What is differential psychology? What does differential psychology study?

For a long time psychology sought to identify general patterns in people's behavior. In these searches, individuality was often forgotten. After all, no two people are the same. Despite the fact that everyone has something in common, there are many differences that make us unique, unique with our vision and understanding of the world, with our habits, way of thinking and acting. We all perceive the world, react to its manifestations. We may have a common view, a common opinion, but it will always be colored by the nuances inherent in a particular individual.

Science was forced to go psychologically hard. We had to move from the usual semi-classical quantum mechanics, which required a classical observer in a pure quantum sense, in which there was no place for classical poetry. This is just a revolutionary step. After all, such a view of the world, as shown by quantum theory, was before the collapse scientific world. You may need new materials, but before you can, we can use already familiar surface-related solutions.

Let's find in the book that the surface has many names. In the end, birth, as well as decoherence, is a transformation, a surface of invisible planes. What we call creation, development, evolution and the so-called progress in the world is also decoherence. And personal, individual self, selfishness, private property, pride in love and other various attachments are the consequences of decoherence. Recall the fact that death and birth are two inseparable sides of the same reporter: the birth of death requires death, and death is said to be born.

These small nuances then affect our behavior, habits, aspirations. And, since a person is in society, constantly interacting with other people and groups of people, it is important to understand him deep motivation, try to predict the reaction to a particular event. This allows you to more effectively use the qualities of a person, his talents and abilities in work, everyday life, helps to achieve maximum self-expression.

Similarly, decoherence and reconciliation are sides of the same failure. This is an all-encompassing sense of humor that suggests that everything will turn into its roots sooner or later. Darkness would turn into bright, young, old, deadly, visible and invisible. Greek dialects called enantiodromemi - paudioids express it as a preposition. Quantum theory already has a quantitative quantitative measure of decoherence and re-coherence. It varies from one to zero.

In quantum confusion, the unity of the beginning, recoherence is one and decoherence is zero. AT quantum theory such a space called a piano is called a purr, and the figurines are beautiful animals. it former religion which leads to all religion and which, in general, is the home of God. The Apostle John is at the door of his mouth: everyone who has such a pen in him, he is beautiful with himself, because he is also beautiful. Therefore, we can call quantum confusion or superposition phenomena like a fairy tale or world-class beautiful level.

This problem is solved by a new direction - differential psychology, which appeared in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with the beginning of experiments in psychology and the introduction of tests. Its founders are Galton and Stern. This area is studying individual differences the psyches of individuals and groups of people, as well as the nature, sources and consequences of these differences.

That is, it seems - ancient in the sense of iodium - when something appears, as if nothing, for example, dew, cloud, joll, live. Decoherence approaches one, and the form of rebinding to zero, forms become brittle, creep, break, suffer. Roy new. Renewal as death becomes birth. The definition of mutual confidence in the definition of a person is supplemented and expanded. We can say that a person is united, separated from the Universe and placed in a separate mansion by a sage. Unification of the human body and its placement in separate place- at the beginning of the book, in the book of the holiday of the holiday, the Virgin made a man out of many people and saved a life.

The task of differential psychology is establishing patterns of how individual differences arise and manifest themselves in the human psyche, development theoretical foundations psychodiagnostic studies and appropriate corrective programs.

Differential psychology owes its appearance to pedagogical, medical and engineering practices.

This is how the man came to life. The beginning of the book by Christians in this being is rather pale and adapted to the theology of redemption. Theologians most likely to be found in Hebrew are native speakers. We will also use your spells. They say about the soul of God: God created man as the god of words. They say the following: and there would be breath. Protestant theologian Alfred Vllius states: "And the spirit was filled with life, creating the soul of the soul." We read in the Orthodox manner: and breathed into the face the breath of life, and became a living person.

