Self-development 

Classification of conflicts on various grounds

There are various classifications of conflicts, which is quite natural: the versatility and complexity of this phenomenon make it possible to choose different grounds for their characterization. For the conditions of group isolation, the following types of conflicts are most characteristic

    intrapersonal conflict - a clash between approximately equal in strength, but opposite in direction, interests, needs, inclinations of one person;

    interpersonal conflict - when two or more members of the same group pursue incompatible goals and implement conflicting values, or simultaneously strive to achieve the same goal in a conflict struggle, which can only be achieved by one of the parties.

Interpersonal conflicts are divided into

    conflicts arising as a reaction to an obstacle to the achievement of the main goals of labor activity:

    conflicts that arise as a reaction to an obstacle to achieving personal goals that are not related to work

    conflicts that arise as a reaction to behavior that does not correspond to the norms of relations and the behavior of people in joint work that does not meet their expectations;

    conflicts that arise due to the personal characteristics of team members

Depending on the duration, conflicts are divided into short, long and protracted.

To the previously considered features of the classification of conflicts, it is necessary to add the following:

    the scope of the conflict (local or broad);

    the force of influence on the participants in the conflict (affecting or not affecting the fundamental interests of the individual);

    consequences (positive or negative).

Like any socio-psychological phenomenon, conflict can be viewed as a process that takes place over time. Most psychologists distinguish the following fragments in the dynamics of conflict

1. occurrence before conflict situation

2. awareness of the pre-conflict situation (push to conflict)

3. conflict behavior (interaction)

4. conflict resolution.

The emergence of a pre-conflict situation is associated with the perception of the situation as a conflict, with an understanding of the need to take action. At this stage, irritability, aggressiveness, and sometimes imbalance are more pronounced. A person develops a model of his behavior. Awareness of the conflict situation is the impetus for conflict and the development of traumatic circumstances.

Conflict resolution. This stage can and should begin without conflict interaction. Quite often, one of the parties or both notice the elements of conflict in the first two stages and do everything possible to eliminate the objective causes of the conflict situation. At the same time, such forms of conflict resolution are used as negotiations, a collective solution to the contradiction that has arisen, turning to a third party (mediation), switching attention from affective-tense relations to the sphere business relations and etc.

If the conflict resistance occurred in the form of moral or physical violence, then the following methods can be used to resolve the conflict: separation of the warring parties, suppression of the conflict by imposing sanctions, urgent resolution of the causes of the conflict and the adoption of radical measures to eliminate the contradiction that led to the conflict.

It should be noted that in the course of a conflict, various combinations of the stages discussed above are possible. They may acquire a very definite significance and may be of different duration. At the same time, they always, to one degree or another, cause psychological instability in the team.

Sometimes the conflict has a more or less pronounced positive influence on the effectiveness of the joint activities of the team in which it occurred, as well as on the quality of individual work. Through open confrontation, the conflict frees the team from factors that undermine it, reduces the likelihood of stagnation and decline. In addition, it contributes to the development of mutual understanding between the participants in joint activities.

The destructive functions of the conflict are manifested in the following:

    conflict has a significant negative impact on the mood of its participants. Since sometimes it can lead to mental isolation, it can be concluded that the conflict negatively affects health - it determines the development of neurotic reactions.

    in many cases, the conflict worsens the relationship between the participants. The emerging hostility towards the other side, anger, and sometimes even hatred violate the mutual ties and contacts that have developed for the conflict, both in terms of their quantity and quality. Sometimes, as a result of a conflict, the relationship of its participants not only worsens, but also comes to disintegration. The study shows that in 56% of conflict situations, the relationship during the conflict worsened compared to the relationship before it. Often (in 35% of conflict situations) the deterioration of relationships persists even after the end of the conflict

    Conflicts often have a negative impact on personal development. They can contribute to the formation of one of the parties, and sometimes both sides, of disbelief in the triumph of justice, the conviction that the leader is always right, the opinion that nothing new can be introduced in this team, etc.

Analyzing the constructive and destructive functions of the conflict, it is necessary to emphasize two important points. First, it is difficult to give a generalized assessment of the positive and negative role of the conflict as a socio-psychological phenomenon. The vast majority of conflicts have both constructive and destructive functions at the same time, if the conflict is 50% constructive, 20% destructive and 30% neutral, then such a conflict as a whole can be considered constructive. If an interpersonal conflict is 60% destructive, 30% constructive, and 10% neutral, then it can be considered destructive. In this regard, it would be quite fair, completing the analysis of the psychological essence of the conflict and its role in the activities of the individual and the team as a whole, to quote the statement of L.A. Petrovskaya "One and the same conflict can be destructive in one respect and constructive in another, play a negative role at one stage, and under other circumstances, a positive one." Each member of the team must be aware of this position and purposefully find compromise solutions to prevent conflict situations.

