Astrology of love and horoscopes 

Causes of altitudinal zonality. What is altitudinal zonation? Definition

Page 7 of 9

Altitudinal zonation (zonality) in the mountains.

altitudinal zonality or altitudinal zonation is a successive change natural areas and landscapes with increasing altitude.

Altitudinal zone or zone of altitudinal zonation- a more or less homogeneous strip in natural conditions. May be intermittent.

Altitudinal zonality (zonality). Characteristic.

Altitudinal zonality (altitude zonality) is due to climate change in the mountains with increasing altitude.

As you climb up the mountains:

Air temperature decreases by an average of 6 degrees Celsius for every kilometer,

The air pressure decreases

The sun's radiation is getting stronger,

The amount of precipitation is changing.

Vegetation.

The vegetation of the subalpine altitudinal zone is represented by subalpine meadows, consisting mainly of grass-forb tall grasses, and small areas of park forests and crooked forests. The vegetation of the subalpine meadows is very rich; during haymaking in some regions of the world, it yields up to 30 q/ha of hay.

Mountain meadow altitudinal belt

The term is used to combine the alpine and subalpine belts.

General characteristics.

Wettest altitude zone. The mountain-forest altitudinal belt is represented mainly by forest landscapes. It reaches its greatest development in tropical and equatorial latitudes, but it is also found in arid regions of the planet. In the latter case, the forest does not grow in a continuous mass, but alternates with the steppe, forming a forest-steppe natural zone.

The boundaries of the mountain-forest altitudinal belt.

From below it borders on the desert-steppe belt, from above - on the subalpine or mountain-tundra.

Vegetation.

Very rich. The types of vegetation that form mountain forests depend on latitude, continental climate, and other factors.

General characteristics.

The desert-steppe altitudinal belt is characteristic of desert, semi-desert and steppe natural zones of the tropics, subtropics and the temperate climate zone. Partly represented in the zone of savannahs and light forests of subequatorial belts.

In the temperate and subtropical zones, the development of mountain steppes occurs at 350-500 mm of precipitation per year, mountain semi-deserts - at 250-350 mm, mountain deserts - with precipitation less than 250 mm per year. In a tropical or subequatorial climate, these values ​​will be 100-200 mm larger.

The structure of the altitudinal zonality of the Caucasus is the most complete in comparison with other mountains Russian Federation. According to experts world heritage UNESCO, the region is distinguished by a remarkable diversity of geology, ecosystems and species, contains vast tracts of undisturbed mountain forests, unique on a European scale. Let's look at the example of this majestic mountain system, on which the set of altitudinal belts depends. Let us find out how the population uses the resources of each of the vertical zones.

Altitude belts in the mountains

Vertical zonality - or altitudinal zonality - geographical pattern, which manifests itself in the change of plant communities from the foothills to the peaks. It differs from the latitudinal alternation of natural zones on the plains, which is caused by a decrease in the amount of solar radiation from the equator to the poles. A complete set of altitudinal zones is presented in which are located in the equatorial and tropical zones. We list all possible vertical (from the bottom to the top):

  1. (up to a height of 1200 m).
  2. Alpine forests (up to 3000 m).
  3. Low-growing, twisted trees, shrubs (up to 3800 m).
  4. Alpine meadows (up to 4500 m).
  5. Rocky wastelands, bare rocks.
  6. Snow, mountain glaciers.

What determines the set of altitudinal belts?

The existence of altitudinal belts is explained by a decrease in temperature, pressure and humidity with increasing altitude. The air is cooled by an average of 6 °C when ascending 1 km. For every 12 m of altitude, there is a decrease in atmospheric pressure by 1 mmHg.

In the mountains, which are located at different distances from the equator, the vertical zonality is significantly different. At the same time, different natural complexes arise.

We list what the set of altitudinal belts depends on, what conditions affect their formation:

  • The geographical position of the mountains. The closer to the equator, the more vertical zones.
  • The lowlands are usually busy natural community, which dominates the adjacent plain.
  • Mountain height. The higher they are, the richer the set of belts. The farther from warm latitudes and the lower the mountains, the less zones(there are only 1-2 in the Northern Urals).
  • The proximity of the seas and oceans, over which warm and humid air is formed.
  • Influence of dry cold or warm air masses coming from the continent.

Vertical change of natural zones in the mountains of the Western Caucasus

There are altitudinal belts of the Caucasus related to two types of vertical zonality: continental and coastal (coastal). The second one is represented in the mountains of the Western Caucasus, which are influenced by the Atlantic, humid sea air.

We list the main altitudinal belts from the foothills to the peaks:

1. Meadow steppes, interrupted by curtains of oak, hornbeam, ash (up to 100 m).

2. Forest belt.

3. Subalpine crooked forests and tall grass meadows (at an altitude of 2000 m).

4. Low herbs rich in bluebells, cereals and umbrella plants.

5. Nival zone (at an altitude of 2800-3200 m).

The Latin word nivalis means "cold". In this belt, in addition to bare rocks, snow and glaciers, there are alpine plants: buttercups, primroses, plantain and others.

