Historical grammar of the Russian language. Studying the history of language. Historical morphology of the Russian language
1) general characteristics morphological structure of the Russian language of the 10th – 11th centuries, its closeness to the morphological structure Old Slavonic language. Characteristics of the morphological structure as synthetic (inflectional), fusional, distinguished by the synonymy of inflections and their polysemy. Parts of speech.
2) The history of the noun. Grammatical categories inherited from the Proto-Slavic language, the specificity of the categories of gender, number and case. Absence of the category of animation - inanimateness.
History of nominal declension. An ancient system of six types of nominal declension, distribution of nouns into declensions depending on the type of Proto-Indo-European stem.
Phonetic changes in finals and the morphological process of re-decomposition of the base of case forms in the Proto-Slavic language as a basis for further transformations of the declension system. Hypothesis about the semantics of Proto-Indo-European suffixes.
Principles and ways of restructuring the system of declensions in the Russian language as a continuation of the transformations that began in the Proto-Slavic period: the leading role of the category of gender, the unification of inflections according to productive paradigms as the main trend in the transformation, the emergence of variant endings as a result of the preservation of some inflections of non-productive declensions, differentiation with their help different case meanings of the genitive and locative singular cases in the formation of the second declension.
Destruction of paradigms of non-productive types of declension by mixing, competition of inflections of productive and non-productive types in one case, and then their gradual generalization according to the productive variant. Preservation of some inflections of non-productive declensions, their fate and functions in modern language. The origin of paradigms of indeclinable nouns.
The early destruction of the declension -*ŭ foundations, which began in the pre-Slavic era. Reflection in monuments of confusion and variation of case inflections -* ŏ stems and -* ŭ stems. Productivity of inflection – мь, etc. units and repression of inflection –ом(-е). Features of the use of inflection –ovi(-evi) D.p. units Preservation of inflections – in R.p. units, -at M.p. units and –ov R.p.pl.h. V literary language and dialects, up to the present time, their functions and relationship with variant endings in different periods of history and in modern language.
Later (after the secondary softening of the consonants) destruction of the declension -*ĭ of the stems of a group of masculine nouns. Preservation of morphologically strong inflexion – ey R.p. plural, its distribution to nouns of all three genders, correlation with zero inflection and ending -ov(s). The fate of ending -mi. Preservation of the declension paradigm -* ĭ basic masculine. gender and words path, heterodeclinable for the modern correlation of paradigms of three declensions, dialectal correspondences of the paradigm of the word path.
Destruction of the declination of consonant stems.
Fate of masculine nouns with suff. –*en type kama. Reflection of the initial influence of endings -* ĭ stems in monuments and surviving derivatives words the other day, afternoon, third day, dial. Sedni and etc.
Fate of feminine nouns with suff. -*er mother and daughters.
History of groups of neuter nouns with suff. -*es type word. Different fate suffix –ec- in the declension paradigms of various nouns of this group.
Specificity of historical changes in the group of words with the suffix -*ent like goat: productivity of the word-formation model with a stable meaning ‘non-adult animal’, ‘cub’, inclusion of a new suffix. -onok- into the singular paradigm, changing gender and declension, preserving the neuter ending -a in I.p. plural The special fate of the word child. Dialectal correspondences of the declension paradigms of nouns of this group.
History of the declension of neuter nouns with the suffix -*men type Name, forming a group of differently indeclinable nouns. The origin of new forms in R.p. plural seeds, stirrups Dialectal correspondences in the declension of nouns of this group.
Destruction of declination -*ū type stems fathers-in-law, the transition of some nouns into the declension -*ā stems, others into the declension -* ĭ stems.
Processes of unification within productive types of declension.
a) Unification of inflections of the hard and soft varieties in – *ŏ, -j ŏ and -*ā, -jā stems in the literary language and many dialects of the hard variety and in a number of dialects of the soft variety. Preservation of the archaic inflection -I of the soft variety in spelling for nouns in -ИИ, -ИЭ, -ИЯ in the prepositional singular case. numbers and -FL in dative case as a result of the influence of the Church Slavonic language.
b) Unification of inflections of the nominative and accusative cases.
c) Alignment of the bases to the back palatal.
History of nominal declension in the plural. Loss of the category of gender and the formation of a single paradigm of declension in the plural. The process of deep unification of inflections in the dative, instrumental and locative cases, presumably as a result of the influence of the forms of pronominal adjectives that had unified inflections in these cases. The reasons for the productivity of inflections -am, -ami, -ah, which probably turned out to be morphologically strong due to the presence of a common inflectional vowel, supported by the inflection –a in I.p. Dialectal forms etc. plural
History of the formation of variant inflections I.p. plural – i(-s), -a, -e.
Sources and history of variant inflections of R.p. plural -ov, -ey and zero inflection.
The influence of collective nouns in the history of plural paradigms in masculine and neuter words.
Formation of the category of animate-inanimate, which began in the pre-Slavic period to mark the object of action in the structure of a sentence. The main ways of formation of V.-R.p.: in units. for masculine nouns, plural. including for masculine nouns after the unification of inflections of the I. and V. cases and for feminine nouns after the unification of inflections of nouns of all three genders. Archaic forms of the accusative case in modern stable expressions.
Loss of the vocative form. Traces of the vocative form in modern Russian.
3) History of pronouns. Classes of pronouns and their composition in the Old Russian language. Two groups of pronouns: personal and reflexive pronouns and impersonal pronouns. Specific Features of both groups by the nature of the demonstrative meaning, by morphological features (the composition of grammatical categories and declension) and by the syntactic role in the sentence.
History of personal and reflexive pronouns. The origin of the third person personal pronoun, the preservation in it of the demonstrative semantics of non-personal pronouns, suppletivism of stems, as well as grammatical inflectional categories of gender and number. Loss of dual number pronouns. History of individual case forms.
Rebuilding the system demonstrative pronouns along the path of greatest abstraction. Pronominal declension of hard and soft varieties, history of individual case forms. Preservation of archaic forms in spelling before the reform of 1917-18, in modern spelling - the end of the th.
4) The history of the adjective. Origin of nominal and pronominal adjectives. Destruction of the opposition by meaning of certainty - uncertainty in favor of opposition by syntactic function.
History of nominal adjectives. Loss of attributive function, with the exception of a number of forms possessive adjectives, which originally had only a nominal form. Disappearance of nominal relative adjectives.
