to purely intuitive guesses, which can be represented by questions like: “What do you think they (customers or competing manufacturers) will do when we announce a price increase? “We are interested in a working tool for managers that can be used quickly and efficiently and that does not require complex mathematical apparatus.

In order to correctly define the area of risk, one should consider the alternatives in turn and try to predict the difficulties that may be encountered if each of them is implemented. We emphasize the importance of considering an alternative, because the deviations associated with the adoption of one alternative, as a rule, have nothing to do with the possible deviations in the case of the implementation of other alternatives.

Here are some risk cases. If, for example, the construction of the building is not completed on time, then the opening of the barbershop will have to be delayed. Or another example. If campus demand falls in the summer, then commodity revenue may be reduced. These types of risk characterize some of the typical side effects that should be considered in business.

In the seventh stage, the solution developer makes a risk assessment. Knowing that there is a risk is important, but not enough. Its significance must be determined. Risk assessment considers factors such as likelihood and severity. With the help of the probability factor, a judgment is formed that an event will actually happen. The severity factor allows you to form a judgment about the degree of influence of the event on the situation, if it occurs.

In the eighth stage, a decision is made. Quantitative indicators of the degree of risk help to make an informed decision. After all, these data allow you to compare the performance of alternatives. It should be noted that risk indicators are not directly related to each other, as long as there is no such formula that would allow them to be compared. Therefore, the question should be asked: “Is the additional efficiency that can be obtained worth the risk that I am taking?” Usually, managers do not seek to minimize risk, but take acceptable and controllable risks. Making a choice, the manager analyzes, weighs a number of judgments. It is very important to clearly sort these judgments. After all, the decision to be made is based on a certain amount of value judgments. However, there are also ambiguous (double) decisions in the practice of entrepreneurship, which are called binary. The binary solution presents two diametrically opposed alternatives. Usually these are competing alternatives that force the choice of “yes / no”, “either / or”. For example, to open another workshop or not. These decisions are characterized by a high degree of uncertainty. The short nature of the alternatives forces those who make the decision to take polar opposite positions, which often paralyzes the choice. The binary solution reflects an unnatural state of affairs. This unnaturalness is caused by the restrictions imposed on the choice. Constraints such as "yes or no", "to do or not to do" sharply narrow the options. Therefore, very few decisions should be presented in this form. Most binary situations arise as a result of the fact that a serious and in-depth analysis of the problem is not carried out.

The reasons for the occurrence of binary situations include the following13:

1. Redirecting decision making to higher managers. Subordinates, suppliers, or others who want to influence a decision often submit it in binary form. Such an attempt, intentional or unintentional, is intended to force a choice in the interests of the competitor.

2. Superficial analysis of the problem. Asking questions about whether there are different ways to achieve the same goals is not considered acceptable behavior in many organizations. As a result, the binary solution becomes a way of life.

3. lack of time to develop optimal solutions. Under the pressure of time constraints, it is often faster to simply choose a course of action than to establish the validity of the problem itself to be solved. The willingness and ability to take responsibility for saying "yes" or "no" is cultivated and encouraged in many firms. It should be cautioned that encouraging decisiveness can lead to identifying it with decision-making itself. Under these conditions, a serious analysis of the facts begins to be perceived as sluggishness and reinsurance. And then the binary decision becomes a generally recognized and decisive criterion for evaluating the effectiveness of a manager.

4. Justification of binary solutions in some cases. There are situations in which the manager, considering the chain of decisions, comes to the most specific level: yes or no. This situation usually develops as a result of a sequence of consciously decisions taken and is the final solution in this chain. An example of a valid binary situation would be a make-or-buy decision, especially when there is only one source of supply.

When making a multi-choice decision, the first two steps follow the standard decision process. This is setting the goal of the decision and establishing the criteria that should be used when making it. The criteria should be further divided into constraints and desirable characteristics, and the latter ranked by their relative value. But it is important to take into account the fact that in this case it is impossible to use criteria to determine the relative value of alternatives based on their mutual comparison, since the difficulties of comparing, say, fifty or more alternatives are practically insurmountable. Therefore, the list of criteria must be converted into an absolute measurement scale, which will allow each alternative to be evaluated on its own and make a more correct choice.