Altitudinal zonality of the Eastern Caucasus

In the east, somewhat different altitudinal belts of the Caucasus are observed, which are often called the continental, or Dagestan type of vertical zonality. Semi-deserts are widespread in the foothills, which are replaced by dry steppes with a predominance of cereals and wormwood. Above are thickets of xerophytic shrubs, rare forest vegetation. The next alpine is represented by mountain steppe, cereal meadows. On the slopes, which receive part of the Atlantic humid air, there are forests of broad-leaved species (oak, hornbeam and beech). In the Eastern Caucasus, the forest belt is replaced by subalpine and alpine meadows with a predominance of xerophytic plants at an altitude of about 2800 m (in the Alps, the boundary of this belt is at an altitude of 2200 m). The nival zone extends at an altitude of 3600-4000 m.

Comparison of altitudinal zonality of the Eastern and Western Caucasus

Number of high-rise zones Eastern Caucasus less than the Western one, which is due to the influence of air masses, relief and other factors on the formation of natural zones in the mountains. For example, warm and humid Atlantic air almost does not penetrate to the east, it is delayed by the main ridge. At the same time, cold temperate air does not penetrate into the western part of the Caucasus.

The main differences in the structure of the altitudinal belts of the Eastern Caucasus from the Western:

  • the presence of semi-deserts in the foothills;
  • the lower belt of dry steppes;
  • narrow forest zone;
  • thickets of xerophytic shrubs near the lower border of the forest belt;
  • no belt coniferous forests
  • steppes in the middle and high parts of the mountains;
  • expansion of the mountain-meadow belt;
  • higher location of snows and glaciers.
  • forest vegetation only in valleys;
  • there are almost no dark coniferous tree species.

Economic activity of the population

The composition of the natural zones of the Caucasus is due to a change in climatic indicators within the mountain system from the foot to the peaks, as well as from west to east. Having found out what the set of altitudinal belts depends on, it should be noted that the region has a high population density, especially in Black Sea coast. The fertile steppe plains of Ciscaucasia are almost completely plowed up and occupied by crops of grain, technical and gourds, orchards, vineyards. Subtropical agriculture is developed, including the cultivation of tea, citrus fruits, peaches and walnuts. Mountain rivers have a large supply of hydropower and are used to irrigate low-water areas. Steppes, semi-deserts and meadows serve as pastures. Timber harvesting is carried out in the mountain-forest belt.

All altitudinal belts in the Caucasus Mountains have ample opportunities for tourism. The system of medium and high mountain ranges covered with forests, glaciers and snow attracts fans of skiing and snowboarding. The routes involve overcoming rocks, snow-covered slopes, mountain rivers. Fresh air mixed forests, picturesque landscapes, the sea coast are the main recreational resources Caucasus.

Altitude zonality - a natural change in natural conditions and landscapes in the mountains as they increase absolute altitude(heights above sea level).
Altitudinal belt is a unit of altitudinal-zonal division of landscapes in mountains. The altitudinal belt forms a strip that is relatively uniform in natural conditions, often discontinuous.

The attention of naturalists and geographers has long been attracted by the change of soil and vegetation as one ascends the mountains. The first to draw attention to this as a general pattern was the German naturalist A. Humboldt (XIX century).

Unlike the plains in the mountains, both vegetation and animal world 2-5 times richer in species. The number of altitudinal belts in the mountains depends on the height of the mountains and on their geographical position.

The change of natural zones in the mountains is often compared to the movement along the plain in the direction from south to north. But in the mountains, the change of natural zones occurs more sharply and contrastingly and is felt at relatively short distances. Largest number altitudinal belts can be observed in the mountains located in the tropics, the smallest - in the mountains of the same height as in the Arctic Circle.

The nature of altitudinal zonality changes depending on the exposure of the slope, and also as the mountains move away from the ocean. In the mountains located near the sea coasts, mountain-forest landscapes predominate. For the mountains in central regions mainland are typical treeless landscapes.

Each high-altitude landscape belt surrounds mountains from all sides, but the system of tiers on opposite slopes of the ridges can differ dramatically.
Only at the foothills are conditions close to those typical of neighboring plains. Above them are "floors" with a more severe nature. Above all is the tier of eternal snow and ice. The higher, the colder.

But there are exceptions. There are areas in Siberia where the climate of the foothills is more severe than on the overlying slopes.
This is due to the stagnation of cold air at the bottom of intermountain basins.
The set of altitudinal belts is the greater, the further south the mountains are. This is very well seen in the example of the Urals. In the south of the Urals, where the heights are less than in the Northern and Polar Urals, there are many altitudinal belts, and in the north there is only one mountain-tundra belt.
The altitudinal belts on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus alternate very contrastingly. In less than an hour, a car can take travelers from the subtropics on the coast to the subalpine meadows.