The specificity of the declension of surviving possessive adjectives with the suffixes –ov and –in and relative possessives with a suffix. – иj ||-j-, as well as geographical names and surnames derived from them.
Preservation of inflected nominal adjectives in the language of folklore and in the stylization of the language of works of art.
Artificial book new formations based on the model of attributive nominal forms, obviously as the influence of the Church Slavonic language, in which the ancient system of nominal adjectives was preserved: “countless suns” (Lomonosov), “ancient centuries” (Pushkin), “far side” (Blok).
Modern dialect contracted forms of full adjectives as new formations.
History of pronominal adjectives. Analogous change in singular case endings under the influence of pronominal declension. Absence of analogous change in shape etc. units Inflection transformation R.p. units husband. and w.r.
Assimilation and contraction of vowels in plural case endings. Unification of inflections I.p. plural
The emergence of a predicative function in pronominal adjectives.
Church Slavonicisms in pre-reform and modern standards spelling concerning inflections of adjectives.
Story comparative degree adjectives.
Nominal and pronominal forms of the comparative degree, their formation and history. The origin of modern comparative and superlative forms.
5) History of numerals. The absence of a numeral as an independent part of speech in the original morphological system. Specifics of the word one. Morphological and syntactic features of words two, three and four as nominal adjectives. Morphological and syntactic features of a group of words from five before ten as nouns.
Reasons for the formation of the numeral as a part of speech. The loss of the categories of gender and number by numerals and the acquisition of specific syntactic connections with the noun.
History of declension of numerals, formation of modern case forms. The origin of modern complex and compound numerals. History of the word fourty.
6) History of the verb. Grammatical categories of the verb in the original morphological structure: categories of mood, tense, person, number. Two verb stems. Verb classes.
History of the past. Paradigms of the four forms of the past tense. History of the imperfect in spoken language and book and written tradition. The history of the aorist in spoken language and book and written tradition, traces of the aorist in modern Russian. History of plusquaperfect, education new form plusquaperfect with the perfect form of the auxiliary verb be, traces of the plusquaperfect in modern dialects and literary language. Perfect, the process and result of the formation from it of the modern form of the past tense.
History of the future tense. Absence of simple future forms in the original system. Two complex future tenses. The history of the formation of modern forms of the future simple and future complex. Their connection with the formation of the species category.
History of the present time. Two conjugations of verbs and a special conjugation of former non-thematic verbs. Question about the history of third person forms. and plural Changes in other personal forms. reorganization of the fundamentals. History of paradigms of each of the former non-thematic verbs, preserved archaic forms.
Imperative mood and its history.
Subjunctive mood and its history.
History of attributive forms of the verb.
a) The system of present and past participles of the active and passive voice. Origin and history of their forms, nominal and pronominal. Church Slavonic origin of modern active present participles. Origin from the forms of participles of the active voice of gerunds of the perfect and imperfect forms.
b) Origin and history of infinitive forms.
c) Origin and fate of supin.
7) History of adverbs. Types of ancient adverbs: primitive and adverbialized. Ways of forming adverbs in the history of the Russian language. Formation of words tomorrow, twice, many times, now. Conditions for the formation of adverbial words. Changes in stress in the transition of words into adverbs.
8) Prepositions, conjunctions and particles in the Old Russian language, their history.
IV. Historical syntax
Specific features of the structure of a simple sentence in the Old Russian language. Predicative use of participles. Constructions with double cases. Dative independent in the book tradition.
Specific features of the structure complex sentences coordinating, subordinating and non-union types. Archaic structures with weakly defined relationships between parts. Polysemy subordinating conjunctions. The path of development of complex sentences different types.
4.3. LABORATORY PRACTICUM
Grammar is perhaps one of the first sciences about language; its origins lie in the works of ancient Indian philologists. This term was also used in Ancient Greece in the meaning of the discipline that studies the rules of writing and reading. It is from these two traditions that both European and Russian grammar originate.
Grammar - branch of linguistics
Historical grammar of the Russian language is a subsection of general grammar, the subject of study of which is text and word formation, i.e. formal side of language. As the name suggests, it is a branch of linguistics that deals with the correct use of language in speech and writing. Hence such derivative words as “literate” and “literate”, which are semantically related to the letter, the correct word.
Grammar establishes connections between words and segments of speech, and also regulates the formation of words and language structures. She studies the formal side of language - its grammatical structure. Moreover, the object of her research varies from morpheme (smallest significant unit language) to the text (the largest independent part of the language system).
Typically, grammar includes two sections of linguistics: morphology and syntax. The first studies the word in its grammatical meaning, the second - constructions from words. In addition, orthoepy, vocabulary, phonetics, graphics, and spelling of the Russian language are closely related to grammar, including historical grammar.
Unity of grammatical and lexical
We should also not forget about the inextricable connection between grammar and vocabulary, the form and content of the statement. Sometimes lexical meaning a word is determined by its grammatical features, sometimes vice versa.
For historical grammar, the relationship between vocabulary and grammar will be important. For example, phraseological units are formed through the process of lexicalization: grammatical form is fixed in the language as an unchangeable and separately significant lexical unit. Grammaticalization, on the contrary, affirms the word as a grammatical indicator, transferring it to the category of affixes and function words.
Also a consequence of the interaction of historical grammar and vocabulary. New words in a language are not always formed through the increment of units: with the development of society, the meaning of a word may become outdated and acquire a new or additional meaning.
As history progresses, language transforms, streamlining the structure of its elements - the system becomes clearer and simpler. However, to understand this, you need to have an idea of those historical processes, which occurred and occur in the language.
Origins of historical grammar
The historical grammar of the Russian language, like all Russian grammar in general, originates in the works of Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov, who dealt with the issues of the relationship of the Russian language with other Slavic and European languages. The scientist’s works established grammar as a scientific discipline. Its heyday occurred in the 19th century and is associated with such names as Alexander Khristoforovich Vostokov, Izmail Ivanovich Sreznevsky and Fyodor Ivanovich Buslaev.
“Historical Grammar of the Russian Language” by Valery Vasilyevich Ivanov is already a modern stage of development linguistic science. His book was published in the 80s of the last century and is still considered an authoritative textbook for students of philological faculties.
Subject of study
Nowadays, historical grammar is one of the branches of linguistics that describes the patterns of historical changes in the structure of language both at the level of sounds and words, and at the level. Moreover, the interest of science is both written and spoken (dialect) speech. The latter contributed even more to the construction of the language system.
