Animals of hard-leaved evergreen forests and shrubs. Hardwood and evergreen forests and shrubs: useful information

It covers the territories of the southern peninsulas of Europe - the Iberian, Apennine and Balkan. Initially, forests (mainly oak trees) grew here, but due to active anthropogenic impact, most of the territory lost forests already in the era of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome (“goats ate Greece”). At present, the vegetation is dominated by secondary plant formations: maquis, garriga, frigana, shilyak, etc. with trees no more than 5-7 m tall. Since the climate in this area is Mediterranean and winter temperatures are positive, the vegetation is evergreen. Since the summer here is dry and hot, the vegetation is xerophytic. Many plants are essential oil plants - these are labiales, for example, lavender and thyme; saffron. Many plants have small leaf blades. Remaining broadleaf forests consist mainly of cork and holm oak. Their height is usually 15-20 m. In the eastern Mediterranean, valon oak and Macedonian oak predominate. The only European type of palm grows on the Iberian Peninsula - chamerox. On sands or limestone soils, Alep pine and pine grow. In Italy, cypresses.

maquis- the Italian name for secondary formations that occur in a humid Mediterranean climate and consist of stunted trees and shrubs. The height of the vegetation is 1.5-4 m. The vegetation is very dense, the crowns are closed. Maquis covers the lower parts of the mountains from the sea. The shrubs in it are partially thorny. Many of its plants are grown by man as decorative or essential oil plants - sage, lavender. There are species found everywhere, there are characteristic only for certain areas.

The Greek maquis is characterized by myrtle, wild pistachio, strawberry tree, large and small-fruited wild olive; from shrubs - rosemary, tree-like heathers, juniper, stone linden.

In the Italian maquis, oleander joins the above species, from shrubs: cistus, lavandula, thyme, kermes oak shrub blowing, laurel.

Garriga (gariga)- this is a shrub formation of very low-growing trees with a height of no more than 1.5 m. It is typical for dry areas with GKO usually less than 500 mm. In addition, garrigue is found mainly on degraded soils, where parent rocks (mainly limestones) are located close to the surface, absorbing water well, and this further lowers humidity. Here, kermes oak is found from trees, thyme, rosemary, and Spanish gorse from shrubs. This formation is mainly found in the interior of Spain. If thyme dominates, then the formation is called tomillary. In the Balearic Islands and in some other areas, thickets of the hamerox palm - palmito can be found. By appearance gariga shrubs can be cushion-shaped.

freegana- reminds Gariga. Found in the eastern Mediterranean, mainly in Greece in areas with more continental climate, mainly on the slopes of southern exposure. Along with the absence of trees, there are shrubs and grasses; perennial hard grasses do not form a continuous turf. The vegetation cover is not closed, but occurs in the form of spots on stony or sandy soil. From shrubs there are: okantolimon, ostrogal, from shrubs: euphorbia, from herbs: sage, lavender, sainfoin, ligeum. Many ephimers - onions and tulips.

Shilyak- a plant formation found in the northeast of the Balkan Peninsula along the border of the subtropical and temperate climatic zones. The peculiarity of this plant formation is a combination of evergreen and deciduous plants, with deciduous plants dominating. From the trees there are: derzhitree, wild and ordinary lilac, tanning sumac, wild roses, black thorn, hawthorn, bushy fluffy oak, hornbeam.

Features of altitudinal zonality in the mountains of the Mediterranean:

1. In the northern part of the zone, Mediterranean plant formations are distributed up to 300 m, in the south - up to 800-900 m.
2. The zone of deciduous broad-leaved forests of oak, chestnut, beech, ash rises up to 1000-1200 m
3. Broad-leaved-coniferous, and then coniferous forests rise to 2000-2200 m.
4. Higher rises the zone of alpine shrubs and meadows more xerophytic than in the Alps. There is no permanent snow zone anywhere.

Brown soils form under hard-leaved evergreen forests and shrubs. They are formed in the conditions of the year-round vegetation period, the activity of microorganisms is somewhat reduced in the summer. In winter, they are characterized by a washing regime. In summer, soil solutions can rise to the surface, enriching the upper horizons with carbonates. The reaction of the soil solution is neutral. Soils are saturated with bases, humus 4-5%. Brown soils are very fertile, and when irrigated they give rich harvests.

The fauna of the southern part of Europe is significantly different from the fauna of the North and Central, there are more endemics, as well as representatives of North African species. In Spain, the European genet (viverrids) lives, the only European species of monkeys is the tailless macaques. In Corsica and Sardinia, the mountain sheep, the mouflon, is almost exterminated. There are wild goats, porcupine, Pyrenean muskrat, jackals, wild rabbits. Birds include blue magpie, mountain hen, Sardinian warbler, Spanish and stone sparrow, black vulture. There are many reptiles in the Mediterranean - these are gecko lizards, chameleons, snakes, turtles. Lots of insects.

Literature.

1. Physical geography of continents and oceans: Proc. allowance for students. higher ped. textbook institutions / T. V. Vlasova, M. A. Arshinova, T. A. Kovaleva. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2005 - 640 p.
2. Physical geography of continents and oceans: Proc. allowance for students. higher textbook institutions / T. Yu. Pritula, V. A. Eremina, A. N. Spryalin. – M.: VLADOS, 2003 – 688 p.

Subtropical evergreen forest - a forest common in subtropical zones.

Dense deciduous forest with evergreen trees and shrubs.