The formation of types of altitudinal zonality of mountain systems is determined by the following factors:

The geographical position of the mountain system. The number of mountain high-altitude belts in each mountain system and their altitudinal position in the main features are determined by the latitude of the place and the position of the territory in relation to the seas and oceans. As we move from north to south, the altitudinal position of natural belts in the mountains and their set gradually increase. For example, in the Northern Urals, forests rise along the slopes to a height of 700-800 m, in the South - up to 1000-1100 m, and in the Caucasus - up to 1800-2000 m. The lowest belt in the mountain system is a continuation of the latitudinal zone, which is located at foot.

The absolute height of the mountain system. The higher the mountains rise and the closer they are to the equator, the more altitudinal belts they have. Therefore, each mountain system develops its own set of altitudinal belts.

Relief. The relief of mountain systems (orographic pattern, degree of dissection and evenness) determines the distribution of snow cover, moistening conditions, the preservation or removal of weathering products, affects the development of soil and vegetation cover, and thereby determines the diversity of natural complexes in the mountains. For example, the development of leveling surfaces contributes to an increase in the areas of altitudinal belts and the formation of more homogeneous natural complexes.

Climate. This is one of the most important factors that form the altitudinal zonality. As you climb into the mountains, temperature, humidity, solar radiation, wind direction and strength, and weather types change. The climate determines the nature and distribution of soils, vegetation, wildlife, etc., and, consequently, the diversity of natural complexes.

slope exposure. It plays a significant role in the distribution of heat, moisture, wind activity, and, consequently, the processes of weathering and the distribution of soil and vegetation cover. On the northern slopes of each mountain system, the altitudinal belts are usually located lower than on the southern slopes.

The position, change of boundaries and the natural appearance of high-altitude zones are also influenced by human economic activity.

Already in the Neogene, on the plains of Russia, there were latitudinal zones almost similar to modern ones, but due to the warmer climate, the zones of arctic deserts and tundra were absent. In the Neogene-Quaternary time, significant changes in natural zones occur. This was caused by active and differentiated neotectonic movements, climate cooling and the emergence of glaciers on the plains and mountains. Therefore, natural zones shifted to the south, the composition of their flora changed (increased deciduous boreal and cold-resistant flora of modern coniferous forests) and fauna, the youngest zones formed - tundra and arctic desert, and in the mountains - alpine, mountain-tundra and nival-glacial belts.

During the warmer Mikulin interglacial (between the Moscow and Valdai glaciations), the natural zones shifted to the north, and the altitudinal belts occupied higher levels. At this time, the structure of modern natural zones and altitudinal belts was formed. But due to climate change in the late Pleistocene and Holocene, the boundaries of zones and belts shifted several times. This is confirmed by numerous relict botanical and soil finds, as well as spore-pollen analyzes of Quaternary deposits.

The totality of altitudinal belts of a macroslope (slope) of a mountainous country or a specific slope of an individual ridge is usually called a set or spectrum of belts. In each spectrum, the base landscape is the foothills, close to the conditions of the horizontal natural zone in which the given mountainous country is located. The combination of numerous factors influencing the structure of altitudinal zonality causes a complex differentiation of types of altitudinal spectra. Even within the same zone, the spectra of altitudinal zonation are often inhomogeneous; for example, they become richer as the height of the mountains increases.

The structure of altitudinal zonality of landscapes can be complete and cut. A truncated structure is observed in two cases: when the height of the mountains is low, as a result of which the upper landscape belts characteristic of this type of altitudinal zonation fall out (Mountainous Crimea, Middle Ural etc.), and in the high uplands, in which even the river valleys lie on high altitude, as a result of which the lower landscape belts included in this type of altitudinal zonation (Eastern Pamir, Central Tien Shan and some other regions) fall out.

The history of the formation of altitudinal zonality in Russia

The formation of altitudinal zonality on the modern territory of the Russian Federation originates in the early Pleistocene, during the interglacial period (Valdai and Moscow icing). Due to repeated climatic transformations, the boundaries of altitudinal zonation have shifted several times. Scientists have proven that all modern mountain systems in Russia were originally located approximately 6 ° above their current position.

The altitudinal zonality of Russia led to the formation of mountain complexes - the Urals and the mountains of the south and east of the state (the Caucasus, Altai, the Baikal mountain ranges, the Sayans). The Ural Mountains have the status of the most ancient mountain system in the world, their formation began presumably in the Archean period. The mountain systems of the south are much younger, but due to the fact that they are closer to the equator, they significantly predominate in terms of height.

Mount Klyuchevskaya Sopka in Kamchatka


1. Altitudinal zonality, its causes.

Altitudinal zonality - a natural change in natural conditions in the mountains as the absolute height increases.

Causes of occurrence:
- decrease in temperature with height;
- reduction of humidity;
- decrease in atmospheric pressure;
- change in the amount of solar radiation;
- change in the density and dust content of the air.