The above-mentioned V.V. Ivanov focuses on the fact that historical grammar reflects the dynamic process of transformation of the language system over time. A language develops according to its own laws and internal rules of its individual sections (phonetics, syntax, morphology and others).
Grammar of the Russian language by F.I. Buslaeva
Since historical grammar is a discipline studied in higher school, then it is worth mentioning the main works and textbooks on this topic.
“Historical Grammar of the Russian Language” by Fyodor Ivanovich Buslaev was a significant contribution to the works on this topic. By and large, he is a pioneer of the method of comparative linguistics. The innovation of the approach lies in the fact that the author explains the transformations taking place in modern language based on related languages. It was from the fusion of Old Russian, Old Church Slavonic and others that the modern literary equivalent was formed.
The author not only builds patterns in the grammatical structure of the language, but seeks out their causes in the origin of words. For Buslaev, the history of language serves as an aid in trying to understand those phenomena that are recognized by modern linguistics as exceptions.
Ivanov. Historical grammar of the Russian language
Buslaev's work is concluded in two parts: the first is devoted to sounds and words, that is, morphology, the second - to syntax. Thus, the number of parts of the book corresponds to the number of grammar sections.
The manual of the Soviet linguist V.V. Ivanov, intended for philology students, has a different structure. The author separately examines the issue of the origin of the Russian language and the features of its interaction with related Slavic languages. The textbook traces the history of the development of language elements of various sizes - starting with sounds and ending with syntactic structures. The history of the origin and development of each part of speech is given separately.
Historical grammar of the Russian language for schoolchildren
The school's Russian language course does not provide hours for studying historical grammar: the program is aimed at mastering the modern literary language, and not at delving into its history. However, with this approach, the Russian language turns into a very boring subject, the main purpose of which is to cram the rules and various paradigms. How much simpler and clearer the language will be if you reveal its past! It is necessary to understand that language is not a frozen block, but a constantly changing system: like a living organism, it lives and develops.
There are several ways to incorporate historical grammar into school Russian. Firstly, it is conducting separate lessons dedicated to the topic. Secondly, the principle of historicism can accompany the course of a regular lesson as additional material to the program. Examples of polysemantic words in the Russian language, features of phonetics and - these and many other topics will become much clearer if they are explained using the conclusions and observations of historical grammar.
We should also not forget that a literature course is not complete without the help of the history of language, especially when getting acquainted with the monuments of ancient Russian writing. For example, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” is not only replete with outdated and incomprehensible words in the text, but the name itself requires a separate historical comment.
The merit of historical grammar
Knowing the facts of historical grammar allows you to take a more meaningful approach to language learning. Moreover, it becomes clearer even when reading the diagrams and paradigms that represent it. To write and speak competently, it is not necessary to memorize a lot of rules and exceptions - the historical grammar of the Russian language will help you understand the logically occurring processes in it.
The publication represents one of the most famous and fundamental work the outstanding Russian philologist, linguist and historian A. A. Shakhmatov, in which the morphological section of the history of the Russian language is presented as fully as possible. The first part of the work describes the morphology of the common Russian language before the division of East Slavic language group. The second part is devoted to morphological phenomena in the field of declension, common to East Slavic languages. The third part includes phenomena in the field of declension in the Russian language.
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- Problems and tasks of historical morphology as the history of grammatical categories and forms of their expression in different periods of language development. Diachronic relations between phonetics and grammar; morphologization of ancient phonetic alternations. The connection between phonetic changes and the history of forms, and syntactic relations with the development of grammatical meanings. Historical connection between inflection and word formation. Main trends in the development of the morphological structure of the Russian language.
- Sources for studying the history of grammatical categories and forms. The ability to interpret the testimony of written monuments and their relationship to the data of linguistic geography; dialect contrasts at the morphological level and their significance for the historical morphology of the Russian language.
- Limiting the range of parts of speech when considering the history of categorical meanings and forms of inflection. Contrasting noun and verb in the system of significant parts of speech. Basic categories of noun and verb. The problem of differentiation of names (nouns, adjectives, numerals) at the time of the separation of East Slavic dialects. Parts of speech as morphological subsystems, interconnected and relatively autonomous in their history.
- A noun in the Old Russian language during the period of the oldest monuments. Gender as the main classifying grammatical category of nouns. Three number system. Case inflections as expressers of numerical and case meanings and their relationship to the generic characteristics of names. Systems of case endings (types of declension), reconstructed according to the testimony of the oldest ancient Russian texts; differences between the Old Russian (East Slavic) nominal declension itself and the late Proto-Slavic and Old Church Slavonic.
- Loss of the category of dual number due to the problem of the history of the form and its grammatical meaning. The destruction of the category of the dual number in living East Slavic speech against the background of the preservation of the dual number in the system of forms of the bookish and literary language of medieval Rus'. Early evidence from written monuments about the “dissolution” of the concept of “duality” in the broader concept of “multiplicity”, opposed to “singularity”. Destruction of the inflectional unity of the numerical forms of nouns due to the loss of the category of dual number.
- Rearrangement of types of declension of singular nouns. The usual nature of inherited types of declension, not related to grammatical categories relevant to the Old Russian language. The significance of the category of gender in the regrouping of nominal paradigms into units. number.
- Unification of types of declension of plural nouns. Development of grammatical opposition of units. and many more numbers. Neutralization of generic differences in plural forms. number of pronouns, adjectives and nouns; inflectional consequences of this neutralization, its impact on the history of plural forms. number of nouns.
- The history of the category of animacy (forms of vin. pad.), formed in the Russian language on the basis of the Old Russian category of potential subject (person). Development of this category in cases of coincidence of wine forms. pad. With forms named after. pad., therefore, in units. number - only in the class of nouns husband. gender (and according to dialects - also in the group of feminine gender names such as mother, horse), in the plural. number - covering nouns of both genders during the period of generalization of inflections by them. and wine pad. Later distribution of the category of animacy into units. number on the names of animals; episodic reflection of this process only in texts of the late 16th - early 17th centuries. Inclusion in the category of animation of names of female persons and names of animals in the plural. not earlier than the 17th century. The syntactic nature of the category of animation in the Old Russian language, where the form is wine. pad. coincided with the form of the genus. pad. only when indicating a direct object - in the absence of such a coincidence in prepositional constructions from vin. fallen; relict preservation of the old form of wines. pad. in similar constructions in Old Russian texts (up to the 17th century), in dialects and partly in modern literary language (cf.: went to the people, became a soldier, etc.).