Typical causes of conflicts.

Based on the results of studying real conflicts, as well as the available studies of a number of authors, it is possible to divide the whole variety of causes of interpersonal conflicts into two.

Conflict circumstances social interaction, which lead to a clash of their interests, opinions, goals, etc. They create a pre-conflict environment. Natural clash of material and spiritual interests of people in the process of their life. People working in a group (team), especially in isolation, jointly solve numerous problems, interact with each other. In the process of constant interaction, the interests of group members may change from time to time. This clash of interests, little dependent on their will, creates an objective basis for possible conflict situations.

Control errors. Wrong decisions, for example, with the solution of tasks, organization of work and rest, as well as erroneous actions of the manager and subordinates often cause conflicts.

In everyday life, people have developed a rather rigid attitude towards conflicts as negative phenomena. The emergence of a conflict in a team is more often seen as a symptom of trouble, and all the forces of the interested parties are directed to its speedy "smearing over", sometimes without a serious preliminary analysis of the causes of the contradictions that arise.

But the conflict arises because of the objective difference in the abilities and goals of those people who interact, different people, not similar friend on a friend.

There are five ways to manage interpersonal conflicts(according to K. Thomas):

Competition - competition, the desire to achieve satisfaction of one's interests to the detriment of another;

Adaptation - as opposed to rivalry, sacrificing one's own interests for the sake of another;

Compromise - observance of the interests of both parties;

Avoidance - lack of desire for cooperation as well as lack of desire to achieve one's own interests and goals;

Cooperation is the search for an alternative solution that fully satisfies the interests of both parties;

Prevention of the development of conflict situations

It is not the conflicts themselves that are bad, but their uncontrollability. Many conflicts can be prevented even at the stage of their occurrence due to the constant and in-depth analysis of the system of relations of people of this team, forecasting the impact of production changes, careful weighing by the interested parties of their words and actions, and thus, a controlling effect on interpersonal conflicts can be exerted at the stages of their inception. and the development of a conflict situation in order to prevent a conflict and resolve the contradiction that has arisen in one of the non-conflict ways. Prevention of conflicts is no less important than the ability to actively resolve them. Moreover, it requires less money and time and prevents even those minimal consequences that any constructively resolved conflict has.

The work of leaders of any rank in conflict prevention can go in two main directions. First, the observance of objective conditions that prevent the emergence and active development of pre-conflict situations. It is apparently impossible to rule out the occurrence in any collective or group of pre-conflict situations. To create conditions for minimizing their number and resolving them in various ways is not only possible, but also necessary.

In general, the subjective prerequisites for conflict prevention are in the ability of any person to defend their interests, avoiding negative emotions in relation to the partner in interaction and not providing offensive destructive opposition to him. In turn, this is achieved by the ability of the subject to manage his mental state, the ability to assess the situation of interaction, to understand the interests and desires of the partner, to find a way to solve the problem that is adequate to the situation.

One of the conditions for preventing conflicts is the ability of a manager and any employee to assess and manage their mental state, reduce their own anxiety and aggressiveness, remove negative moods using appropriate autogenic training, physical exercises, organizing for themselves good rest, maintaining a pleasant socio-psychological climate at work, perform a set of psychotechnical exercises to relieve fatigue and gain internal stability.

Ways to resolve interpersonal conflict

The analysis of the empirical material, as well as the available theoretical developments on this issue by domestic and foreign authors, made it possible to identify methods, methods and techniques for preventing and resolving conflicts. The most promising is the prevention of the development of a conflict situation in the early stages and, above all, at the stage of its inception. At the same time, attention should be paid to external signs, which most often indicate the occurrence of a pre-conflict situation. These can be accentuated coldness in address and conversation, ambiguous statements with subtext, excessive vehemence and neglect.

Interpersonal Conflict Resolution Styles:

    Evasion

    Smoothing

    Compulsion

    Compromise

    Solution

The condition for conflict resolution is the ability to interact. In the process of communication, the information communicated by the interlocutor can be lost and distorted, sometimes significantly. In addition, the partner may not evaluate the problem under discussion from the same positions as you. These two reasons, and not the actual contradictions between you, can be the source of the conflict. Installation on the understanding of the interlocutor should always be.