The subtropical climate of the Mediterranean is dry, precipitation in the form of rain falls in winter, even mild frosts are extremely rare, summers are dry and hot. In the subtropical forests of the Mediterranean, thickets of evergreen shrubs and low trees predominate. Trees rarely stand, and various herbs and shrubs grow wildly between them. Here grow junipers, noble laurel, strawberry tree, which sheds its bark every year, wild olives, tender myrtle, roses. Such types of forests are characteristic mainly in the Mediterranean, and in the mountains of the tropics and subtropics.

The subtropics on the eastern outskirts of the continents are characterized by a more humid climate. Atmospheric precipitation falls unevenly, but it rains more in summer, that is, at a time when vegetation is in particular need of moisture. Dense moist forests of evergreen oaks, magnolias, and camphor laurels predominate here. Numerous creepers, thickets of tall bamboos and various shrubs enhance the originality of the humid subtropical forest.

From wet rainforest the subtropical forest is characterized by a lower species diversity, a decrease in the number of epiphytes and lianas, as well as the appearance of coniferous, tree-like ferns in the forest stand.

For subtropical belt characterized by a wide variety of climatic conditions, expressed in the characteristics of moisture in the western, inland and eastern sectors. In the western sector of the mainland, the Mediterranean type of climate, the originality of which lies in the mismatch between humid and warm periods. The average annual precipitation on the plains is 300-400 mm (in the mountains up to 3000 mm), the predominant part of them falls in winter. The winter is warm, the average temperature in January is not lower than 4 C. The summer is hot and dry, the average temperature in July is above 19 C. Under these conditions, Mediterranean hard-leaved plant communities were formed on brown soils. In the mountains, brown soils are replaced by brown forest ones.

The main area of ​​distribution of hard-leaved forests and shrubs in the subtropical zone of Eurasia is the Mediterranean territory, developed by ancient civilizations. Goat and sheep grazing, fires and land exploitation have led to almost complete destruction of the natural vegetation cover and soil erosion. The climax communities here were represented by evergreen hardwood forests dominated by the oak genus.

In the western part of the Mediterranean with a sufficient amount of precipitation on various parent species, sclerophyte holm oak up to 20 m high was a common species. The shrub layer included low-growing trees and shrubs: boxwood, strawberry tree, phyllyria, evergreen viburnum, pistachio and many others. The grass and moss cover was sparse.

Cork oak forests grew on very poor acidic soils. In eastern Greece and on the Anatolian coast mediterranean sea stone-oak forests were replaced by kermes oak forests. In the warmer parts of the Mediterranean, oak plantations gave way to plantations of wild olive (wild olive tree), lentiscus pistachio and caratonia. The mountainous regions were characterized by forests of European fir, cedar (Lebanon), and black pine. Pine trees (Italian, Aleppo and Maritime) grew on the sandy soils of the plains.

As a result of deforestation, various shrub communities arose in the Mediterranean long ago. The first stage of forest degradation, apparently, is represented by a maquis shrub community with isolated trees that are resistant to fires and cuttings. Its species composition is formed by a variety of shrubs of the undergrowth of degraded oak forests: various types of erica, rockroses, strawberry tree, myrtle, pistachio, wild olive, carob, etc. The abundance of thorny and climbing plants makes maquis impassable.

In place of the flattened maquis, a gariga formation of a community of low-growing shrubs, semishrubs, and xerophilous herbaceous plants develops. Undersized (up to 1.5 m) thickets of Kermes oak dominate, which is not eaten by livestock and quickly captures new territories after fires and clearings. The families of labiales, legumes and rosaceae are abundant in garigi, which produce essential oils. Of the characteristic plants, pistachio, juniper, lavender, sage, thyme, rosemary, cistus, etc. should be noted. Gariga has various local names, for example, tomillaria in Spain. The next formation, which is formed on the site of a degraded maquis, is a frigan, the vegetation cover of which is extremely sparse. Often these are rocky wastelands.

Gradually, all plants eaten by livestock disappear from the vegetation cover, for this reason, geophytes (asphodelus), poisonous (euphorbia) and thorny (astragalus, Compositae) plants predominate in the freegana. In the lower zone of the mountains of the Mediterranean, including the western Transcaucasia, subtropical evergreen laurel, or laurel-leaved, forests are common, named after the prevailing species of various species of laurel.



The inhabitants of subtropical hardwood forests and shrubs have adapted to the climatic conditions of this natural zone. Animals are most active in spring and autumn, when the combination of humidity and temperature is the most favorable.

Of the mammals in the Mediterranean hardwood forests and shrubs, some ungulates are found, for example mountain sheep– mouflons, fallow deer, viverrid predators(genet, ichneumon), small cats.

Bears have survived in the Pyrenees, the mountains of Morocco and the Balkan Peninsula.

In the eucalyptus forests of Australia you can meet a marsupial bear koala. It lives in trees and leads a sedentary nocturnal lifestyle.

Birds are numerous and varied: blue magpie, sparrows, canary finches (ancestors of the room canary), warblers, mockingbirds, wheatears, etc. Of the waterfowl, the marble teal is typical. Vultures and vultures- an integral part of the Mediterranean mountain landscape. The black vulture and griffon vulture are widespread.

Of the many types of turtles, the Greek is the most famous. Chameleons, many geckos, agamas, real lizards live in the southern Mediterranean. Among snakes, snakes and snakes are especially common.

meet and Poisonous snakes- viper, rhinoceros, gyurza, efa, cobra. The world of insects of the Mediterranean is unusually rich: from butterflies - cavaliers, whites, satyrs; lots of bugs, termites and scorpions.

Temperate broadleaf forests.

They occupy the east of North America, Central Europe; also form high-altitude zones in the Carpathians, Crimea and. In addition, individual foci of broad-leaved forests are found in the Russian Far East, Chile, New Zealand and in the center of Japan, in northern China.