In short bursts of the Hebrew Bible, there are three Hebrew texts, each of which, according to its bulletin, is translated into spirit, soul, life, breath, or white. However, Yodis are not synonymous as Hebrew refers to different levels souls - neramah, ruahu and neper. Using quantum physics, we can say that at the mouth of the Raffret we are talking about the soul, but in three different quantum ways. The following similes are used in the Yiddish rabbis in the Bible: the creation of man will be like a glass of wind.

Stern characterized the fundamental problem of differential psychology as triune:

Nature psychological life individual and sociological groups, the degree of their differences.
Factors that determine differences and the impact on them.
What are the differences.

The greatest attention in differential psychology is paid to psychological testing. Initially these were individual tests, and then to determine the mental differences resorted to group. Later appeared projective tests, which helped to better understand the interests of people, their attitudes towards life, emotional states and reactions. By processing tests, factors are identified that reveal general properties(parameters, measurements) of intelligence or personality. Based on the results obtained, quantitative variations in the characteristics of the psychology of a particular person are determined, which just help to maximize the use of his potential, to reveal his creative abilities.

The glass bottle starts with a bite that flows like a whale through a pipe until it stops in a ball shape. However, only a simple translation of other languages, without a rabbi, will not be disclosed. The Zohar understands that the Nephrops are associated with the Ruachs, Ruachs and non-Temples, and not with the Holy Unity. Three of them are a chain that connects a person with God. The alienation of the Hebrew language shows how different quantum confusion is, in other words, unlike God, the "distance" of the soul is reflected in the place of the Bible in question.

Nekhram is on the same path as Nekhram, who says hit, but in this case it is God's stain. Neffer came from rocks, reproaches, stops and apostates, henceforth refers to the soul of the tribes, which is associated with the heat and is in it. The Ruach tells you vla' and this is the level of the soul that connects you to the nephra. It turns out that these are the most interconnected, in other words, the most “distant” from God and the stubborn, permeated soul in the human body. The difference between localization and decoherence is that if localization - the placement of the soul in a being - can be understood as a simple act of God's ego, then decoherence or association is a long-term process that is still present.

At present, differential psychology studies the qualities of a person regarding his individuality, spirituality, general worldview, subject-substantial qualities, features of self-consciousness, characteristic style personality and implementation various kinds activities (professional, educational, communication, etc.). New techniques and approaches, both experimental and mathematical, are being improved and developed.

At the beginning of the article, we mentioned secularization or worldview that we observed in all areas human activity. Usually this is connected only with the processes taking place in religion. However, it is clear that secularization or the outbreak of poverty are all areas of activity. We can say that there is a world dimension, which in quantum theory is called decoherence. Firstly, the degree of unification of the souls of people was still maju, or, in other words, the level of quantum confusion was even higher.

Speaking of this, the symbolism is this: Adam spoke to God. According to the prophets, the first of the souls of people, although they were born in their hearts, were not yet "far" from God. The union or the world began to grow, the union with God was great, and the first people did not believe in disobedience to God. This was decisive limit, which surpassed Pv. The mouth represents a "distraction" from God, symbolically speaking of an invasion of paradise. This is one more step in the world.

More and more attention is paid to the study of differences in creative and organizational abilities in overall structure personality, in the motivational sphere.

This area of knowledge has a wide practical application:

Selection and training of personnel.
Diagnostics of the development of inclinations, abilities of individuals.
Choice of profession.
Staff motivation and much more.

It is believed that the idea of individual differences in people

Those. intraspecific difference arose more than a hundred years ago on the basis of observable and visible:

The unification of the human body took place in parallel with the uprising. Speaking of Adam and Eve, we often forgot that the first people did not have enough of a physical being that has a current person. They were like angels, and only after "falling" or "distancing" from God - unification - did they receive a dense physical mind. According to the theologian Ignatius Brianyaninov, before the fall of the first people, the calves were immortal, did not shoot, there were no such tanks and heavy ones, and they did not even hear the carelessness of the hearts of modern mankind.