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Electronic wallet: if you have a Yandex wallet or Qiwi Wallet, you can pay for your order through them. To do this, select the appropriate payment method and fill out the fields provided, then the system will redirect you to a page to confirm the invoice. Grammatical categories: masculine, feminine, neuter; singular, dual, plural; nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative and vocative. The main processes in the history of the noun: destruction of the multi-type declension; loss of vocative form and dual number; development of the category of animation. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS in Im. p.un. h. with endings: -,- –, -,- –, - – - – Hard and soft varieties are distinguished according to the final consonant (hard or soft) of the base: each variety had its own system of inflections. TYPES OF CLOSEMENT OF NOUNS
Type of declension in *-ŏ Masculine and neuter names in Im. p.un. h. with endings: -,- –, -,- –, - –, - –, Hard and soft varieties are distinguished according to the final consonant of the stem: each variety had its own system of inflections. TYPES OF CLOSEMENT OF NOUNS
Type of declension in *-ĭ Names of masculine and female gender in Im. p.un. h. with the ending: - –, - –, Masculine words of this type had a semi-soft consonant before the ending (unlike masculine nouns with the ending - in the Im. p. singular h. of the soft variety of declension in *-ŏ). Feminine words could have either a soft or semi-soft consonant before the ending. TYPES OF CLOSEMENT OF NOUNS
Type of declension to consonant Names of all three genders that are in Im. p.un. h. had different endings with increments in indirect cases: masculine words: - –, - - –, (final consonant of the stem - -) - –, - –, neuter words: - –, - - –, (stem suffix - -) - –, –, (stem suffix - -), - -, (stem suffix - -) feminine words: - –, –, (stem suffixes - -) TYPES OF CLEANSION OF NOUNS
*-ā *-ŏ *-ĭ Unification of declensions – the destruction of the system of six declensions and the establishment of a system of three declensions, going back to the ancient types of *-ā, *-ŏ, *-ĭ. The basis for unification is the coincidence of grammatical gender, identical inflections in Im. p.un. h. and final consonant stems. HISTORY OF CLEANSING NOUNS
History of the declension in *-ĭ *-ŏ After the secondary softening of the consonants, only the words of wives remained in the declension. r., husband’s words. R. (in which the final semi-soft consonant changed to soft) switched to a soft variety of declension with *-ŏ. larynx, seal, degree. Some words husband. R. changed the gender and remained in this type: larynx, seal, degree. path path, put my path, my path The word path has preserved all forms of the ancient declension without changing the gender (but in the dialects put, put or my path, my path). *-ŏ prince > princes, knife > knives guest > guests. Noun husband. r., switching to declension to *-ŏ, changed the original form of Rod. p.m. including the soft version of this declension: prince > princes, knife > knives as a guest > guests. HISTORY OF CLEANSING NOUNS princes, knife > knives guest > guests. Noun husband. r., switching to declension to *-ŏ, changed the original form of Rod. p.m. including the soft version of this declension: prince > princes, knife > knives as a guest > guests. HISTORY OF CLEANSING NOUNS"> 
History of declension with *-ŭ *-ŏ All words changed to declension with *-ŏ. Traces of declination on *-ŭ -father, there are few people at home *-ŏ there are few people *-ŭ-a, -there is a lot of noise from the forest pieces of sugar -from Ivan, from brother Ending -u in Rod. p.un. h. (to son, home) > variant endings few people (original for the spelling with *-ŏ) – few people (*-ŭ). In SSL, -a, -u is more often used with the preposition from (from the forest), in the meaning of part (a piece of sugar), in stable combinations (a lot of noise); to dial -more often (from Ivan, from brother). - at the son, at home *-ŏ - at the table, at the wolf in the forest, in the meadow in the year - at the porch, about the father Ending - at in Local. p.un. h. (son, house) along with the original for the school. on *-ŏ form with - ѣ > -е (table, volce). The form с -у is used in spatial (in a forest, in a meadow) and temporal (in a year) meaning; to dial -more often (on the porch, about father). -ov sons, house tables, wolves, cities *-ŏ no shoulder straps, boots, stockings Ending -ov in Rod. p.m. parts (sons, houses), established in the language (tables, wolves, cities); original form for skl. on *-ŏ became rare (no shoulder straps, boots, stockings). HISTORY OF CLEANSING NOUNS option"> variant endings few people (original for the spelling with *-ŏ) – few people (*-ŭ). In SRL, -a, -u is more often used with the preposition from (from the forest), in the meaning of part (a piece of sugar) , in stable combinations (a lot of noise); in dial. - more often (from Ivan, at the brother). porch, about the father The ending - y in the local unit (son, home) along with the original form for the complex with - ѣ > -е (table, volce) is used in. spatial (in the forest, in the meadow) and temporal (in the year) meanings; in dial. -more often (on the porch, about the father), home tables, wolves, cities *-ŏ no shoulder straps, boots, stockings. -ov in Rod. plural (sons, houses), established in the language (tables, wolves, cities); the original form for the script in *-ŏ has become rare (no shoulder straps, boots, stockings). NOUNS"> option" title="History of declension with *-ŭ *-ŏ All words have become declension with *-ŏ. Traces of declension with *-ŭ -adopted, there are few people at home *-ŏ few people * -ŭ-a, -there is a lot of noise from the forest pieces of sugar -from Ivan, from the brother Ending -in Rod. p.un. h. (son, home) > option"> title="History of declension with *-ŭ *-ŏ All words changed to declension with *-ŏ. Traces of declination on *-ŭ -father, there are few people at home *-ŏ there are few people *-ŭ-a, -there is a lot of noise from the forest pieces of sugar -from Ivan, from brother Ending -u in Rod. p.un. h. (son, home) > option"> !}