They occupy an area between mixed forests in the north and steppes, Mediterranean or subtropical vegetation in the south.

European broadleaf forests - endangered forest ecosystems. Broad-leaved forests grow in areas with a humid and moderately humid climate, which are characterized by a uniform distribution of precipitation (from 400 to 600 mm) throughout the year and relatively high temperatures. The average temperature in January is -8...0 °С, and in July +20...+24 °С.

The upper tier in these forests is occupied by oak, beech, hornbeam and linden. AT Europe meet ash, maple, elm. The undergrowth is formed by shrubs - hazel, warty euonymus, forest honeysuckle. The dense and high grass cover of European broad-leaved forests is dominated by goutweed, zelenchuk, hoof, lungwort, woodruff, hairy sedge, spring ephemeroids: corydalis, anemone, snowdrop, blueberry, goose onion, etc.

AT North America in this zone grow species of oaks, characteristic only for this continent. In the broad-leaved forests of the Southern Hemisphere, southern beech predominates.

Modern broad-leaved and coniferous-broad-leaved forests were formed five to seven thousand years ago, when the planet warmed up and broad-leaved tree species could move far to the north. In subsequent millennia, the climate became colder and the zone of broad-leaved forests gradually decreased.

Fauna Broad-leaved forests are represented by ungulates, predators, rodents, insectivores, and bats. They are distributed mainly in those forests where habitat conditions are least changed by man. Moose, red and spotted deer, roe deer, fallow deer, wild boars are found here. Wolves, foxes, martens, polecats, ermines and weasels represent a detachment of predators in broad-leaved forests. Among rodents there are beavers, nutrias, muskrats, squirrels, minks, raccoons. Rats and mice, moles, hedgehogs, shrews, as well as various types of snakes, lizards and marsh turtles live in the forests.

Birds of deciduous forests are diverse. Most of them belong to the order of passerines - finches, starlings, tits, swallows, flycatchers, warblers, larks, etc. Other birds live here: crows, jackdaws, magpies, rooks, woodpeckers, crossbills, as well as large birds - hazel grouse and black grouse . From predatory there are hawks, harriers, owls, owls and eagle owls. In the swamps there are sandpipers, cranes, herons, different types of ducks, geese and gulls.

In the deciduous forests of Eurasia, many animals have become rare and are under human protection. The bison and the Ussuri tiger are listed in the Red Book.

Mixed temperate forests.

Within temperate zone there are several types of mixed forests: coniferous-deciduous forest; secondary small-leaved forest with an admixture of coniferous or broad-leaved trees and a mixed forest consisting of evergreen and deciduous tree species. In the subtropics, in mixed forests, mainly laurel and coniferous trees grow.

In the Eurasia zone coniferous-deciduous forests distributed south of the taiga zone. Fairly wide in the west, it gradually narrows towards the east. Small areas of mixed forests are found on Kamchatka and south Far East. AT North America such forests occupy vast areas in the eastern part of the temperate climate zone, in the region great lakes.

in the southern hemisphere mixed forests grow in New Zealand and Tasmania. The zone of mixed forests is characterized by a climate with cold snowy winters and warm summer. Winter temperatures in areas of the sea temperate climate positive, and as they move away from the oceans, C drops to -10 ° C. The amount of precipitation (400-1000 mm per year) slightly exceeds evaporation.

Mixed forests are distinguished by a well-marked layering. The upper tree layer is occupied by tall pines and spruces, and oaks, lindens, maples, birches, and elms grow below. Shrubs, herbs, mosses and lichens grow under the shrub layer formed by raspberries, viburnum, wild rose, hawthorn.

Coniferous-small-leaved forests, consisting of birch, aspen, alder, are intermediate forests in the process of forming a coniferous forest.

Within the zone of mixed forests, there are also treeless spaces. Elevated treeless plains with fertile gray forest soils called opolya. They are found in the south of the taiga and in the zones of mixed and broad-leaved forests of the East European Plain.

Polissya - lowered treeless plains, composed of sandy deposits of melted glacial waters, are common in eastern Poland, in Polissya, in the Meshchera lowland and are often swampy.

In the south of the Russian Far East, where seasonal winds - monsoons - dominate within the temperate climatic zone, mixed and broad-leaved forests grow, called Ussuri taiga. They are characterized by a more complex longline structure, a huge variety of plant and animal species.

In mixed forests North America of coniferous trees are often found white and red pine, and from deciduous - birch, sugar maple, American ash, linden, beech, elm.

Animal world similar to the fauna of the taiga and the zone of deciduous forests. Foxes, hares, hedgehogs and wild boars are found even in well-developed Moscow region forests, and moose sometimes come out on the roads and on the outskirts of villages. There is a lot of protein not only in forests, but also in city parks. Along the banks of rivers in quiet places, away from settlements, you can see beaver huts. Bears, wolves, martens, badgers are also found in mixed forests, the world of birds is diverse.

The territory of this natural zone has long been mastered by man and is quite densely populated. Mixed forests have long been subjected to severe deforestation and fires. They are best preserved in North America and the Far East, while in Eurasia they are used for field and pasture land.

Taiga.

This forest zone is located within the temperate climate in the north North America and on northern Eurasia. There are two types of taiga: light coniferous and dark coniferous.

Light coniferous taiga- These are pine and larch forests, the sparse crown of which transmits the sun's rays to the ground. Pine forests, having a branched root system, have acquired the ability to use nutrients from infertile soils. This feature of the root system of these forests allows them to grow in areas with permafrost. The shrub layer of the light coniferous taiga consists of alder, dwarf birch, polar willow, and berry bushes. Under this tier are mosses and lichens. It is the main food for reindeer. This type taiga is common in Eastern Siberia.