At the beginning of the book it is said that even before entering the Paradise Church, he made the coats of Adam and Eve and put them on. Only young people of age began to trump. However, many figures indicate that not only the soul or sons, but also the decoyers of the world - its recruitment and difficulties, and the same mortality was gradual. Levi-Brulis, the forerunner of the sanguine man, embraced the weaker self-perception, but the stronger, brighter leader among all living thoughts called participation hazy. Jung named a genius, and initially did not want to recognize many ethnologists.

conditions Everyday life(supply and distribution),
activity specifics,
trade,
wars and migrations.

Differences took place not only among people and nations, but also among animals.

Thus, the interspecies difference was also stated.

The first to make comparisons were intraspecific and interspecific ethologists

Ethology(from Greek - temper, character; manner of behaving and logos - teaching) - the science of the "biology of behavior", the general biological foundations and patterns of animal behavior.

Levi-Brussel Boulevard, like ancient myths, tells about the times when a person with the sky merged with golden vision, aireyks say that until now the hearts of people who unite the state and truth have been more subdued. Originally there was no Muslim in the culture, it would have us in our cultural form and religion. Inspirational stories tell about cyclical repetition four years of development humanity. Development begins with a sense of humor in which people live in harmonious unity among themselves and in close relationship with God.

They tried to compare not only animals, but also people with each other.

Carried out intraspecific and interspecific comparison, taking into account the level of evolutionary development.

As a result of such comparisons, the researchers drew attention to the presence of: common in all people, and in animals as such; private, specific and even unique; congenital and acquired.

The third drainage and the double-edged waterfall, more and more distant from God, are accompanied by great impudence, discord and evil. Violent evil is destroyed, and civilization is what we say in terms of repetition or unification, and the cycle begins again. Rhys abandons the virgin, but symbolically shows the decoration of the sonals, i.e. "Distance" from God. Generally speaking, all these cases point to the world, "distancing" from God and its consequences are good and bad. In the development of the sons of youth, it will be divided into five stages: archaea, magnesium, mizzi, mental and integral.

Naturally, for a reasonable and purposeful distribution of general, particular and individual properties and qualities, as well as for solving the mass of related problems of individual differences, it was required system development conceptual apparatus, subject, object, methods of research and processing of the obtained results.

In other words, it was required to organize a new scientific psychological knowledge with all the ensuing methodological "consequences".

The first three steps are difficult for us to understand. Unfortunately, there is an archaic sarmel that we can talk about, and often these souls call us wild. Modern civilized man is only willing to recognize the mentality of society, which is very strongly reminiscent of individuality, isolation and selfishness. On the mental faces of a man whose degree of union is the greatest, Vydynas says that he himself creates his own prayer. This is a rough, but distinguished, gay man. An integral part of society for most peoples is the future of the self-proclaimed selfish person, and a person becomes more and more cautious, feeling his dependence on everything that is.

Therefore, a new scientific directionon the one hand, they tried to identify the patterns of formation of properties, traits and signs common to people, and on the other hand, it became necessary to study the variability of human mental manifestations.

All this gave impetus to the development of differential psychology.

variability- the basic feature of behavior that determines the variety of its forms.

In the past, civilization was dominated by the mentally oriented - the most isolated person. How more people is a citizen, i.e. y. “Distant” from God, the world created by such a person is more painful and closer. Do you see that our sons are changing so much that the current civilization is false? In any macro or micro world, the results of observation mainly depend on the "measuring device". By measuring the device, we support any structure that interacts with environment. In a sense, a measuring device is not only technical equipment, created by man, but also by man with his five senses: rega, hearing, spot, smell and taste.

Development of differential psychology as new area knowledge required the solution of a number of sequential tasks of the subject area: the need to identify parameters (characteristics) by which it is possible and necessary to make estimates of individual differences → determination of such parameters of individual differences that can also vary within certain limits and thereby give a certain range of individual differences in the population → designation the very range of individual differences required to understand the breadth of this range → in turn, a change in the breadth of the range was predicted, and hence the task of knowing the causes of such changes arose → it was believed that the causes of such changes can be understood through the characteristics and structure of those qualities that make up this range and this structure must be disclosed → accordingly, the structure and characteristics of the qualities that give differences have their biological and social nature in essence.