Mark, blood; transition to declension with *-ĭ. *-ā -a beeches, tyky letter, pumpkin *" title="History of declension on *-ū -ъв мърки, ру мърквь, кръвь*-ĭ Alignment of the stem Noun based on indirect cases with the suffix - ъв (coincidence with the form of Vin. p.): marky, kry > markav, krav; transition to declension *-ā -a beeches, tyky letter, pumpkin *." class="link_thumb"> 13 !} History of declension on *-ū -ъв мъркі, ру мъръвь, кръвь*-ĭ Alignment of the base Im. p. based on indirect cases with the suffix -ъв (coincidence with the form Vin. p.): мarky, ky > мъркъвь, кръвь; transition to declension with *-ĭ. *-ā -a beeches, pumpkins letter, pumpkin *-ā carrots, letter Some nouns, having been influenced by cl. with *-ā, they took the ending -a: beeches, tyky > letter, pumpkin; transition to declension with *-ā (but in dial. morkva, letter). HISTORY OF CLEANSING NOUNS darkness, blood; transition to declension with *-ĭ. *-ā -a beeches, tyky letter, pumpkin *"> markav', blood; transition to declension to *-ĭ. *-ā -a beeches, tyky letter, pumpkin *-ā carrot, letter Some nouns, influenced by cl. . to *-ā, took the ending -a: beeches, tyky > letter, pumpkin; transition to declension with *-ā (but in dialect. morkva, letter). transition to declension with *-ĭ. *-ā -a beeches, tyky letter, pumpkin *" title="History of declension on *-ū -ъв мърки, ру мърквь, кръвь*-ĭ Alignment of the stem Noun based on indirect cases with the suffix - ъв (coincidence with the form of Vin. p.): marky, kry > markav, krav; transition to declension *-ā -a beeches, tyky letter, pumpkin *."> title="History of declension on *-ū -ъв мъркі, ру мъръвь, кръвь*-ĭ Alignment of the base Im. p. based on indirect cases with the suffix -ъв (coincidence with the form Vin. p.): мarky, ky > мъркъвь, кръвь; transition to declension with *-ĭ. *-ā -a beeches, pumpkin letter, pumpkin *"> !}
History of consonant declension Male names, cf. and wives genera diverged into different declinations. *-n kama, rhema stone, belt In the words husband. R. the base of Im was aligned on *-n. p.un. part on the basics of indirect cases - replacing the form Im. n. form Vin. p.: kama, remy > stone, belt. *-ĭ *-ŏ Coincidence of new formations with noun. husband. R. to *-ĭ and their further transition together with the words husband. R. in skl. to *-ŏ. HISTORY OF CLEANSING NOUNS stone, belt. *-ĭ *-ŏ Coincidence of new formations with noun. husband. R. to *-ĭ and their further transition together with the words husband. R. in skl. to *-ŏ. HISTORY OF CLEANSING NOUNS"> 
History of consonant declension *-smiracle word *-ŏfarm milk *-ŏ -es- miraclesheaven wonderfulheavenlywheel Ex. Wed R. with *-s (miracle, word), coinciding in the form of Im. p.un. h. with words cf. R. to *-ŏ (village, milk), switched to skl. *-ŏ with the loss of the ancient suff. -es- (when it is preserved in some words: miracles, heaven, wonderful, heavenly, wheel). *-t calf-goat -onok calf-kid *-ŏ-ѧt- calf-kids Noun. Wed R. with *-t (telѧ, goat) in the form Im. p.un. h. acquired suff. -onok (calf, kid), changed their gender to masculine and switched to skl. to *-ŏ; suff. -ѧт- is preserved in plural forms. hours (calves, kids). *-nimѧsѣmѧ time – time *-ĭ-em *-ŏ Noun. Wed R. on *-n (imѧ, ѣмѧ) retained different stems (time - time) - inflexible words: in indirect. items have skl shapes. in *-ĭ, in TV. p. – -eat (*-ŏ). HISTORY OF CLEANSING NOUNS
b (mother, daughter). However, the old suff. kinship *-ter is preserved in the forms" title=" History of the declension to the consonant matidchi *-ĭ ь mother-daughter *-ter mother-daughter Noun feminine birth mother, d'chi switched to cl. to *-ĭ, having experienced complete reduction vowel in post-stressed position: и > ь (mother, daughter). However, the old suffix of kinship *-ter is retained in the forms." class="link_thumb"> 16 !} History of declension for the consonant matidchi *-ĭ ь mother-daughter *-ter mother-daughter No. wives R. mothers, children moved to school. to *-ĭ, having undergone complete reduction of the vowel in the post-stressed position: и > ь (mother, daughter). However, the old suff. kinship *-ter is preserved in oblique case forms (mother, daughter). HISTORY OF CLEANSING NOUNS ь (mother, daughter). However, the old suff. kinship *-ter is preserved in the forms "> ь (mother, daughter). However, the old suffix of kinship *-ter is preserved in the forms of oblique cases (mother, daughter). HISTORY OF THE CLEANSION OF NOUNS"> ь (mother, daughter). However, the old suff. kinship *-ter is preserved in the forms" title=" History of the declension to the consonant matidchi *-ĭ ь mother-daughter *-ter mother-daughter Noun feminine birth mother, d'chi switched to the consonant *-ĭ, having experienced complete reduction vowel in post-stressed position: и > ь (mother, daughter). However, the old suffix of kinship *-ter is retained in the forms."> title="History of declension for the consonant matidchi *-ĭ ь mother-daughter *-ter mother-daughter No. wives R. mothers, children moved to school. to *-ĭ, having undergone complete reduction of the vowel in the post-stressed position: и > ь (mother, daughter). However, the old suff. kinship *-ter is preserved in forms"> !}
The history of declensions is their unification, strengthening of productive types and destruction of unproductive ones. System of three declensions: first 
*-ā *-ŏ Convergence of hard and soft varieties in declensions with *-ā and *-ŏ. The appearance of uniform inflections while maintaining the quality (hardness or softness) of the final consonant of the stem. Alignment of inflections according to the hard version in SRL and the soft version in some dialects. HISTORY OF CLENSITION OF NOUNS *-ā*-ŏ case hard-softhard-soft Name-Vin. p.un. h. - table, horse sat down, Rod's face. p.un. including wives of the earth - Dat. p.un. including the wife of the earth - Creation. p.un. h. - stolm, selm horse, face Local. p.un. including the wife of the land on the table, the village horses, faces
In the SRY, types of declension of nouns. differ only in unit forms. h. – in plural. part single declension: иыаа ending in Name. pad. – [i] / [s] ([a] / [a] in sr. p.); ovey ending in Rod. pad. – [ov], [ev], [ey], . Different endings do not indicate different types of declension. In the DRY, six types of declension were distinguished according to plural forms. h.: *-ŏ ia stolisela *-ŭ ov sonovye *-ĭ ie hospitatie *-ā yě sister of the earth nasogle stone ending in Name. pad.: *-ŏ – [and] in man. R. and [a] in Wed. R. (stoli, village), *-ŭ – [ove] (son), *-ĭ – [ie] (host, poutie), *-ā – [s] and [ě] (sister, land), according to. – [e] in husband. R. (stone); *-ŏ ъ / ь table sat down *-ŭ ov sons *-ĭ and guests dine *-ā ъ / ь sister will according to. *-ū ъ/ь endings in Rod. pad.: *-ŏ – [ъ / ь] in male. R. and on Wed. R. (table, sat down), *-ŭ – [ov] (sons), *-ĭ – [ii] > [ey] (guests, dine), *-ā – [ъ/ь] (sisters, freedom), on acc. and *-ū – [ъ/ь]. HISTORY OF PLURAL FORMS [ey] (guests, have fun), *-ā – [ъ / ь] (sister, will), according to acc. and *-ū – [ъ/ь]. HISTORY OF PLURAL FORMS"> 