Dark coniferous taiga- these are forests represented by species with dark, evergreen needles. These forests consist of numerous species of spruce, fir, Siberian pine(cedar). The dark coniferous taiga, unlike the light coniferous one, does not have an undergrowth, since its trees are tightly closed by crowns, and it is gloomy in these forests. The lower tier is made up of shrubs with hard leaves (lingonberries) and dense ferns. This type of taiga is common in European part of Russia and Western Siberia.

The peculiar flora of these types of taiga is explained by differences in the climate of the territories: average annual temperatures and quantity precipitation. The seasons are clearly distinguished.

Animal world the taiga zone of Eurasia is very rich. They live here as large predators - Brown bear, wolf, lynx, fox, and smaller predators - otter, mink, marten, wolverine, sable, weasel, ermine.

Brown bears are typical inhabitants of vast forests, not only taiga, but also mixed forests. There are 125-150 thousand brown bears in the world, two thirds of them live in Russian Federation. The sizes and colors of subspecies of brown bears (Kamchatka, Kodiak, grizzly, European brown) are different. Some brown bears reach three meters in height and weigh more than 700 kg.

During the year, in search of food, bears travel from 230 to 260 kilometers, and as winter approaches, they return to their dens. Wolves are common in many parts of Europe, Asia and North America. They are found in the steppe, in the desert, in mixed forests and in the taiga. The body length of the largest individuals reaches 160 cm, and the weight is 80 kg. Mostly wolves are gray, but tundra wolves are usually somewhat lighter, and desert wolves are greyish-red. These ruthless predators are highly intelligent.

Lynx is found in the taiga zone from Scandinavia to the coast Pacific Ocean. AT taiga forests The Siberian chipmunk lives in Siberia - a typical representative of the chipmunk genus, which is also found in Northern Mongolia, China and Japan. The body length of this funny animal is about 15 cm, and the length of its fluffy tail is 10 cm. There are 5 longitudinal dark stripes on a light gray or reddish background, characteristic of all chipmunks, on the back and sides. The color of squirrels depends on the habitat. In the Siberian taiga, they are reddish or copper-gray with a blue tint, and in European forests they are brown or reddish-red.

Many taiga animals survive a long, cold and snowy winter in a state of suspended animation (invertebrates) or hibernation (brown bear, chipmunk), and many species of birds migrate to other regions. Sparrows, woodpeckers, black grouse - wood grouse, hazel grouse, wild grouse constantly live in the taiga forests.

Taiga North America has a milder climate, so the species composition of animals there is more diverse.

Tropical forests.

They are located along the east of Central America, in the Caribbean islands, on the island of Madagascar, in the east of Australia and in southeast Asia. The existence of forests in this dry and hot climate is possible due to the heavy rainfall that is brought by the monsoons in summer from the oceans. Depending on the degree of moisture, tropical forests are divided into permanently humid and seasonally humid forests.

In my own way species diversity flora and fauna, humid tropical forests are close to equatorial ones. These forests contain many palms, evergreen oaks, and tree ferns. Many vines and epiphytes from orchids and ferns. Rainforests Australia differ from others in the relative poverty of the species composition. There are few palms here, but eucalyptus, laurels, ficuses, legumes are often found.

The fauna of the equatorial forests is similar to the fauna of the forests of this belt..

Forests of the subequatorial belt.

These are deciduous-evergreen forests, which are located along the eastern outskirts of South America, along the coast of Indochina, in the northeast of Australia. Two seasons are clearly expressed here: dry and wet, the duration of which is about 200 days. In summer, equatorial air masses dominate here, and in winter - dry tropical air masses, which leads to the fall of leaves from trees.

The air temperature is constantly high, +20-30°С. Atmospheric precipitation decreases from 2000 mm to 200 mm per year. This leads to a lengthening of the dry period and to the change of evergreens constantly. moist forests seasonally wet deciduous. Most deciduous trees do not shed their entire foliage, but a few species remain completely bare.

Mixed (monsoon) forests of the subtropical belt.

They are located in the southeastern United States. These are the wettest of all zones of the subtropical belt. Characterized by the absence of a dry period. Annual rainfall is greater than evaporation. Maximum amount precipitation usually falls in the summer, as the monsoons bring moisture from the oceans, the winter is relatively dry and cool. Inland waters are quite rich, groundwater is mostly fresh, with a shallow occurrence.

Tall mixed forests grow here. Their species composition may vary depending on soil conditions. In the forests you can find subtropical species of pines, magnolia, camphor laurel, camellia. On the flooded coasts of Florida (USA) and on the lowlands of the Mississippi, swamp cypress forests are common.

The zone of mixed forests of the subtropical zone has long been mastered by man.

In subequatorial latitudes(Brazilian and Guiana Highlands, Orinoc Lowland, Central Africa north, east and south of the Congo Basin, Hindustan, Indochina and Northern Australia) the main natural zone is savannas and woodlands. The climate is subequatorial (high temperatures, alternating wet and dry seasons).

Savannah a sea of ​​grasses with rare islands of trees with umbrella crowns. Vast expanses of these amazing natural communities are found in Africa, although there are savannahs in South America, Australia, and India. A distinctive feature of the savannas is the alternation of arid and wet seasons, which take about six months, replacing each other. Significantly affect the climate of the savannas monsoon winds bringing seasonal rains.