All these reasons lead to the formation of different climatic conditions, different soils, plants, and altitudinal zones.

There are several zones of altitudinal zonation

1. Foothill belt (can be represented by any zone depending on the location) - the average temperature is up to + 15 ° С.

2. Mountain forest belt - average temperature + 15 - + 8 ° С.

3. Subalpine belt - average temperature + 5 ° С.

4. Alpine belt - average temperature + 3 ° С.

5. Belt of eternal snows (nival belt).

The number of altitudinal belts, as a rule, increases with the height of the mountains and as one approaches the equator, i.e. the further south and higher the mountains, the more belts can be observed, for example, the mountains of Central Asia begin with deserts.



Many features of altitudinal zonation are determined by the exposure of the slopes, their location in relation to the dominant air masses and distance from the oceans. The northern slopes receive a minimum of radiation, and the southern slopes receive a maximum (in the northern hemisphere). Therefore, the vegetation on the southern and northern slopes changes. On the southern slopes above the boundary of eternal ice forest border.


Altitudinal zonality has a number of similarities with latitudinal zonality However, in the mountains, the change of natural territorial complexes occurs more abruptly (at intervals of several km compared to hundreds and thousands of km on the plains).


The location of altitudinal zones is observed where there are mountains.


Climatic conditions:


strong winds,


bitter frost, when lifting for every 100 m the temperature drops by 0.5-1 ° C, daily temperature drops,


Strong solar radiation


low humidity,


Strong rarefaction of the air.



2. Mountain plants


Climatic differences affect plants. The mountains have a wide variety of soils and climates, so there is a wide variety of vegetation in the mountains.


Attachments:


The alpine flora are mostly slow-growing perennials, blooming only after the accumulation of sufficient food supplies. Some are succulents (sedum), storing water in their fleshy stems and leaves.


Edelweiss has a protective felt-like coating. The hairs hold a layer of air around the plant, the temperature environment he is not afraid.


Some plants (glacial buttercups) accumulate a large number of cell sap to keep cells from freezing. Other plants have developed root system, which allows them to establish themselves and obtain food.


Due to the lack of insect pollinators, mountain plants self-pollinate. The flowers of the alpine meadows are pollinated by the wind. Seeds are discarded at the time of germination.



Mountains of the temperate zone.


Mountains such as the Alps, the Caucasus, Carats, Crimea begin with broad-leaved forests, then birch groves go and then coniferous forests.


Spruce in Europe up to 1700m,


Fir in Siberia up to 2000m,


Larch in Siberia up to 2500m,


Mountain ash up to 2400m,


Beech up to 1700m,


Oak (petiolate, rocky, large-fruited, Georgian),


Cedar (Lebanese, Atlas, Himalayan) up to 2400m.


Cedar pine (Siberian and European) from 1200 to 2600m, mountain alder,


Juniper,


Rhododendron (Pyrenees, Alps, Himalayas, Caucasus) up to 3000m,


Bearded lichen.


subalpine belt It is represented by undersized shrubs and individual trees (crooked forest), including rhododendron, blueberry, dwarf pine, Caucasian birch. From herbs are growing bonfire alder, variegated fescue, changeable bonfire, large-flowered initial letter, meat-red mountaineer, dark red mytnik, lilies, clover.


Alpine meadows. Shrub thickets are thinning out more and more, giving way to alpine meadows covered with a thick carpet of colorful flowering plants.Alpine undersized meadows are similar to the tundra. Plants are very small, but have large flowers of bright color.Grow:


daffodils,


Galanthus - white snowdrops (in spring),


forget-me-nots,


Bathing suit drooping,


alpine poppies,


Gentian stemless and gentian yellow,


Alpine bells,


shot golden,


glacial buttercups,


alpine clover,


Saxifrage,


Meadow grass,


meadow cornflower,


ear primrose,


Edelweiss,


Lavender,


young,


Arnica (medicinal)


St. John's wort (up to 1600m),


Mother and stepmother (up to 3000m),


Digitalis (poisonous drug, before 1000 m),


Belladonna (up to 1500m).


Shrub - crowded wolf (a relative of the wolf's bast). Grow dwarf willows.


Even higher, only lichens and algae are found. Lichens grow on the bare surface of rocks and on the stones of moraines - rock deposits left by glaciers during retreat. Crustaceous (crustal) lichens form a dusty cover on the rocks, and leafy ones form rounded flattened shoots. Lichens contribute to the crushing of rock into small particles. algae the stones are covered with a reddish crust, and the "red snow" owes its color to the huge number of these tiny unicellular plants growing on the snow in the upper part of the glaciers.


So, the mountains of Russia, starting with forests: Carpathians, Northern Ural, North-Eastern Siberia, Far East.


Mountains beginning with the steppe: Baikal and Transbaikalia, Southern Urals, Altai, Northern Tien Shan.