Modern management shows the greatest interest in the process of making an innovative decision, which provides for some innovation, that is, the formation and implementation of a previously unknown alternative. Managers most often find themselves in a situation where they must develop new and better ways to solve problems or achieve results. And this is best done through an innovative process.

In cases where none of the known alternatives seems suitable, the criteria optimization method can be used. main idea This method is based on the assumption that combining the best features of known alternatives can lead to a more efficient solution. This procedure is used to assist decision making in situations where traditional methods of developing alternatives do not or cannot produce acceptable results.

The first step in applying the criteria optimization method is to compile a complete list of desired end results, i.e. criteria. Since there are no alternatives yet and there is nothing to evaluate, they are called “criteria for design”. The criteria for constructing alternatives provide incentives and set the direction for the creative presentation of ideas.

In the second step, each criterion is taken in turn and "ideal" solutions are constructed to achieve the final desired result.

At this point, no alternative is evaluated. At the moment, the following judgment is guided: “What might an alternative look like that ideally meets this criterion?” This process is repeated for each criterion until the optimal criteria (ideas) are determined.

It is at this stage of decision-making based on criteria that innovative ideas are required. This is best achieved by brainstorming or some other form of group creativity. Here it is especially important to follow the basic principles of the organization of innovative activity outlined above. The freedom to come up with ideas makes it more likely to come up with components that will make up the final innovative solution. Once a list of optimal ideas has been compiled for each of the criteria separately, it is important to evaluate them and try to construct a combined, complex alternative based on them. When starting to combine optimal ideas according to individual criteria into a final alternative, it is necessary first of all to check them for mutual compatibility. At this stage, the competent judgment of the manager plays a key role. For if ideas contradict each other according to two criteria, then it is necessary to determine which of them to include in the combined version.

The next step is to compare each of the best ideas for their mutual support. They can turn out to be natural combinations that mutually reinforce and complement each other. Such element-combinations should be linked immediately and used as the basis for a future final alternative. The end result of all this work should be such a combination of ideas that would turn into an effective innovative "synergistic alternative". A synergistic alternative is a combination of ideas, the cumulative effect of which exceeds the simple sum of the effects of these ideas taken separately.

If the criteria optimization method yielded several alternatives, then the decision maker can refer to the standard decision procedure and compare these alternatives. When the applied criteria optimization method gives only one alternative, then the initial design criteria turn into a tool for its evaluation.

An important subject of attention of managers in the emerging market in Russia is commercial risk and the problem of managing it. There are a few things that deserve attention here. First, the risk in the market is always personified. Secondly, the presence of a risk factor is a kind of incentive for entrepreneurs to save money and resources, forcing firms to over-analyze capital investments, purchase resources, and hire highly skilled labor. Thirdly, risk as an integral feature of entrepreneurship should be accepted only after careful calculations and analysis.

A binary solution must always be evaluated according to its nature. Namely, it is the result of unqualified management and a high degree of uncertainty, or it is the result of a careful analytical development of a managerial decision, in the process of which uncertainty is eliminated.

The criteria optimization method helps managers to successfully design alternatives for making a decision and its subsequent implementation in business practice.

The transition of society in the post-industrial era and science-intensive technologies introduces information resources into active circulation and further increases the requirements for the qualification of specialists. But it is information that makes it possible to rationally manage all other types of resources. Intensive use of information can significantly reduce the material and energy consumption of products. The main problem of any economy is to overcome the limited resources. But the available resources can be used in a variety of ways. The key here is deciding where and how to concentrate economic resources. The concentration of resources at the right time, in the right place, to solve the main, priority direction - this is how information helps in making an economic decision.

Information is the basis of an entrepreneur's maneuver with matter and energy. It allows you to get a decision on how to organize the production of goods or services more efficiently and cost-effectively. Knowledge and information become strategic resources, since, along with empirical knowledge and everyday experience, systematized theoretical knowledge is directly involved in economic activity. It becomes a direct productive force, the same as, for example, the knowledge embedded in the control programs of robots and flexible production systems.