Since these landscapes are located between the very humid natural zones of the equatorial forests and the very dry zones of the deserts, they are constantly influenced by both. But moisture is not long enough present in the savannahs for multi-tiered forests to grow there, and dry "winter periods" of 2-3 months do not allow the savannah to turn into a harsh desert.

The annual rhythm of the life of the savannas is associated with climatic conditions. During the wet period, the riot of grassy vegetation reaches its maximum - the entire space occupied by savannahs turns into a living carpet of herbs. The picture is broken only by thickly low trees - acacias and baobabs in Africa, fan palms of Ravenal in Madagascar, cacti in South America, and in Australia - bottle trees and eucalyptus trees.

When the monsoon leaves and dry tropical air takes its place, grasses and shrubs are very susceptible to fire, which often burns large areas as a result of the savannah vegetation has acquired modern features: an abundance of fire-resistant trees with thick bark, like baobabs, a wide distribution of plants with a powerful root system. The savannah zones are quite extensive, therefore, on their southern and northern borders, the vegetation is somewhat different.

The savannahs bordering the desert zone in the north of the zone in Africa are rich in drought-resistant short grasses, spurges, aloes and acacias with highly branched roots. To the south, they are replaced by moisture-loving plants, and along the banks of the rivers, gallery forests with evergreen shrubs and lianas, similar to humid equatorial forests, enter the savanna zone. In the rift valley East Africa the largest lakes of the mainland are located - Victoria, Nyasa, lakes Rudolf and Albert, Tanganyika.

Savannahs on their banks alternate with wetlands where papyrus and reeds grow. AT African savannas ah there are many famous nature reserves and national parks. One of the most famous - Serengeti located in Tanzania. Part of its territory is occupied by the crater highlands - a well-known plateau with ancient craters of extinct volcanoes, one of which is Ngorongoro has an area of ​​about 800 thousand hectares!

Savannas of South America traditionally called "llanos" and " campus". They differ from typical African savannahs by a large number of shrubs and thickets of cacti.

australian savannas bushes and eucalyptus woodlands frame the central desert zone of this continent. Streams (creeks) that dry up in winter can turn into lakes and swamps during the wet summer period.

appearance African savannah often called "park" for the alternation of "lawns" - areas with herbs - and "groves" - small groups of trees with umbrella crowns, picturesquely "scattered" among the lawns. The main inhabitants of the African savannas are numerous ungulates. Herds of antelopes, zebras, gazelles, buffaloes trample and eat grassy vegetation, preventing bushes from settling. It is thanks to them that the savannahs have their own "park" look.

Numerous birds live on swampy lowlands and near lakes - cranes, flamingos, marabou, pigeons, and various waterfowl. The largest bird living on Earth today is African ostrich. It cannot fly, but when running it can reach speeds of up to 70 km/h - faster than a passenger train! Many birds, such as South American vultures, feed on carrion and the remains of the meal of predatory animals. They trade the same hyenas. However, a pack of hyenas can get their own dinner, even win it back from lions or other predators.

One of the most famous insects of the savannah is huge ants. termites. Their cone-shaped tall buildings are an integral part of the savannah landscape.

The largest animal in the savannah is African elephant. It differs from its Indian counterpart in the size and shape of the ears. African giant elephant growing up to four meters and weighing up to ten tons. Giraffe- decoration of the savannah. He is distinguished by a graceful gait and surprising Long neck, which no other representative of the animal world can boast of.

The growth of a giraffe reaches 6 m. Translated from Latin, the name of a giraffe sounds like “camel-leopard”. big cat cheetah- the fastest predator on the planet. It can reach speeds of 110 km per hour. In running, the cheetah relies not on three, but only on two paws - this explains its like flying movements. a lion- the king of animals, reigns in the savannah.

Kangaroo- a marsupial animal, which, in addition to savannahs and light forests australia, found nowhere else in the world. Marsupials are generally numerous in these places, but the kangaroo is the largest of them.

TWO GROUPS OF FORMATIONS: 1) RIGID FORESTS (DURISILVAE) AND 2) HARD-LEAVED SHRUBS (DURIFRUTIEETA)

General characteristics. Hardwood forests and shrubs are closely related to certain climatic conditions and already outwardly indicate a significant dryness of the climate - the plants give the impression of xerophytes. Leaves are very characteristic, which usually so well reflect the conditions of plant life: they are rigid, well supplied with mechanical tissue (xerophilous leaves), evergreen; the plate is usually small and often covered with hairs; to reduce the heating of the plate, they are not perpendicular to the sun's rays, but obliquely, so the rays glide over the leaves.

However, there are not only plants with hard leaves. In some species, the leaves on the stems are completely reduced, and the stems turn green - life forms with rod-like rigid stems are obtained. A good example of the latter is the Spanish gorse (Fig. 31).

The leaves, in contrast to the laurel type, are never shiny, but dull or grey-green, often opaque from the resinous secretions of their special glands. The leaves have a number of mechanical adaptations to keep them from falling off during the dry season; the stomata are usually submerged below the surface, and a number of adaptations delay transpiration through the stomata. The formation of spines is very common; leaves are often prickly.

Hard-leaved plants in most cases bloom beautifully, with yellow flowers predominating. Many species emit essential oils, which, together with fragrant flowers, gives thickets of hard-leaved plants a strong peculiar aroma.

The kidneys are rather weakly protected, some species (for example, the olive tree) are completely devoid of kidney scales.