Truth is "measured" and perceived only by man, and Technical equipment only increases the feelings of a person. Obviously, the world in which the measuring device "assembles" itself depends on the internal characteristics of the device and the information that it is able to capture and process. We are fighting with the most perfect device - the human brain with your tools - the perception of organs or senses. A person's feelings receive information and send it to the processing center - the brain, in which the imaginary soul builds an image of the universe with which it is captured.

Response range, latitude- the degree of variability in the manifestation of a given individual trait, limited due to the action of stable internal factors(such as heredity, rigidly fixed structures of acquired life experience, etc.)

Due to the above tasks, the subject of differential psychology

On the one hand, it appears to be heterogeneous and captures other areas psychological knowledge.

Therefore, differential psychology, not having a fully-fledged subject, becomes part of other areas of knowledge.

On the other hand, the problem of individual differences objectively exists and requires the integration of knowledge about the individual differences of people in a particular area.

By virtue of what has been said, differential psychology can be defined as special area human knowledge, the subject of which is the analysis of the structure of individuality based on the study of individual, typological and group differences between people by the method of comparative analysis.

In another case, differential psychology is presented as a branch of psychology that studies the patterns of formation, development and functioning of differences between individuals and groups.

The theory and practice of differential psychology concentrates its main efforts on the sources and causes of positive and negative consequences of these differences for life, communication, behavior and human activity.

The subject matter of differential psychology is

In the study of patterns of mental diversity.

Understanding the patterns of such a diversity of the mental world of people will allow them to be taken into account in practical work, namely in diagnostics, forecasting, rendering psychological help, regulation and psychological support.

At the same time, it is necessary to distinguish the differentiation of individuality from the differentiation of the psyche and behavior.

Differentiation of individuality there is a gradual increase in distance (which is reflected in a decrease in the density of connections) between psychological structures in ontogeny.

BUT, differentiation of the psyche there is an increase in the specialization of individual functions of cognitive, emotional and regulatory processes in accordance with the stages of development of the subject.

Differentiation of behavior is the structuring and ordering, as the subject develops, of the system of his reaction, modes of behavior and forms of interaction with the world.

Definition of the object of study of differential psychology

It also has its own difficulties. Today they are distinguished as objects of differential psychology: signs and personality in general.

The beginning of such a division of the object will be laid by William Stern (1871-1938), a German psychologist. In particular, he identified four areas of research.

Two by trait, namely: the first is a study (one-time cut) of the variability of the trait (quality),

those. the range of its values [one feature in several individuals, "horizontal study"],

and the second is the study of concomitant qualities of the first quality [two or more traits in several individuals, psychographic study, correlation].

Two by individuality, where the causes (genesis) and prognosis [multi-level and multifactorial personality] are investigated, namely: the third direction of research (one individual in relation to many signs, which constitutes a psychographic, “vertical” description or typological approach; the fourth direction of research (two and more individuals in relation to many features, which constitutes a comparative description).

In general, it is recognized that at present in differential psychology there are more private psychological theories of individuality and the main methodological trend is the integration of private knowledge, private concepts into a complex systemic theory of individual differences.

In the methodology of scientific knowledge, the subject and object are complemented by the principles of differential psychology, on which the entire building of this branch of knowledge is based. In addition to general psychological principles, the principles of differential psychology include:

implementation of a formal approach (analysis of the structure of stable properties of a person, the connection between the typological and the unique, inimitable, taking into account:

hierarchy, invariance, coordination of interaction, individual, unity);
integral analysis (ratio of part and whole);
interrelationships of intra- and interindividual regularities;
interactions of endo- and exo-factors in the determination of differences and, finally,
measurability and static evaluation of the studied phenomena.