Tropical mountains


The climate and mountain vegetation of the tropics differ from the climate in the temperate zone. Although the seasonal temperature fluctuations here are insignificant, the difference between their extreme values ​​during the day and at night is very large. Over humid tropical mountainthe forest is a crooked forest (elfin), consisting of dwarf and stunted trees, covered with thickets of moss and lichen. average temperature+ 10°С, fog. Trees grow up 7 m tall, creepers, mosses, lichens, ferns.


In Africa, in Uganda, at an altitude of 3500- 5000 m growing giant lobelia and tree daisies, reaching heights 9 m . At night, their large leaves in the form of huge rosettes fold around the central bud, protecting it from the cold. Plant stems are covered from frost with a layer of wilted leaves or thick cork bark. On the back side of the leaves of the tree daisy there is a silvery reflective layer of hairs, which reduces heat loss due to radiation. Between these giant plants are dense grassy tussocks. They are covered with a layer of moss growing on bare soil, which becomes loose and cracks under the influence of night frosts.



3. Animal world


Individual representatives of the fauna can be found on maximum heights. At the bottom the food chain there are tiny wingless insects -springtails , which feed on a variety of organic material, including pollen, seeds, and other insects brought to the tops of mountains by warm updrafts. In turn, springtails serve as food forspider mites capable of surviving cold winters.Beetles, centipedes, flies and spiders also devour large numbers of springtails.


Attida spiders were seen on Mount Everest at a record height - 6700 m . These small invertebrates congregate under rocks, where the humidity remains constant with small diurnal temperature fluctuations. At the end of summer, large quantitiesladybugs accumulate in shelters much higher than the snow line (snow line), where they hibernate. This behavior is usually seen following a burst of ladybug population growth after a hot summer.


Butterflies live Apollo (Russia) and isabella (Pyrenees, Alps).


To protect against increased solar radiation, many insects, small amphibians and reptiles have darker pigmentation than their relatives inhabiting the lowlands. Pigmentation absorbs short-wave ultraviolet radiation. In addition, dark pigments absorb more heat and warm the body. So, they have a dark coloralpine salamander (European amphibian) andTasmanian metal skink - a small lizard. Both of these animals are viviparous and therefore bypass the vulnerable stage of oviposition.


Birds in the mountains are found everywhere - from the foot to the top.


Mountain forests:


- nutcracker (lives in thickets of pine - Italian pine),


- gray-haired woodpecker, three-toed woodpecker (males can be recognized by the yellow stripe on the crest, lives in a spruce forest)


- furry owl,


- capercaillie (oak forests, coniferous forests Western Europe)


- black grouse (edges, Scotland, Pyrenees, Eastern Siberia up to 2300m).



Subalpine belt:


- lemon finch lives higher, where the forest thins and gives way to an open rocky surface with sparse trees.


- stone partridge live on rocky sunny slopes, overgrown with dwarf pines, junipers and rhododendrons.


- blue and mottled stone thrushes live on rocks and bushes.


- dippers (dive and walk along the bottom of the reservoir in search of food).



Alpine belt:


- white partridge common in the arctic alpine zone and lives high in the mountains on rocky and snow-covered slopes, as well as in the polar tundra.


- British mountain horse in Central Europe living just below the snowy fields.


- ulars distributed in a limited area, while each species keeps a certain mountain range - for example, the Caucasus or the Himalayas.


- snow finches - small birds living above others in the mountains, at an altitude of about 4000 m . They fly in small flocks over rocky deserts and snowy fields.


- alpine jackdaws live on high cliffs up to the snow line (up to 9000m), has a yellow beak, red paws and black feathers.


- white-bellied swifts nest on the rocks. Their wings are larger than those of the black swift, and during the flight they are strongly bent back in the form of a sickle. They can soar in the air for a long time, feeding on small organisms, only occasionally making a few quick flaps of their wings.


- alpine whorl (also in the subalpine zone).


- red-winged wall climber - a bird the size of a sparrow, climbs the rocks, flapping its wings, which serve as a support. With tenacious, widely spaced claws, it clings to the unevenness of the rocks and extracts insects, spiders and their larvae, eggs from the cracks.


Predator birds: (hatch chicks on bare isolated rocks)


- golden eagle (rare, wings 2 m , feeds on partridges, marmots, hares)


- eagle ,


- condor (scavenger, Andes and Cordillera, wings 3m ),


- vultures (scavenger, Old World Mountains),


- griffon vulture (scavenger, Southern Europe, Asia),


- bearded lamb (Africa, Himalayas, Tien Shan, Caucasus, Europe up to 7000m, rare; wingspan up to 2.5 m.