The classic place for the development of hard-leaved forests and shrubs is the Mediterranean region, that is, the northern and southern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (most of the Iberian and Apennine peninsulas, a smaller part of the Balkan, etc.; the southern coast of Crimea belongs here). The second area of ​​strong hardwood forest development is California, which also extends north along the mountains of southern Oregon. large areas occupied by this type in Australia (southern Victoria and southwestern Australia). In addition to these three main areas, the hard-leaved type is developed in South Africa (Cape region) and in Chile between 40 and 50 ° S. sh. Thus, the hard-leaved type is more or less developed in all five parts of the world.

The climatic conditions of the areas of hardwood forests are very typical. In the Mediterranean region, summers are very dry and hot (the average temperature of the hottest month is 22-28 °, precipitation in July is from 2 to 23 mm), winter is not cold (average January temperature is 5-12°C) and with a lot of precipitation. Annual rainfall 50-75 cm, but most of them fall in winter. In the summer months, the sky is cloudless and the sun is constantly shining, in winter, despite the precipitation, there are a lot of sunny days. The area of ​​Mediterranean hard-leaved vegetation is well outlined by the January isotherm of 4 ° and in the extreme west by the July isotherm of 20 ° - only south of these isotherms lies the Mediterranean climate (Fig. 88), often called climate olives(olive tree) (Fig. 89).

An unfavorable time of the year, as can be seen from what has been said, is dry and hot summer, so plants must develop xerophilic adaptations, which include both hard leaves and twig-like stems; on the other hand, numerous bulbous and tuberous ephemera are characteristic here in spring (for the floristic characteristics of the Mediterranean, see p. 345).

During the summer heat, the hard-leaved plants are, as studies show, as if at rest and assimilate very weakly.

The climatic conditions of California and those areas of Australia where hardwood forests are developed are very similar to those indicated for the Mediterranean. The most common are hard-leaved shrubs. One of the reasons for this in the Mediterranean is the influence of man, since deforestation, plowing, etc. have taken place here since ancient times. And at present, the human impact on wildlife is very high. There are many regions where not only forests have been destroyed, but the soils have been changed in such a way that restoration of the forest is impossible; devoid of normal vegetation cover, the soils are washed away, dispersed by the wind, and bare stone is on the surface.

However, the strong development of shrubs may also be caused by climatic factors. Indeed, hardwood forests in their natural state do not grow luxuriantly, and the trees here do not grow to such large sizes as they do in both tropical and temperate forests. The reason lies in the fact that the warm season does not coincide with the rainy season. Therefore, areas of hardwood forests are areas of forest extinction and its degradation into shrub vegetation. It can be assumed that shrubs were also developed here in pre-cultural times, although, of course, to a lesser extent than at the present time.

Let us consider the four main areas of distribution of hardwood forests and shrubs.

Hardwood forests and shrubs in the Mediterranean. Hardwood forests consist of evergreen oaks - holm oak (Quercus ilex), in the western part also cork oak (Q. suber). The latter is especially common in Portugal, Spain, Morocco and Algeria (less often in Corsica and Italy), settling on basic rocks, while holm oak is characteristic of calcareous soils. In the Crimea, these two oaks do not occur in the wild, but are cultivated in the western part South Shore. Epiphytes from higher plants are almost completely absent; there are very few creepers (however, there is ivy, Tamus communis, Smilax, etc.). These evergreen oak forests (especially cork oak) are quite light, and therefore they usually have a well-developed undergrowth and grass cover; the undergrowth consists of many genera that are also characteristic of the maquis (see below), i.e., shrubby evergreen thickets.

From evergreen trees and shrubs of oak forests, we point to the strawberry tree (Arbutus uhedo), heather (Erica arborea), myrtle (Myrtus communis), species of cistus (Cistus), etc.

As for the olive, this most characteristic tree of the Mediterranean, there are currently no wild olive forests, and in a cultural state it plays an exceptional role in the general landscape of the country (Fig. 90).

An incomparably greater role than forests in the Mediterranean is played by shrubs, the types of which bear folk names; yes, distinguish maquis(Corsican name) garigu(South of France) tomillars(Spain), freeganu(Greece), etc.

Maquis is distributed almost throughout the Mediterranean, but he especially prefers more wet conditions, therefore more developed in the western parts and especially in Corsica. It consists of shrubs with sclerophilous and ericoid leaves, as well as rod-shaped forms; on average, the height of shrubs ranges from 1 1/2 before 4 m. Depending on a number of conditions, one or the other species predominate in maquis. The most lush vegetation has maquis with a predominance of strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo) up to 6-8 m height; some trees (Phillyrea) reach even m, from other trees, we note the mastic tree (Pistacia lentiscus), myrtle (Myrtus communis). It's almost like a forest. Another group of maquis is made up of thickets with the dominance of cistus (Cistus); we also point to the maquis from the oleander (Nerium Oleander); the latter is characteristic of the banks of streams and rivers. There is no maquis in Crimea.

Gariga is more common in the Mediterranean than the previous type; it consists of low-growing evergreen shrubs and semi-shrubs no higher than 1 m, moreover, shrubs usually do not form continuous thickets; this type is poorer in species. All this allows us to think that Gariga in most cases is, in comparison with Maquis, a further regressive stage under human influence. However, the spring ephemeral flora of Gariga is very rich.

It is possible to distinguish a number of varieties of Gariga in connection with environmental conditions, and in different occasions dominated by different species. A very common gariga dominated by shrub oak (Quercus coccifera) (Fig. 91) with prickly hard leaves (in Provencal it is called Garoulia - hence the word garage). Among other species, such plants as thyme (Thymus), rosemary (Rosmarinus), daphne (Daphne gnidium), gorse (Genista scoparia) and others are typical for gariga. ; its thickets are found in southern Spain, the Balearic Islands, Sicily, Algeria and Morocco.