Historically, there have been several stages in the study of individual differences:

prescientific,
natural science,
humanitarian.

D These stages were implemented within the framework of the respective approaches.

The prescientific approach is characterized by the fact that observation prevails here, the accumulation of worldly ideas, combined with a weak generalization of the material. It is assumed that on this basis characterology- the desire to reduce the differences of people to a simple typology, and hence various classifications on various grounds(Galen, Kant).

The natural-science approach, called nomothetic (nomos - pattern) - tries to find cause-and-effect relationships, patterns based on the experimental base.

Nomothetic approach- revealing in individuality universal traits and patterns inherent in all people.

On this basis, initially

The following areas of differential psychology

psychognostics- establishing relationships between movements, anatomical features and character traits;
physiognomy(founder J. Lavater) - bases his assumptions on facial expressions, gestures, silhouette as a source of predicting human behavior;
phrenology(cranioscopy, F.A. Gall) - the features of a person were determined by the shape of the skull;
graphology(Abbé I. Michon worked more than others) - diagnosis by handwriting (inclination, pressure, accuracy of movements, etc.).

All these directions were criticized at one time, but are now returning to scientific consideration on a new methodological basis.

Humanitarian approach, called ideographic, here main value is not statistics, but a statement of the value of individual differences and the consequences are predicted in the search for a single, unique in explaining the differences.

Ideographic approach this approach is centered on a special method of studying individuality, focusing on the analysis of its internal structure in order to emphasize the originality and uniqueness of the subject organization.

These approaches focus on the study of:

one side, social characteristics differences (abilities, mental development, personality parameters, etc.),

and on the other- on the physiological basis of differences (temperament, talent, genius, etc.);

from a third party- they try to understand the relationship between the social and physiological, respectively, and the hierarchy of mental properties with individual differences.

On this basis, even formed a hierarchical theory of individuality.

Hierarchical theory of individuality

There is a system of theoretical ideas, as well as experimental and life facts, according to which the organization and functioning of the world of human mental reality is described using four dimensions:

bodily (organic),
individual (general mental),
personal and integral.

The integral level of individuality has its own parameters: structural (intensity-moderation; stability-variability; breadth-narrowness) and functional (compensatory, optimality, adaptability, performance)

The description of the interaction of all four components is carried out taking into account the principle of invariance, limiting the degree of freedom in the functioning of autonomous subsystems, differentiation of the hierarchy.

An invariant is a mathematical (causal) relationship between variables that is stable and independent of changes occurring in the variables themselves.

It makes sense to give another example of the supposed stages in the development of differential psychology, namely:

to the psychological stage - development proceeded within the framework of philosophy;
the second half of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th century - the formation of differential psychology within the framework of general psychology and was usually referred to as "the psychology of individual differences";
the beginning of the 20th century and up to the present, the development of differential psychology proceeds independently with the identification of connections between other areas of psychological knowledge.

Gradually, other related areas of research are formed within differential psychology, for example,

differential psychophysiology,
differential Clinical Psychology,
differential developmental psychology,
differential gerontopsychology,
differential cognitive science.

Currently in the methodological arsenal of differential psychologists

Actively used various methods, as well as methods of mathematical statistics and psychometrics.

Significantly expanded interdisciplinary links within the framework of psychological knowledge with

general psychology,
comparative psychology,
zoopsychology,
developmental psychology,
social psychology,
gender psychology,
medicine,
pedagogy,
engineering psychology.

However, this was preceded by a complex historical stage becoming.

Francis Galton (1822-1911), an English anthropologist, biologist, and statistician, is considered the founder of differential psychological knowledge.

One of the sources of the emergence of differential psychology as scientific knowledge is experimental psychology.

Ideas for studying individual differences arose in the study of precisely hereditary factors and, in particular, through eugenics (improvement of a person due to selective marriages).

Initially, the biographical method, questionnaires and measurement of anthropometric data were used.

For example, at the international exhibition in London, 1884. Later they began to use mathematical methods in statistics processing.