Loss of differences between Old Russian types of declension in the plural. Part – unification of forms Dat., Creation. and Local cases and the establishment of uniform forms for all nouns. male, wed. and wives R. *-ā am'amiakh' The influence of declension with a stem on *-ā, from which the endings [amъ], [ami], [ahъ] penetrated into other types of declension and supplanted the original endings Dat., Creation. and Local Cases, cf. original forms: HISTORY OF PLURAL FORMS case*-ā*-ŏ*-ĭ Dat. -am, -to the sisters, to the lands -om, -to eat on the table, on horseback, in the village, in the field -with the capacity of Creation. -s, -sisters, lands, -s, -and tables, horses, villages, poly -soms Local. -ah, -yah sisters, lands - yah, -their tables, horses, villages, polyh -knives
Traces of old forms Dat., Creation. and Local cases: rightfully so (serve him right), rightfully so (serve him rightly), children, horses, people *-ĭ children, horses, people (creative case. with stem on *-ĭ), doors - doors, lie down with bones - bones, doors - doors, lie down with bones - bones, in poetic speech XIX century: guests guests (Krylov), acorns acorns (Zhukovsky), claws, ears claws, ears (Lermontov). HISTORY OF PLURAL FORMS
Name and Vin. pad.: *-ā wallsgrass *-ŏ sela-fields the original coincidence of these forms in the solid variety on *-ā female. R. (walls, grass), in hard and soft varieties on *-ŏ cf. R. (villages, fields), in words cf. and wives R. with a base on a consonant; *-ŏ y stolygorod fruity tablescities fruits and ě knives and knives and knives and ě knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives and knives of the words husband R. on *-ŏ hard variety in Name. pad. had the ending [and], and in Vin. pad. – [s] (tables, cities, fruits – tables, cities, fruits); in the soft variety in Name. pad. was [and], and in Vin. pad. – [ě] (knives, ends – knife, end). neighborsdevils History of the forms of Names. and Vin. pad. – a tendency towards convergence and unification >> loss of differences between these forms: in the soft variety, the former form of Names remained in them. fell., and the forms of Vin remained in the solid variety. fallen., supplanting the forms of Names. pad. (excl. neighbors, devils). HISTORY OF PLURAL FORMS > loss of differences between these forms: in the soft variety, the former form of Names remained in them. fell., and the forms of Vin remained in the solid variety. fallen., supplanting the forms of Names. pad. (excl. neighbors, devils). HISTORY OF PLURAL FORMS"> 
*-ŭ Noun. with a base on *-ŭ: ovey sony house sony houses originally: Nominal. pad. pl. h. – [ove], Vin. pad. – [s] (sons, brownies – sons, houses). *-ŏ s daryldy Names. pad. coincided with Imen. pad. declination to *-ŏ and received the ending [s] (gifts, rows, ice). son sons of the fatherlandsons of the people sons sons -iya -ya The word son has two forms: sons (sons of the fatherland, sons of the people) and sons (from the original sons under the influence of collective nouns in -iya > -ya). -iya -ya-ie -ye -ya brother brothers brothers Collective nouns. wives R. on -я (> -я) and cf. R. on -ie (> -ye > in the unstressed position -ya) were rethought as forms of Names. pad. pl. h.: brother - brothers (originally) - brethren. -a -a shores of the arm of the horn Appearance of the forms of Names. pad. pl. h. on -a is caused by the influence of two. h. husband R. with the ending -a in Im.-vin. pad. (banks, sleeves, horns). peasants, northerners, non-city dwellers, boyars Old forms: peasants, northerners, townspeople, boyars, etc. HISTORY OF PLURAL FORMS -ya). -iya -ya-ie -ye -ya brother brothers brothers Collective nouns. wives R. on -я (> -я) and cf. R. on -ie (> -ye > in the unstressed position -ya) were rethought as forms of Names. pad. pl. h.: brother - brothers (originally) - brethren. -a -a shores of the arm of the horn Appearance of the forms of Names. pad. pl. h. on -a is caused by the influence of two. h. husband R. with the ending -a in Im.-vin. pad. (banks, sleeves, horns). peasants, northerners, non-city dwellers, boyars Old forms: peasants, northerners, townspeople, boyars, etc. HISTORY OF PLURAL FORMS"> 
*-ā *-ŏHard and soft varieties of declension were characteristic of nouns with bases on *-ā and *-ŏ, differing in different endings in some cases: Development of hard and soft varieties - their convergence, loss of differences in the endings of case forms while maintaining various quality final consonants of the stem. CONVERSION OF HARD AND SOFT VARIETIES OF DECLINATION *-ŏ (male, middle) Case, unit. including hard variety soft variety Nominal - wine. table, village, horse, face of Creation. stolm, village horse, litsm Local. table, village horses, faces Zvat. f. vetrekonu *-ā (feminine) Case, singular. including hard variety soft variety Native of the earth Date. and Local women from the land of Zvat. f. women's land
The process of convergence of varieties followed the path of replacing the endings of the soft version with the endings of the hard version (in some dialects the opposite happened). Differences began to concern the quality of the final consonant of the stem and the associated changes in subsequent vowel sounds. *-ŏBases on*-ŏ: [koně] [koně], [personě] [face] [table] [table], [village] [village] local. p. – [koně] > [koně], [face] > [face] ~ [table] > [table], [village] > [village], [konóm], [face] [table], [village]. creativity p. – [konom], [face] ~ [table], [village]. *-āBases on*-ā: [land] [wives], gen. p. – [land] ~ [wives], [land] [earth] [zheně] [wife], dat. and local p. – [earth] > [earth] ~ [woman] > [wife], [earth] [wife]. creativity n. – [land] ~ [wife]. CONVERSION OF HARD AND SOFT VARIETIES OF DECLINATION [horse], [face] > [face] ~ [table] > [table], [village] > [village], [konóm], [face] [table], [village]. creativity p. – [konom], [face] ~ [table], [village]. *-āBases on*-ā: [land] [wives], gen. p. – [land] ~ [wives], [land] [earth] [zheně] [wife], dat. and local p. – [earth] > [earth] ~ [woman] > [wife], [earth] [wife]. creativity n. – [land] ~ [wife]. CONVERSION OF HARD AND SOFT VARIETIES OF DECLINATION"> 
Distinction *-ā wife sister Original distinction in the singular form of names. pad. and wine pad. in the words of wives. R. with the stem ending in *-ā (wife, sister). non-distinction *-ŏ see stolkon *ŭ imam son *ĭ met guest Original non-distinction in the singular form of names. pad. (case of the subject) and wine. pad. (object case) in the words husband. R. with a base on *-ŏ (I see a table, a horse), on *ŭ (imam son) and on *ĭ (meet a guest). father love son - mother loves daughter The coincidence of subject and object is further strengthened by the fact that in Russian there is a free order of words in a sentence (father love son - mother loves daughter). The need to distinguish the acting subject from the object that is subject to action, primarily for animate nouns, which denoted the acting subject. DEVELOPMENT OF THE CATEGORY OF ANIMATION