Tomillary - thickets of shrubs with a predominance of aromatic and usually heavily pubescent plants. ("Tomillyars" - from the plant Thymus - the Spanish folk name.) Let us point out the tomillyars with the dominance of Thymus, with rosemary (Rozmarinus), with Lavender (Lavandula). All of them are very aromatic, which serves as a protection against destruction by livestock.

In the east there is a peculiar type of shrub thickets - frigana (on Balkan Peninsula, especially in Greece, Crete, Asia Minor). The most typical here are evergreen shrubs with thorns and thorns, which are joined by aromatic labiate and twig-like shrubs. Thorny shrubs often have a spherical shape (Poterium spinosum, Euphorbia acanthiotamnos, Genistaacanthoclada, etc.). Frigana prefers dry southern slopes. There is no freegan in Crimea.

With even more intense human influence, shrubs degrade more and more, and, finally, we find spaces almost completely devoid of vegetation. It is possible to establish such a series of degradation in connection with human influence: hard-leaved forest - maquis - gariga - stony pasture - desert.

In the USSR, specifically in the Crimea, thickets of evergreen shrubs are absent (Stankov), although in Russian literature maquis was often indicated for the southern coast of Crimea (Remann, Aggeenko, etc.). True, there are some evergreen elements in the Crimea, but they either do not form shrub thickets, or are not at all characteristic of the Mediterranean maquis (for example, Ruscus ponticus, Fig. 177). The existing shrub thickets consist of shrubs with falling leaves and are closest to the Balkan shiblyak (see p. 224). In general, it should be noted that such names as "maquis", "shibliak", etc., are very little defined from the botanical side.

Review of hard-leaved vegetation in other countries. Hardwood forests in America are common in southern Oregon and Baja California (North America), in climatic conditions very close to the Mediterranean. And here also there are forests and shrubs, and here the dominant trees are evergreen oaks, the number of which is greater than in Europe. In addition to oaks, there are other evergreens (in particular, american view Arbutus Menziesii). The main associations are: Quercus densiflora - Arbutus, Q. agrifolia - Arbutus, etc. Bush thickets, extremely similar to maquis, are abundantly developed along the Californian coast. They are called here chaparral. The latter consists of numerous evergreen shrubs: some types of oaks and a number of species reminiscent of the "Mediterranean". A very characteristic plant is the rosaceous Adenostoma fasciculatum, similar in appearance to heather (Erica). Very rich in species: bearberry (Arctostaphylos) and a genus from the family. buckthorn - Ceanothus (Fig. 92).

A small area of ​​evergreen hard-leaved shrubs is also found in Central Chile (South America) at altitudes of 1,000-2,000 m. In more favorable conditions, trees rise above the shrubs. Physiognomically and systematically, thickets of bushes are similar to those in California.

Hardwood forests in Australia are developed mainly in the southwest, as well as in some southeastern parts. Hardleaf forests play a much greater role here than in other similar areas, and they occupy up to a third of the entire southwestern province. The main dominant tree here is the eucalyptus, with a number of species. The main role is played by Eucalyptus marginata, E. diversicolor, E. redunca, which form one-component forests from one species or another; admixture of other trees only as an exception. Eucalyptus forests are very original: tall, slender trees up to 60-70 m, with trunks devoid of branches up to 40-50 m height; although the trees stand quite often, it is very light in the forest, since the leaves of the eucalyptus trees are arranged edgewise. The latter contributes to the lush development of the evergreen undergrowth, consisting of numerous species, which are almost impossible to recognize in appearance without flowers - the vegetative parts are so similar. Particularly abundant are species from the legume and protein families (Proteaceae). There are no epiphytes or vines. In general, physiognomically, the eucalyptus forests of Australia are very different from the evergreen oak forests of the Mediterranean and California, representing all transitions to savanna-type eucalyptus forests. These latter occupy vast areas in the northeast. The dominant trees are eucalyptus trees (a number of species), which form light stands due to the vertical position of their leaves (Fig. 93).

Of the other trees, the acacias characteristic of Australia are very typical, often with an umbrella-shaped crown, as well as casuarina. The herbaceous cover is diverse and changes in its aspects depending on the season.

Hardwood shrubs in Australia are extremely diverse and resemble the Mediterranean maquis; they do not exceed 1-2 m in height and bear the local name scrub. The vegetation is otherwise very close to the undergrowth of eucalyptus forests. The leaves of the scrub are stiff, often ribbed, sometimes of the heather or coniferous type, gray-green in color, dull, often covered with a waxy or resinous coating. Sometimes instead of leaves there are phyllodes(for example, in acacias); a number of plants have thorns (Fig. 94). Compared with Mediterranean shrubs, scrub plants have some features: they are extremely characteristic isolateral leaves (i.e., leaves whose upper and lower sides are anatomically similar) and various adaptations for stomatal immersion and protection.

Scrab occupies vast areas in the south-western, central and some other parts of Australia and physiognomically presents an extremely dull picture; when viewed from a hill, it is an endless gray-green sea of ​​dense shrubs

thickets, where it costs nothing to get lost. At first glance, it is absolutely impossible to understand the species composition - the vegetative organs are so similar. It is only during flowering that one can see how rich the scrub is in species.

The families of legumes dominate (a number of endemic genera, acacias are very numerous), myrtle (shrub eucalyptus, Melaleuca), proteaceae, etc.; in addition, rod-shaped casuarinas (Fig. 198) and others are characteristic. There are very few herbaceous plants.