For example, they actively used correlation and later factor analysis.

Eventually, differential psychologists began to use standardized tests and appropriate mathematical processing methods.

As you know, one of the first to develop a test for diagnosing individual differences was the French researcher Alfred Binet (first version in 1904). In 1912, V. Stern suggested using the IQ coefficient on the test of A. Binet.

In 1900, he also published the work "The Psychology of Individual Differences", where he introduced the concept of "differential psychology", and already in 1911 he wrote the book "Differential Psychology".

It should be remembered that for some time in parallel in the literature there were several terms that denoted an individual difference:

characterology(Galen, I. Kant, I. Banzen, B. Lucas) - a field of knowledge that reduces differences to typology based on anatomy, physiology, psychology;
ethology(J.St.Mill) - currently the science of behavior; individual psychology(A. Binet, E. Krepelin) - today it is the Adlerian direction of psychoanalysis; special psychology(G.Heymans) - denotes medical psychology.

Early stages of research in differential psychology

The task was to establish the existing patterns of occurrence and manifestation of individual differences in the psyche.

The first data concerned mental abilities, but gradually the scope of research expanded, up to group differences (A. Anastasi), the structure of properties and their relationships (R. Cattell).

Psychophysiological research and development of the school of B.M. Teplov, V.D. Nebylitsina and others significantly expanded the subject of differential psychology, namely: the structure of psychological properties; reasons for the differences; personality analysis, etc.

Thus, the prerequisites for the formation of differential psychology into an independent branch of psychological knowledge were gradually formed. The following events played a significant role in this process.

Implementation of the experimental method. W. Wund opened the first experimental laboratory in Germany in 1879.

Discovery of the Fechner-Weber psychophysiological law. In 1796, thanks to an alleged oversight by an assistant at the Greenwich Observatory, Kinnybrook, reaction time (RT) was discovered as a mental phenomenon.

Later, the Dutchman F. Donders developed a scheme for calculating VR. Using the method of statistical analysis and obtaining a curve normal distribution. In addition, the beginning of the introduction of the theory of probability was laid, to which the Belgian scientists Adolf Quetelet and F. Galton were the first to pay attention.

In differential psychology, they began to use the data and methods of psychogenetics (the twin method and genetic analysis).

In Russia, one of the first to deal with individual differences

Alexander Fedorovich Lazursky (1874-1917).

He worked at the Psychoneurological Institute, which was created by V.M. Bekhterev and has his followers in the person of M.Ya.Basov and V.N. Myasishchev.

Investigated individual differences before I.P. Pavlov and highly appreciated his school.

He is one of the founders of the experimental method.

It was he who coined the term "natural experiment" in 1910.

A.F. Lazursky developed the concept of individual character differences (“scientific characterology”) and correlated its properties with various human nerve centers.

His classification of personalities (1921) is also interesting.

Individuals with endopsychics are distinguished (temperament, character and inclinations are included) - the core of the personality is inborn and individuals with exopsychics – personality is the result of relations to the surrounding reality.

Importance in understanding individual differences

It is attached to the correct understanding of the psychological norm and trait.

Indeed, it was deviations from a certain norm (positive or negative), an average parameter, an indicator, that made it possible to describe the differences and the degree of this difference.

The concept of psychological norm is very heterogeneous and substantive is influenced by a number of factors.

The norm is understood as statistical concept(the middle of the distribution of indicators for some group of subjects).

It is necessary to determine the position of a particular subject on the curve of such a normal distribution.

The norm in this case is not absolute, but relative and depends on which group it was received on.

Norm as a social stereotype of behavior, communication and activity.

Norm as a characteristic mental health(absence of violations of the productivity of activity and the ability to self-regulate).

Norm as the expectation of a certain type of behavior or its results.

The norm is constantly updated and changed, and therefore psychodiagnostic methods should be reviewed in a timely manner.

The psychological trait is a relatively stable education, which manifests itself steadily in a situation with different people differently.