Solution to the problem: using the genitive case in the accusative sense when denoting an animate object. and sent his son Svtoslav to them. Originally a form of family wine. pad. established for proper names: and Svtoslava sent her sons to them. The reasons for choosing the genitive case in the meaning of the accusative case are the closeness of the syntactic connections of gender. and wine pad.: o drank drank water o drank water (object fully affected by the action) – drank water (object partially exposed to the action), o read a book did not read a book o read a book (object to the verb) – did not read the book (object to the verb with negation). DEVELOPMENT OF THE CATEGORY OF ANIMATION
The beginning of the development of the category of animation is the Proto-Slavic era. The main processes in its formation are the Old Russian language. Reasons for the slow formation: the youth sent their ambassadors and planted their mayor 1. Connection from the places. own - an indication that there can be no talk of nominative case: You sent your messengers, planted your mayors. oubisha prusi Ovstrata and his son Lougotou 2. Use as an appendix to another noun, which already has a new ending: oubisha prusi Ovstrata and his son Lougotou. and go for your husband and ride your horse 3. Fastening old form wine pad. in some specific expressions: and go for your husband, get on your horse. let's take his wife Volgow for our prince for Mal 4.Use of noun. in wine pad. with the preposition (which in itself indicates the indirect case): let's call his wife Volgou for prince ours for Mal. In the XIV century. the category of animacy penetrated into the plural (first in the words of a male, then in the words of a female). XVII century distribution of the form of the family wine. pad. units h. for all animate beings, and in the plural. h. – to animate nouns. of all genera. DEVELOPMENT OF THE CATEGORY OF ANIMATION
Minor traces of the old form of the accusative case in modern Russian: marry for marry stand up for your husband in marriage (for + accusative pad.) [marry ~ stand up for your husband], go out into the world, go on a visit, call up a soldier, take in wives, to be elected as a deputy, to go out into the public, to go on a visit, to be drafted as a soldier, to take a wife, to be elected as a deputy, etc.: I am not eager to become a captain And I am not crawling to become an assessor... And I am not crawling to become an assessor ... (A.S. Pushkin) DEVELOPMENT OF THE CATEGORY OF ANIMATION
The vocative form served the function of address: Brothers and squad! Donets speech: Prince Igor! About the wind, the sail! Brothers and squad! Donets speech: Prince Igor! About the wind, the sail! – such forms were found in units. h. in the words of the husband. R. with stems on ŏ, ŭ, ĭ and in words of wives. R. on ā and ī (for the rest, the vocative form coincided with the form of the Nominal pad.). By the XIV–XV centuries. the vocative form was lost, the function of address began to be performed by Imen. pad. father-son to a man's husband in modern times. Ukrainian and Belarusian call languages the form is preserved: ukr. dad, son, zhinko, Belor. husband, etc. God! Lord! friendly-human elder Remains of the vocative form in modern. Russian language: God!, Lord!, friend, man, elder. Mom!Kat!Kol! New name the form of nouns ending in an unstressed vowel, which is reduced to zero: mam!, kat!, kol!. LOSS OF VOCATIVE FORM
The dual number was lost in the entire morphological system of the Old Russian language and in all dialects. Loss of Dv. hours and the development of opposition Unit. and Mn. h. is the result of the development of thinking from the idea of concrete multiplicity (one - two - more than two) to abstract (one - not one). Dv. h. was used to designate two or paired objects. In Dv. h. only three differed case forms: name - wine pad., native-local pad. and date-creation pad. ma Noun different types of declension had different endings only in nominal-vin. pad., whereas in native-local. and date-creation pad. endings for all beings. were the same: [u] (native-local), [ma] (Danish-creative). LOSS OF THE DUAL NUMBER
Dva Loss Dv. hours began to be reflected in monuments from the 13th century. and is expressed in the replacement of forms of Dv. including forms of Mn. h., retained Dv. h. in combination with the numeral dva. side horns sleeves eyes shoulders knees Long Dv. h. was preserved in the names of paired objects - now many of them have retained the form Name-win. pad. Dv. h., which is recognized as Mn. parts: sides, horns, shores, sleeves, eyes (originally [i]), shoulders, knees (originally [a]). personally The adverbial expression personally (local fall. dv.ch. from the eyes) has been preserved. with nogamas rukamas utkamas palkama Dialectal form creative. pad. plural with [ma] goes back to creation. pad. dv. h.: from nogama, from rukama, from utkama, from palkama (northern dialects). LOSS OF THE DUAL NUMBER
Old forms of Dv. hours are reflected in combinations of nouns with numerals. two three four two three four In the DRY there were combinations [two + noun. in name pad. dv. h.] and [three, four + noun. in name pad. pl. h.] – in the SRL combination [two, three, four + noun. in genus pad. units h.]. two steps two rows two hours of names. pad. dv. h. In the NSRY in combinations there are two steps, two rows, two hours of the form of nouns. by origin they are forms of names. pad. dv. h. from the first step - two steps until the last hour - two hours (Compare different stresses in the same stem. gender singular. from the first step - two steps, until the last hour - two hours, where the stress on the stem falls in the original gender forms). two two tables two tables two fish two fish two villages two villages Subsequently, the gender form began to be used with the numeral two. pad. units h. (coinciding with the form of the nominative fallen dv. h.), Wed: dva stola > two tables, dvѣ fish > two fish, dvѣ village > two villages. three four three tables three tables Form gen. pad. units h. was also extended to combinations with the numerals three, four (three tables > three tables). LOSS OF THE DUAL NUMBER two tables, two fish > two fish, two villages > two villages. three four three tables three tables Form gen. pad. units h. was also extended to combinations with the numerals three, four (three tables > three tables). LOSS OF THE DUAL"> 
The real composition of Old Russian inflectional classes of nouns in its relation to the composition of Indo-European nominal stems.