To achieve economic goals, an entrepreneur needs support in the form of information about professional knowledge, features of the chosen business area. The required information is dispersed across multiple sources and storage locations. Target applied informatics- collect, thematically combine and process information in such a way as to speed up access to information and present it in a form convenient for human interpretation - the user. Moreover, today in computer science there are no restrictions on the type of information collected and the type of information media used. Informatics tools allow you to integrate a variety of information in "one place" and create a comprehensive field of information resources. And this, in turn, removes uncertainty and increases the likelihood of obtaining necessary knowledge. The enterprise (at least its head office) can be seen as an efficient information center. It converges such flows of information.

External business environment (or macrosphere) - a set of economic and political entities operating outside the enterprise, and the relationship that develops between them and the enterprise, its real and potential customers, as well as competitors. According to experts, the greatest opportunities for the enterprise are provided by the qualification of personnel and the technological base, and the greatest danger lies in unexpected actions on the part of competitors of foreign firms.

The internal business environment is the relationship in the team that determines the saturation of information flows and the intensity of communication flows, as well as the knowledge laid down and generated in production.

Entrepreneur according to modern estimates plays three roles in its activities:

information receiver;

Distributor of information;

A professional representative to the outside world.

How the entrepreneur plays his informational roles, organizing professional information flows, to a large extent depends on the productivity of the enterprise. But the performance of an enterprise is determined not only by the amount of information, but also by the quality, which the entrepreneur must correctly understand and evaluate.

Information is one of the main resources for increasing the productivity of an enterprise, since it is it that allows you to:

Establish strategic goals and objectives of the enterprise and use the opportunities that open up;

Make informed and timely management decisions;

Coordinate the actions of disparate units, directing their efforts to achieve common goals.

Therefore, any enterprise organizes and systematically conducts work in the following main areas:

Identification of problems and definition of information needs;

Selection of sources of information;

Collection of information;

Processing of information and evaluation of its completeness and significance;

Analysis of information and identification of trends in selected areas;

Development of forecasts and alternatives for the behavior of the enterprise;

Evaluation of alternatives for various actions, the choice of strategy and the adoption of management decisions for the implementation of strategic plans.

Information enrichment of modern business is its most characteristic. The winner is the one who more effectively collects, processes and uses information about the opportunities that open up.14
3. Information tools for ensuring managerial decision-making
3.1. Types of information resources
In the economy, three main information flows arise, spread and develop:

Information that exists in the form of embodied knowledge in high technology products;

Information reflecting human professional knowledge, partly recorded in the form of inventions, patents, licenses, but mainly in the form of production skills and techniques;

Information on the art, methods and technology of practical solutions to the problems of managing modern production, on the issues of conquering sales markets in the production of even high-quality products.

All these flows of information are contained as a result of the intellectual component of the work of the most qualified and creative part of the workers. A feature and the most important feature of modernity is that all professional groups of workers, from workers to top managers, contribute to the information component. A break in any link in the chain of production relations between producers leads to a loss of information and, as a result, to a deterioration in product quality.

Philosophers define knowledge as a practice-tested experience of knowing the world around us, a reflection of reality in human thinking. Knowledge is what belongs to a person.

“Information, according to the definition of N. Wiener, is a designation of the content received from the outside world in the process of our adaptation to it and the adaptation of our feelings to it. The process of obtaining and using information is the process of our adaptation to the contingencies of the external environment and our life activity in this environment.

Information is knowledge for others, alienated from their original living carrier (generator) and become messages (more or less processed). These include knowledge concentrated in articles, books, patent descriptions, oral communications, management documents, project documentation, models, algorithms, programs, etc. Almost every entrepreneur has his own style of management, so knowledge that functions well in one place may be unusable in another. The same applies to the phenomenon of internationalization of knowledge: only general scientific knowledge is international.

Based on the synthesis of many approaches, the following definition of the term “information” can be given, taking into account, among other things, its modern legal sound: information is alienated knowledge recorded on certain language in the form of characters on a material carrier, available for reproduction without the participation of the author and transferred to the channels of public communication15.

PAGE_BREAK-- The amount of information.