Mammals:


(they have warm wool, skillfully climb the mountain slopes, in winter they descend from the mountains to the valleys)


- mountain goats (alpine mountain goat, Siberian goat) ,


- markhor goat (mountains of Asia),


- chamois (wild goat)


- mountain sheep (Tien Shan, Pamir argali, Crimean mouflon, Altai argali),


- yaks (lives at altitudes up to 6000 m in the mountains of Tibet and feeds mainly on mosses and lichens. Due to its barrel-shaped body and short legs, its body surface area is relatively small, which ensures less heat loss. Under the long shaggy hair of the yak is another layer of thick fur),


- marmots (alpine meadows),


- white hare,


- ermine,


- wolf,


- Brown bear (up to 1800m)


- grizzly (Canada, Mexico, Rocky Mountains),


- Himalayan bear (white-breasted - the mountains of Asia, 4000m long),


- spectacled bear (Andes from 1800 to 4000m),


- giant panda (bamboo groves of the Tibetan Plateau from 1200 to 3400m),


- puma (cougar, Andes, Rocky Mountains up to 4000m),


- lynx (mountain forests of Europe and Asia, North America),


- irbis, snow leopard (mountains of Asia up to 5000m),


- manul (valleys of the Asian mountains up to 5500m),


- Amur tiger (Primorsky Krai),


- desman (Pyrenees - mountain rivers),


- llamas, alpacas, vicuñas, guanacos (high mountain plateaus up to 5500m. To compensate for the lack of oxygen at such altitudes, vicunas have a large number of additional red blood cells. They live in small herds, numbering, in addition to a single male, 6-12 females). Domesticated llamas (pack animals) and alpacas (wool).



tropical mountains


Lives in the mountains of Africamountain gorilla (Congo up to 4000m)


In Japan - Japanese macaque.



1. The peoples of the highlands:



IRBIS (snow leopard) (Panthera uncia), a mammal of the cat family. Body length 120- 150 cm, tail 70-100 cm , height at the withers 50- 60 cm, weight 23-40 kg . The body is elongated, squat. The head is small and rounded. The eyes are large, the pupil is round. The ears are short with a rounded top. The limbs are relatively short. Paws are wide and massive. Retractable claws. The fur is soft, high, thick. The tail is covered with high, thick fur. The general background is light gray, with large annular and small solid spots of black or dark gray scattered over it. The belly and inner parts of the limbs are lighter than the back.


The range covers Mongolia, Tibet, the Himalayas, the Hindu Kush, the mountains of Central Asia and South Siberia. In summer, it stays at the border of the snow line at a height 5500 m , in the zone of subalpine and alpine meadows. In winter, following the ungulates, it descends to 1800 m . Prefers rocky areas. Active at dusk. He hunts mainly mountain goats and rams, as well as marmots, ground squirrels, hares, mouse-like rodents, snowcocks, and partridges. Leopards live in pairs. They make their lairs in caves and crevices between stones. Breeding in January-May. IN mating season make loud meowing sounds. Pregnancy 93-110 days. There are 2-3 cubs in a litter. In the first days after the appearance of the cubs, the female warms them by covering the den with wool torn from her own body. Sexual maturity occurs at 2-3 years. Life expectancy up to 18 years. In 1971, the International Fur Trade Federation banned the fur trade. snow leopard. Successfully kept in zoos, breeds in captivity. Due to the decrease in the number of ungulates and the capture of snow leopards for zoos, it is endangered (in the IUCN Red List).



ARCHAR, an artiodactyl animal of the genus of sheep, a subspecies of a mountain sheep, characterized by large body sizes (height at the withers 120 cm, weight 200 kg ) and powerful, spiral-wrapped horns. Sometimes all subspecies of mountain sheep (up to ten subspecies) are called argali, but more often only Central Asian and Transcaucasian subspecies are referred to them. Pamir is considered a classic example of argali. Mountain sheep(Ovis ammon polii), whose discovery is credited to Marco Polo. Argali belong to the ancestors of the domestic sheep




GOATS (mountain goats), a group of genera of artiodactyl animals of the subfamily of goats and rams of the bovid family; includes primarily the genus of mountain goats proper (Asian teks and caucasian tours, bezoar goat). Length 100- 170 cm . Both males and females have horns. Goats are common in North Africa and Eurasia, including the mountains of the Caucasus, Central Asia and South Siberia. Most species are in decline. Wild goats are the ancestors of domestic goats. Several species of goats are listed in the International Red Book.




MARKHORN GOAT (markhor, Сapra falkoneri), artiodactyl mammal genus of true mountain goats (Сapra). It stands somewhat apart from other mountain goats, and markhor is often distinguished as a separate subgenus. Body length up to 1.7 m, height up to 100 cm; weight of males 80-120 kg, females - 40-60 kg . The horns are spirally twisted (the left horn from the beast to the right, the right horn to the left). The trunk of the horn is strongly flattened, laterally compressed and has well-defined anterior and posterior ribs. Males have a large beard, a dewlap on the neck and chest, especially lush and long in winter fur. Coloring reddish-sandy or grayish-red; suspension light, whitish.