Ancient Novgorod features of noun declension:
*a-declension - ok. genus. pad. units TV numbers var. - ok. dat.-local pad. units soft numbers var. -A; OK. named after wine pad. pl. TV numbers var. -a (along with -ы); OK. named after wine pad. dv. soft numbers var. -a (along with -i);
*o-declension - ok. them. pad. units TV numbers var. -e; OK. date pad. units husband's numbers R. for proper names and nouns denoting persons, -ovie (along with -у); OK. local pad. units soft numbers var. -a (along with -i); OK. them. pad. pl. husband's numbers R. (including the plural form of the male participle with -l as part of the perfect) -a (along with -i); OK. named after wine pad. dv. numbers cf. R. -A.
Combining husband nouns into one type of declension. gender (except for the bases on *|I Fate of names on *1 (short), either having lost the ancient declension (like son-in-law - son-in-law, etc.), or transferred to the class of feminine gender names (like degree, step, etc. .). The fate of the name path (as well as mouse) in the bookish and literary language and in the dialects of the Russian language. Generalization of the basis of names in *en and their inclusion in a single “masculine” declension.
Development by the masculine declension of variant inflections in gender. and local pad. units numbers as a result of the early combination of names with stems in *o and *y. The initial spread of the inflection -у in both cases to all masculine names with a monosyllabic stem and movable stress. Reflection in monuments of the tendency to use variant inflections to express different particular case meanings. The later history of the endings of the family. and local pad. in Russian dialects and its reflection in texts different periods and different genres; reduction in the scope of functioning of -у in both cases during the period of codification of the norms of the literary language of the Russian nation.
Use of variant endings for dates in Old Russian texts. pad. units numbers to express different categorical meanings in the class of male names. gender (consolidation of inflection -ovi, opposed to -u, as an indicator of the form of personal nouns); preservation of functional differentiation of variant inflections of dates. pad. in Ukrainian dialects and the absence of inflection -ovi in Russian dialects and Old Russian monuments of business and everyday writing.
The interaction of hard and soft declension variants as a reflection of the general tendency to overcome the synonymy of case endings. Different directions of this interaction in dialects and reflection of its results in texts of different periods. The unification of inflections according to the model of the solid version and the elimination of alternations of consonants in the stems during inflection in the north-eastern dialects, which determined the peculiarities of the norms of the literary language of the Russian nation. Formation of a numerous system of cases in the Russian dialect language (with a non-matching set of inflections for each of the singular cases).
Unification of endings named after. pad. pl. numbers, opposed to names cf. gender (with ending -a: windows, fields) names for husband. and wives childbirth, summarizing the indicators of them. and wine pad. -и and -ы, reinterpreted as phonetic variants of one inflection (after a soft or hard consonant base) - in connection with the phonological history of and/ы in the Russian language. Morphologization of the soft consonant at the end of the stem of some nouns husband. kind before the ancient inflection named after. pad. -i (neighbors, serfs, listeners) as one of the ways to realize the tendency to contrast the formative foundations of units. and many more numbers (neighbor, neighbor, etc., but neighbor, neighbor, etc.; cf. in Old Russian texts: posluh, poslukha - poslus"and, poslus"ey).
Extension to forms named after. (and wine) pad. formant -a- as an indicator of plural. numbers due to unification endings -a-m, -a-mi, -a-x; expansion of the functions of inflection -a- in connection with a change in the grammatical meaning of the ancient indicator named after. (vin.) pad. collective formations (cf. forms in -ya and -ovya - as a result of contamination -ove + -ya) and paired nouns, where -a goes back to the form of dualities. numbers. Accentological alignment of plural forms. numbers with a tendency to shift the emphasis into the plural. number on -a (cf.: dom-a, dom-a-m, dom-a-mi, dom-ah, as well as pol-i, pol-i-m, pol-i-h at dom, home, house, etc. field, field, field, etc.), in connection with which the sphere of functioning of inflection -a, which originally characterized only names with movable stress, expands, covering colloquial speech and in dialects all nouns with historically unstressed plural endings. number (cf. colloquial and dialectal: brothers - brothers, choice - elections, mother - mothers, squares - squares, etc.); the tendency to assign to the formant -a- the meaning of the universal formative affix - the plural indicator. number of nouns. Isolation of formants -j- (from the indicator of the name of the fallen plural -ya Tsa]) and -ov]- (cf. -ovya) as formative affixes - indicators of the stems of the plural. numbers opposed to the base units. numbers (cf.: brother-, brother-a, etc. - brother "j-a, brother"j-am, etc., per-o, per-a, etc. - per"j -a, per"j-am, etc., son-, son-a, etc. - sons"j-a, sons"j-am, etc.).
Historical and morphological conditions for the preservation of ancient inflections of the genus. pad. pl. numbers (zero, -ов lt; -овъ, -ей lt; -и), becoming variants as declinations in the plural are unified. number. Expanding the scope of functioning of inflections -s and -s as expressers of case meaning different options Declension of nouns in plural. number; differences in the implementation of this process in dialects and in the system of book-literary language, which consolidated the relations that had developed in the northeastern dialects at the time of codification of the norms of the literary language of the Russian nation.
Differentiation of unit bases. and many more numbers in cases like: a) leaf - leaves; b) brother - brothers; c) sir - gentlemen.