From the ordinary point of view, the amount of information has little to do with the length of the speech or the volume of the text. An informational message is received and interpreted depending on the context. However, the number of characters of the alphabet or the number of pages of text is accepted as a standard for the amount of information, for example, in printing.

In technical information systems, each new signal requires resources for its display. Therefore, the length of messages is a measure of the amount of information, in order to measure the information signal, this standard should be chosen. It is justified by the desire to reduce the entire alphabet of the technical language to two characters: dot, dash; closed, open; Red Green; Not really; "1" and "0". To encode letters, numbers, and other characters, we need sequences of "1" and "0", called binary numbers. As a standard of information in technical systems, eight-bit binary numbers, called bytes, are used. And a simple rule for measuring the amount of information is introduced - the number of bytes to represent a text is equal to the number of characters in the natural language of this text.

One unit of information - a byte - consists of eight binary units, otherwise called bits. Therefore, practically in technical information systems, two equal standards of the amount of information are used - bits and bytes.

Information quality.

This indicator is important, but ambiguous. The same information has different meanings (value) for the same person, but in different time or for several people. In general, information does not retain its value over time, as a rule, although there is knowledge, as it were, of constant significance (for example, the fundamental laws of nature, birthdays ...).

Three approaches (criteria) to assessing the quality of information have been adopted: to reduce the state of uncertainty, to achieve the goal, and to increase the thesaurus.

Statistical information theory assumes that information is taken as a measure of uncertainty reduction after receiving a message. Therefore, receiving a message is equivalent to receiving additional knowledge that changes the previously created picture. It is obvious that the less probable the a priori information about the essence of the received message, the greater the changes it will cause. It is important to note here that the transmitted information - the message must be transmitted in a code that is understood by the receiving party. Knowing the code will allow you to correctly receive and interpret information even with some distortion of information in the communication channel.

For systems with a clear goal, the value of information can be expressed in terms of an increment in the probability of achieving the goal. The pragmatic value of information in economic systems is extremely high: in order to increase the productivity of an economic system by k times, it is necessary to expand throughput channels and the volume of created, transmitted and processed messages by approximately k + k times.

The message is a form of knowledge transfer - an ordered reflection of objects and processes in concepts, judgments and images of concepts16. In order to perceive and assimilate a message, it is necessary to have a certain amount of knowledge, which is presented to the system in the form of a thesaurus - a systematized dictionary of concepts indicating the semantic relationships between them. The received message is compared with the thesaurus, after which:

If there is a complete mismatch, it is not understood;

With a complete match, nothing is added to it and is not considered as informative;

With a partial match, it enriches the thesaurus by adding new concepts.

Therefore, the value of information is understood as a measure of expansion, development of the thesaurus by the perceived party when receiving and interpreting the message. By singling out relevantly useful information from the general flow that contributes to decision-making and achieving goals, through the cognitive (semantic) filter of a specialist evaluating information, an entrepreneur sets the boundaries of opportunities for implementing his entrepreneurial idea. Today, in addition to the high productivity of machines, electronic knowledge distribution provides the highest flexibility, programmable production, the ability to efficiently produce small series and quickly fulfill complex individual orders.

Database.

At enterprises in computer form information about the projects carried out by the enterprise is accumulated and stored; details, blocks, assemblies, components used in projects; about suppliers and warehouses where parts are placed; about employees and departments that are executing projects. In such databases, any information arrays can be recorded, and by analogy, databases can be considered electronic libraries. Such digital libraries provide completely new information opportunities: the ability to select facts and fragments of the text, and not books (magazines) as a whole. There are no “shelves” in the car, so it is possible to directly look inside the book and display on the display screen (monitor) only that part of the book that is interesting to the user.

Expert systems

An important step in the development of information systems is the construction expert systems. The expert system must ask questions to the user, evaluate the situation and obtain solutions that are presented in some form to the user. In addition, the expert system may be required to demonstrate the way in which the solution was obtained and its justification.