When observing a scrub for a whole year, a number of aspects can be established that are very different from each other. The described picture of a lifeless gray-green scrub refers to March - April, when the vegetation almost stops due to dry times. In May, the scrub is full of various flowers of red, pink, yellow, white. At the end of July, the temperature reaches its minimum, and the amount of precipitation reaches its maximum (just in contrast to the Mediterranean); at this time, thickets of flowering acacia appear yellow, and the rest of the plants give a colorful carpet. In August - the same bizarre mixture of different colors.

South African hardwood vegetation. Here, in the Cape region, hard-leaved shrubs are very common. Species with leaves of ericoid and needle types from various families dominate (Fig. 95). Heathers are especially abundant (more than 400 species), and there are also legumes, rue, buckthorn, protea, etc. Since the air is very humid in places in the Cape region, the heather thickets approach the Atlantic West European "heath" (see p. 245) , with which the Mediterranean maquis is connected by transitions.

RIGID FOREST AND HUMAN

Already in the description various types of these forests and hard-leaved shrubs, the exclusive role of man in the formation of some of them was indicated. This applies especially to the Mediterranean region. This is an area that is treated so well. famous words Engels: “People who uprooted forests in Mesopotamia, Greece, Asia Minor and other places in order to get arable land in this way, and did not dream that they laid the foundation for the current desolation of these countries, depriving them, along with forests, centers of accumulation and conservation of moisture. When the Alpine Italians cut down the coniferous forests on the southern slopes of the mountains, so carefully guarded on the northern, they did not foresee that by this they were cutting the roots of high-mountain cattle breeding in their area; even less did they foresee that by doing this they would leave their mountain sources without water for most of the year, so that during the rainy season these sources could pour even more furious streams onto the plain.

The restoration of forests in the Mediterranean is hampered not only by the fact that their destruction has a long history of thousands of years, but also by the fact that the climatic conditions themselves are not favorable for their rapid restoration (dry climate). Those bushes that are so characteristic of the Mediterranean are in most cases derivatives of the forest, but the bushes themselves degrade as a result of grazing and turn into thickets of thorny low-growing plants (gariga, tomillyars, etc.). In the future, in the absence of appropriate measures, the cohesive vegetation cover is disturbed, the soil is washed away or scattered by winds, and a stony substrate is exposed, on which plants of the destroyed formations can no longer grow. This could be a desert.

Hardwood and evergreen forests and shrubs grow in relatively compact groups in several areas. This one was formed in the subtropical climate zone, where winter period cool with strong moisture, and summer - sultry. The annual amount of rainwater is about 600 mm. On the territory of the forests, special soils have developed - brown. They are characterized by a large layer of humus and high fertility with an abundance of precipitation.

The intensity and mode of precipitation has a key effect on the composition and activity of biocenoses in the subtropical region. Low temperatures, especially those that last for a long time, are almost non-existent here.

Geographical position

Hard-leaved and evergreen forests and shrubs grow on the territory of the Australian continent, the coasts of the western part of North America, and the African mainland. The vegetation of this type belongs to sclerophytes. Forests have a rich species composition of not only flora, but also fauna. A large number of animals have adapted to life in these conditions.

What is remarkable about hard-leaved and evergreen forests and shrubs? Geographical position determined the composition of their flora and fauna. To the north of them are temperate forests. From the south they are approached by endless deserts, savannas and tropical thickets. This arrangement determined the specific composition of the animal world, which resembles the symbiosis of the fauna of neighboring areas.

Animal world

Hard-leaved and evergreen forests and shrubs, the animals living in them, form a complete ecosystem. A large number of marmots and ground squirrels live in the forests near the Mediterranean Sea. Their number betrays the multitude of burrows visible everywhere. Reptiles include snakes, turtles and various lizards. A large number of Orthoptera and other insects. Among the birds, one can single out the warbler, the bluebird and the mocking.

Hard-leaved evergreen forests and shrublands in Spain are home to the genet and the anuran macaque. Corsica and Sardinia are home to wild hares and goats, as well as the mouflon. Among the birds, the black vulture, the Spanish sparrow and the mountain hen stand out. The fauna of the Australian eucalyptus forests is characterized by an abundance of sluggish koalas.

Vegetable world

Hard-leaved and evergreen forests and shrubs grow on all continents, but most of them are in the Mediterranean Sea and on the Australian mainland. One of the most notable climatic features- warm and wet periods do not coincide in time. Thanks to this regime, sclerophytes dominate in these areas, which have a number of distinctive features:

• There is bark or cork on the trunk.
• Plants begin to branch almost from the ground.
• The widest crowns.
• Rigid foliage that persists for several years.
• Often the leaf blades on the underside are fluffy.
• A wax coating is common.
• High content of essential oils.
• Deep penetration of roots into the soil (in some species up to 20 m).

Species diversity is great. The main period of flora growth falls on the autumn-spring season. At this time, the plants are actively blooming. The forests are very light with developed tiers of grass and bushes. Plants with bulbs and tubers predominate, flowering in autumn or spring.

Hard-leaved evergreen forests and shrubs have a long-established species composition. Cork and some representatives of the latter have a height of 20 m.

deforestation

In the Mediterranean zone, as a result of anthropogenic impact, the process of deforestation is taking place. It lasts for several hundred years. Hard-leaved and evergreen forests and shrubs are also disappearing due to erosion, washout and soil destruction. Because of this, areas of stone soils unsuitable for plant life are growing.

Areas that are not used under have been moved to Maquis. This is the first stage of forest degradation. These areas are intensively cut down and suffer from fires that occur during the summer drought. The destroyed maquis is replaced by gariga - low bushes and xerophilous herbs. Among them is kermes oak, its height is not more than 150 cm, but it is able to survive the fire and be reborn.