Markhor is distributed in Central and South Asia, in Afghanistan, Pakistan, in the north-west of India, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. It lives on the slopes of rocky gorges overgrown with shrubs or light forests, usually at an altitude of 1500- 3000 m (below the Alpine and Siberian goats). In winter, markhor often descends to the lower belt of mountains, sometimes to the desert-steppe zone to a height of 800–900 m above sea level. In summer, it grazes at night, early in the morning and in the evening, in winter - all daylight hours. Markhorn goat feeds on grassy vegetation, leaves and shoots of shrubs.


Most of the year, adult males and females keep separately, in small groups of 3-5 heads. In autumn, during the rut and in winter, it forms mixed herds of up to 20-30 heads. The rut takes place in November-December. Kids (usually 1-2) appear at the end of April-May, milk feeding continues until autumn. Markhorn goat is not numerous everywhere, it is listed in the International Red Book. Probably, this species is one of the ancestors of domestic goats.


VICUNIA (vigon; Vicugna vicugna), the only species of the genus of the same name (Vicugna) of mammals of the family of camelids of the genus llamas. Vicuña body length 1.25- 1.9 m, height 70-110 cm, weight 40-50 kg . Unlike the guanaco and the llama, the vicuña has a shorter head and longer ears and fur. The coat color is reddish, a dewlap 20-20 long is formed on the neck and chest. 35 cm.


Vicuña is common in the Andean highlands. Like the guanaco, she keeps in family herds of 5-15 females, led by an adult male. Young males form temporary, easily disintegrating groups of 20-30 animals. Vicuñas are herbivores. The rut occurs from April to June, pregnancy lasts 10-11 months.


Incas, and later other Indians South America they drove large herds, sheared their wool, and then let them out. In the 20th century, as a result of predatory extermination (mainly due to valuable wool), the vicuña's range was greatly reduced. It was listed in the International Red Book. Thanks to measures taken since the middle of the 20th century, the number of animals is gradually recovering. Work is underway to domesticate and breed vicuñas. Vicuna crossed with guanaco, domesticated (alpaca).



ULARS (mountain turkeys Tetraogallus) is a genus of birds of the pheasant family, includes five species: Caucasian snowcock, Caspian snowcock, Himalayan snowcock, Altai snowcock, Tibetan snowcock. These birds are about 60 cm, weight up to 3 kg . They are common in the mountains of Asia. Ulars are a young group of species that arose and developed under the influence of the isolation of the high-mountain regions of the Palearctic, which occurred in the era of the development of mountain-building processes of Alpine folding at the end of the Tertiary and in Quaternary. The evolution of the snowcocks followed the development of mountain systems, and, in essence, the snowcocks were the brainchild of geomorphological evolution earth's crust, which led to the emergence of modern mountain systems and to profound climate changes on the globe.



Yak (Bos mutus), a species of bovid mammal of the genus of true bulls. Yaks are sometimes classified as a separate subgenus, Poophagus. Height at withers up to 2 m , the mass of old bulls up to a ton. There is a small hump at the withers, which makes the back seem strongly sloping. Horns up to 95–100 cm long. Survive in extreme conditions yaks are helped by exceptionally warm hair: on most of the body the hair is thick and even, and on the legs, sides and belly it is long and shaggy. Here it forms a kind of skirt, reaching almost to the ground. Of the sense organs, yaks have the best developed sense of smell, sight and hearing - much weaker.


In the wild, yaks are preserved in Tibet and the Himalayas. They inhabit treeless alpine gravelly semi-deserts, climbing mountains to a height 6 km . In August and September, yaks go to the border of eternal snows, and spend the winter in the valleys, content with the meager vegetation that they can get from under the snow. Yaks do not form large herds, more often they are kept in groups of 3-5 animals. Old bulls lead a solitary lifestyle. They usually graze in the morning and before sunset. They sleep at night, sheltered from the cold. The rut happens in September-October. The calving takes place in June. The calf is not separated from its mother for about a year. Adult yaks are armed with horns, ferocious and very strong. Wolves dare to attack them only in a large pack. A wounded or angry yak may attack a person.

1) How do air temperatures and Atmosphere pressure with the height of the area above sea level?

Air temperature and pressure decrease with altitude.

2) How does the sequence of zones change when climbing into the mountains: the same as when moving along the plain - from north to south - or from south to north?

The sequence of zones when climbing into the mountains changes in the same way as when moving along the plain from south to north.

Questions in a paragraph

* Determine in which mountains of Russia the altitudinal zones are most fully represented, explain this.

The belts are most fully represented in the Caucasus Mountains, this is due to their southern position.

* What is altitudinal zonality?

Altitudinal zonality, altitudinal zonality - a natural change in natural conditions, natural zones and landscapes in the mountains as the absolute height (altitude above sea level) increases. Do you think altitudinal zonality is a deviation from the norm or confirmation of the law of latitudinal zoning?

Questions at the end of the paragraph

1. Why does the change in natural conditions in the mountains occur vertically and manifest itself more sharply than on the plains?

The change of natural zones in the mountains occurs more abruptly than on the plains, since the natural conditions.