An expert system models the thought process of a human expert who is a specialist in solving a certain type of problem. With the help of expert systems, problems related to the class of formalized, semi-structured problems are solved. An algorithmic solution to such problems either does not exist due to incompleteness, uncertainty, inaccuracy, vagueness of the situations under consideration and knowledge about them, or such solutions are unacceptable in practice due to the complexity of resolving algorithms. The main difference between information retrieval and expert systems lies in the fact that the former searches for the information available in it on a given topic, and the latter performs logical processing of information in order to obtain new information that was not explicitly entered into it. At the same time, based on the knowledge base of the machine, not only facts are automatically determined, as in a database, but new knowledge is generated by logical inference. Expert systems are capable of difficult situations give qualified advice (advice, hint, orientation). Helping an entrepreneur or professional make an informed decision.

An expert system can be created for a specific user, and then when creating it, the specific requirements of the customer, his taste and inclinations are taken into account. These systems include various automated workstations.

Structural expert systems contain logical inference subsystems, knowledge bases and intelligent interfaces - programs for "communication" with the machine. Knowledge bases are a set of empirical rules for the truth of conclusions (statements) on a given topic (problem); databases of empirical data and descriptions of problems, as well as options for their solutions.
3.2 Influence of information on the effectiveness of managerial decision-making.
The activity of each enterprise has two sides: external and internal. The management of the enterprise makes decisions that concern both of these parties.

The external side is the interaction with external factors for the enterprise that affect the activities of the enterprise. These include such as the current legislation, specific local conditions, and most importantly - the features of consumer behavior in relation to the goods offered by the enterprise. Buyers perceive and evaluate the external side of the enterprise, the end result of which is the creation of a certain image of both the product and the enterprise itself.

The internal side is what is inside the enterprise and determines how efficiently the work on it is established. In the most general way, to internal factors include the structure of the enterprise, existing business processes and business operations, resources used in the process of the enterprise.

The external and internal aspects of the enterprise's activities are inextricably linked, since they serve to achieve the same goal: to increase the efficiency of the enterprise, namely, the growth of sales volumes and the increase in profits that these products bring. The sales volume of the goods offered to the market depends on external factors that the company often cannot change. With the profitability of products, the situation is different: the profit received by the enterprise per unit of production not only can, but must be controlled by the management of the enterprise, since many factors affecting profits are within the enterprise and can be controlled by the management of the enterprise.

The volume of sales of products depends on the reaction of the market to the products offered. To sell the maximum volume of goods offered to the market, an enterprise must take into account many factors that affect demand, but first of all, these are the expectations of potential buyers regarding how they would like to see the product. It is the definition of the properties that a product must have in order to be attractive to a certain circle of consumers, and is the main task of the marketing activity of the enterprise.

The profit received by the enterprise directly depends on the efficiency of the organization of the enterprise. An enterprise can be viewed both in terms of its technological or production processes, and in terms of business processes - logically related and interdependent sequences of actions (business operations) that use the resources of an enterprise to create a useful output result in the form of a product or service for internal or an external consumer (buyer).

The cost of products offered to the market depends on how well organized business processes are. You can offer the market a good product, but if its price exceeds the market level, the company will not be able to withstand competition and will incur losses. Such a product will not be sold, even if the enterprise has a very good distribution system. Therefore, the only possible path Ensuring the competitiveness of the enterprise is to build rational and efficient business processes.

The basis for making the right decisions both in the external and in the internal spheres is the availability of reliable information necessary for the correct analysis. Collection and analysis of external information is one of the main functions of marketing. Obtaining internal information, as a rule, is carried out on the basis of management accounting, which provides the management of the enterprise with the data necessary to analyze the current situation and make management decisions. The management of the enterprise receives the necessary data if the enterprise has a rationally built management reporting system. Therefore, the construction of such a system is the first step towards improving the efficiency of the enterprise.

Consider these two aspects of the enterprise. The external side of the enterprise activity largely coincides with marketing activities. Marketing can be divided into strategic and operational. Strategic Marketing- this is primarily an analysis of the needs of individuals and organizations. It includes analysis competitive advantage, analysis of the attractiveness of products and, in general, determines the strategic position of the enterprise in the market. Operational marketing is an active commercial process of achieving the planned sales volume through the use of tactical means related to product, distribution, price and communication.

Strategic marketing is of great importance for the enterprise and requires special attention. This is a complex set of issues that require separate consideration. The purpose of the operational marketing activities of the enterprise is the formation of the optimal range of products in the short term. Naturally, when forming the assortment, external and internal restrictions inherent in the enterprise are taken into account. The choice of the optimal production program must necessarily be based on knowledge of the demand for specific types of goods and services. The price of products is what the market dictates. Therefore, the demand for a particular product (the maximum volume of sales of this product in a given place for a certain period of time at a certain price) is a constraint, which in more dictated by the external environment, and which must be taken into account when developing plans for the work of the enterprise.

Internal limitations are the technical capabilities of the enterprise, the availability working capital and existing opportunities for additional financing, the current level of costs, including features of the cost structure, staff qualifications, and more. In order to take into account the constraints imposed by demand in the development of plans, data on the ratio of the maximum possible sales volumes and the price of the goods should be presented, if possible, in a quantitative form, which is very difficult to do in view of the almost complete absence of reliable data on the situation on the market. This is one of the most difficult problems of the modern Russian market. Enterprises that are well placed in regular marketing, as a rule, create marketing databases in which various marketing information is collected and systematized. Replenishment of these databases is carried out in various ways - by monitoring the press, personal contacts, conducting targeted marketing research. The task of systematizing and processing marketing information is greatly facilitated by various software tools for automating marketing activities.

Realizing that the accuracy of demand forecasting depends on the information used for analysis and on the methods of its processing, many Russian enterprises are trying to obtain basic information about consumers and the market not only through the marketing department, but also through sales structures. Sometimes, depending on the organizational structure of the enterprise, financial services also contact customers regarding payment issues. As a rule, the task of the marketing department is to analyze consumers and competitors and develop a marketing strategy for the enterprise, while the sales department is engaged in direct sales and collecting first-hand information. Sales personnel usually have an accurate idea of the sales potential that their customers provide. The expert judgment, intuition, and experience of marketing and sales people, as well as consumers, can form the basis for a subjective assessment of demand.

The financial analysis assortment should be carried out in financial services. It is important that the results of the analysis are made available to the marketing and sales department. This information is the basis for further analysis of the assortment from a market position. To obtain the necessary information, the marketing department uses various methods of analyzing the market, consumers and competitors. Based on the data obtained, forecasts of changes in consumer demand are built. The degree of accuracy of the demand forecast shows the effectiveness of the marketing and sales department. All activities of the enterprise are planned depending on the sales forecast. Having chosen the most profitable goods and services for the enterprise, it is necessary to clarify the target segment, i.e. determine the consumers for whom the product is designed, as well as a number of other marketing characteristics of the enterprise.

Product positioning. The nature of the perception of the product by target buyers determines the positioning of the product. In the positioning process, it is important to assess the potential profitability of the chosen position. Positioning includes several elements:

Product promotion (communications).

Pricing is one of the simplest and most flexible ways to determine your market position. Promotion of goods - the activity of the enterprise to form demand for the offered goods. The enterprise is actually powerless before the uncertainty of the environment. All it can do is try to anticipate the future by setting up a reliable tracking system for key factors to which primary demand is particularly sensitive. Market instability systematically forces enterprises to develop alternative scenarios and not limit themselves to only the most likely option.

The internal side of the enterprise's activity is much more predictable, and most importantly - subject to the will of the enterprise's management. The enterprise cannot control the level of prices in the market to a large extent, therefore, in order to increase the profit received by the enterprise, the main way is to reduce the cost of the enterprise's products - i.e. effective control over costs. The first step towards the establishment of such control is the creation of a system for obtaining prompt, accurate and reliable information about the activities of the enterprise - a management reporting system.