2. What altitudinal zones prevail in the mountains of Russia? With what areas of the world can they be compared?

In the mountains of Russia, taiga, tundra zones and arctic desert zones predominate. They can be compared with the northern regions of Eurasia and North America.

3. What determines the set of altitudinal belts?

The set of altitudinal belts depends on the geographical position of the mountains.

4. If mountains above the Caucasus were located in the north of the Russian Plain, would they be richer in terms of the number of altitudinal belts?

The high mountains in the north of the Russian Plain would not have been richer in terms of the set of belts of the Caucasus.

5. How do mountains affect human life and health?

With the height of the mountains change individual components nature and the whole natural complex. As you rise up, the air temperature decreases, the amount of precipitation increases (especially on the windward slopes of the mountains), and the humidity of the air changes. All this affects the characteristics soil cover And organic world. Compared to the plains, the mountains have their own "calendars of nature" - the timing of the development of plants, both cultivated and wild. Life in the mountains obeys the pace natural processes. The way of life of people, their clothes, traditional occupations are different here.

The "press" of nature in the highlands, that is, on the highest mountain "floors", is felt by everyone: both permanent residents, and observers at weather stations, and mine workers, and climbers. It is colder here, the atmospheric pressure is lower, there is less oxygen, more ultraviolet rays. Even cars feel the specifics of the climate of the skies: the boiling point of water changes with height, the proportions of the combustible mixture in motors, and the properties of lubricating oils.

FINAL TASKS ON THE TOPIC

1. Prove that a natural area is a natural complex.

Both natural zones and natural complexes have the unity of natural components. When natural conditions change, both natural complexes and natural zones change.

2. Which of the Russian scientists was the founder of the doctrine of natural areas?

Vasily Vasilyevich Dokuchaev

3. Name all the natural areas of Russia. Prove that they are placed regularly.

On the territory of Russia, there is a change from north to south of the following natural zones: arctic deserts, tundra, forest tundra, taiga, mixed and broad-leaved forests, forest-steppes, steppes, semi-deserts. almost all zones of our country stretch for thousands of kilometers from west to east, and yet they retain significant common features conditioned by the dominant climatic conditions, degree of moisture, soil types, vegetation cover. Similarities can also be seen in surface waters and modern relief-forming processes.

4. Name the treeless zones of our country. Where are they located? What are their similarities and what are their differences?

Treeless zones - arctic deserts, tundra, steppes, deserts and semi-deserts. Arctic deserts and tundra are located in the arctic and subarctic belts, in northern regions. steppe zone, deserts and semi-deserts are located in the southern regions. Their similarity is the absence woody vegetation. The difference lies in the fact that the reason for treelessness in the northern regions is the harsh climate, in the southern regions it is insufficient moisture.

5. What natural zone of our country occupies largest area? Find within it areas that are not the same in terms of natural conditions and think about how this is explained.

The taiga zone is the largest natural zone in Russia in terms of area. In different regions of the vast taiga zone, many natural conditions are not the same - the general severity of the climate, the degree of moisture, mountainous or flat relief, the amount sunny days, soil diversity. Therefore, the formations of the taiga are also different. coniferous trees, which in turn changes the appearance taiga in certain areas. Dark coniferous spruce-fir forests prevail in the European part of the zone and in Western Siberia, where cedar forests join them. Most of the Middle and Eastern Siberia covered with larch forests. Everywhere on sandy and gravelly soils grow pine forests. The forests of the Far Eastern Primorye have a very special character, where on the Sikhote-Alin ridge, ordinary conifers - spruces and firs - are joined by such southern views like Amur velvet, cork oak, etc.

The zone of mixed and broad-leaved forests has the highest productivity. It has fertile soils, sufficient moisture, rich flora and fauna.

8. Determine which natural area in question if it grows:

A) dwarf birch, elfin cedar, reindeer moss;

B) larch, cedar, birch, aspen, alder. Name the soils and typical animals characteristic of both zones.

A) tundra. Animals - reindeer, arctic fox, goose, goose.

B) mixed forests. Animals - elk, roe deer, hares, foxes, badgers, lynxes, black grouse, partridges.

9. What are the optimal environmental conditions necessary for successful farming. Which of the natural areas you know has such conditions?

Favorable thermal conditions, sufficient moisture, fertile soils. The thermal regime of the zone of mixed and broad-leaved forests and the degree of its moisture content are favorable for agriculture. Soddy-podzolic and gray forest soils are highly fertile.

11. Practical work No. 10. Explanation of the principles for identifying large natural regions on the territory of Russia. Compare the map (Fig. 81) with the physical and climate maps Russia in the atlas.

What natural boundaries coincide with the boundaries of natural areas?

The boundaries of natural areas coincide with the boundaries of large landforms.

Do climatic indicators affect the drawing of borders?

Climatic indicators also affect the drawing of borders.

Make a conclusion about what components of nature are the main ones when zoning the territory.

The main components of nature in the zoning of the territory are relief and climate.