Management reporting is a problem for almost all business leaders with whom we have worked - mainly due to the lack of an appropriate system for recording, processing and presenting data on the basis of which decisions are made. Sometimes the information received by management for control and decision-making is formed from the tax reporting system, the presence of which is required from all enterprises by law. The problem is that this information serves specific purposes and does not meet the needs of management. Therefore, many enterprises have two accounting systems in parallel - accounting and "practical", i.e. serving to ensure the fulfillment of daily work tasks of employees and managers of the enterprise. As a rule, such accounting is carried out according to the “bottom-up” principle. Employees of the enterprise record the data they need (primary information) to perform their work. When the management of an enterprise needs to get some information about the state of affairs in the enterprise, it makes requests to lower-level managers, and those, in turn, to the performers. The consequence of this spontaneous approach to the formation of a reporting system is that, as a rule, there is a conflict between the information that management wants to receive and the data that performers can provide. The reason for this conflict is obvious - at different levels of the enterprise hierarchy, different information is required, and when building a bottom-up reporting system, the basic principle of building an information system is violated - orientation to the first person. Performers either have the wrong types of data that management needs, or the right data with the wrong level of detail.

Most executives do receive reports on the performance of their departments, but this information is either unnecessarily lengthy - for example, filing sales agreements instead of a summary report with figures for total sales for specified period or, conversely, not complete enough. In addition, information is received late - for example, you can receive information about receivables 20 days after the end of the month, and meanwhile the sales department has already shipped goods to a customer with a late last payment. Inaccurate data can lead to incorrect decisions. Accurate data received late also loses its value.

In order for the management of the enterprise to receive the data it needs to make management decisions, it is necessary to build a top-down reporting system, formulating the needs of the top management level and projecting them to the lower levels of execution. Only such an approach ensures the receipt and fixation at the lowest executive level of such primary data that, in a generalized form, can give the management of the enterprise the information it needs.

The most important requirements for the management accounting system are the timeliness, uniformity, accuracy and regularity of obtaining information by the management of the enterprise. These requirements can be implemented by observing a number of simple principles for building a management reporting system:

The system should be focused on the first person. The system must be built from the top down. Managers at each level should analyze the composition and frequency of the data they need to perform their work. Performers should be able to capture and transfer "upstairs" the data established by their management. Data must be captured where it is generated. Information should become available to all interested consumers immediately after it is recorded.

Obviously, these requirements can be most fully implemented using an automated system. However, the experience of streamlining management reporting systems in various enterprises shows that the installation of an automated management accounting system should be preceded by a fairly large "paper" work. Its implementation allows you to simulate various features of the enterprise's management reporting and, thereby, speed up the process of implementing the system and avoid many costly mistakes.
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--PAGE_BREAK--Conclusion
Based on all of the above, we can conclude that the problem of providing the decision-making process with information that meets all the requirements is quite solvable. At present, this problem is being solved by using modern electronic computers, creating various databases, expert systems and decision-making preparation systems. Such methods make it quite simple, and most importantly, quickly collect, process and analyze existing information. They also make it possible to significantly facilitate the decision-making process for managers at all levels. The implementation of the systems described above requires quite large investments, but they undoubtedly pay off with interest. After all, as they say, who owns the information, he owns the situation, who owns the situation, he owns everything.

Along with all the advantages, this solution to the problem has its own difficulties. The main problem is the need for managers to acquire new knowledge in order to use the proposed tools most effectively, which requires quite a lot of time.

Many studies conducted in the US show that even successful businessmen make informed and meaningful decisions only half the time. One can only wonder how some businessmen make decisions whose failure is visible even to an inexperienced person. But the improvement in the quality of decisions taken by economic managers is the most important reserve for raising the efficiency of all social production.

We believe that such unsatisfactory results are primarily due to the insufficient provision of managerial decisions with information.

The purpose of this course work was to convince the reader of the importance and necessity of paying special attention to the information support of the process of making managerial decisions. I hope that we managed to do this at least to a small extent.
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Management in Russia and abroad №2 / 2000

Appendix. Classification of management decisions

According to functional content

Hierarchy levels

By the nature of the development organization

For reasons of occurrence

According to the original development methods

By organizational design

Planned

Organizational

Controlling

Forecast

Regulatory

Accounting

Analytical

Economic

Organizational

Technological

Technical

Environmental

At the BS level

At the subsystem level

At the elementary level

sole proprietors

Collegiate

Collective

Current

Tactical

Strategic

situational

By prescription

Software

Initiative

episodic

Rigid

Orienting

Regulatory

By the nature of the tasks

By the nature of the goals

Graphic

Mathematical

Heuristic

SKIE
R

SOLUTIONS
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