Tolerance of dissent can also prevent the development and aggravation of conflicts. If you find that your partner is wrong about something, then it is not always necessary to tell him about it. It is enough that you yourself have understood more deeply than him, and you know it. It happens that for the good of the case it is necessary to tell the interlocutor that he is wrong, but in this case it is always necessary to do this in front of witnesses, to insist that he publicly admit his wrong, and even repent. It is necessary to be firm in relation to the problem under discussion, to fulfill the requirements of the case and soft in relation to the communication partner. If you do not agree with the idea, proposal, decision of the interlocutor, then hurry to reject it from the threshold. Think. First approve the partner’s thought, and then say: “But maybe it’s better to do this ...” or: “And there is also such an idea ...” It is easier for the interlocutor to agree with an objection expressed in this form, because at the same time he saves face."

The organization of the treatment process requires from all its participants (patients, relatives of patients, doctors, middle and junior medical personnel) the ability to communicate, prevent situations that may cause conflict, as well as the ability to resolve the conflict that has arisen.

In the medical team, each employee has a strictly defined range of duties that cannot be exceeded.

One of the conditions preventing conflict in medical institution, is the strict observance of the rules of deontology and subordination. So, in the initial period of activity of young doctors, when they master the practical skills of medical work, between them and the senior medical staff (head of the department, chief physician) relations are formed that are characteristic of a teacher and a student. When the learning phase ends, competition begins and, if it becomes unhealthy, conflict arises.

Psychological features of the stages of the diagnostic process. Medical ethics and deontology: the role of the general group reaction of the medical team in relation to patients is great. There are patients with whom everyone sympathizes, it is easy to cooperate with them, and it is more difficult to work with others, others have negative feelings towards them, relations with them are tense, which can also cause conflict. Psychological incompatibility can arise between a sister and a patient, a patient and a doctor, relatives of a patient and a doctor, which is very disturbing. effective treatment. If it is not possible to change the relationship, then it may be necessary to change the sister, the doctor.

A good psychological atmosphere in medical institutions is determined by good friendly relations between all those involved in the treatment process. This has a beneficial effect on patients, contributes to greater efficiency of therapeutic activities. Disputes with patients, which nurses sometimes allow, showing their superiority over the patient, have a harmful effect.

The environment in which the patient is in a medical institution, the individual psychological characteristics of the patients themselves, the attitude towards them are decisive in the treatment. Accounting psychological features communication in general is an important condition for optimizing the joint activities of people and their relationships in the treatment process.

When organizing the work of various medical institutions, it is necessary to proceed from the basic provisions of medical deontology and medical ethics.

Medical ethics is a set of principles of regulation and norms of behavior of a doctor and other medical workers, due to the specifics of their activities (care for the health of other people, treatment, etc.) and position in society.

Deontology (the science of due) is the doctrine of the principles of behavior of medical personnel that contribute to the creation of the necessary psycho-prophylactic and psycho-therapeutic environment in the diagnostic and therapeutic process, which excludes negative consequences (this is part of medical ethics).

Medical deontology and ethics also provide for a high level of training of nurses, clarity and conscientiousness in the implementation of medical prescriptions, taking into account the age, individual characteristics, illness and disease state of patients, the sensitivity and psychotherapeutic approach of nurses and nurses in servicing patients, in working with relatives of patients.

The environment of medical institutions should dispose patients to a frank, cordial conversation, inspire their faith in recovery, even from the reception, patients should understand that everything in the clinic is aimed at helping them, at reducing their suffering. It is necessary to calm the patient, give him a sense of confidence. An atmosphere of severity and ostentatious efficiency should be excluded. Visual agitation (stands, posters) should not cause a feeling of fear and alertness in patients, remind them of the disease. The clinic should be comfortable and clean, rooms should be located based on the convenience of patients.

In hospitals, it is very important to create a protective regime. Much depends on the contact of patients with the doctor. It is necessary to start a conversation with the patient with a conversation with him, and not with viewing the tests, carefully consider every word addressed to the patient; slang words should not be used. Bypass in the departments must be carried out daily and preferably at the same time; on rounds it is not recommended to ask and find out intimate details in the presence of other patients, since these details are related to the life and illness of the patient.

The doctor must show great tact and delicacy when he has to change the treatment prescribed by another doctor. You can not tell the patient that he was previously treated incorrectly; this can undermine faith in medicine in general.

Failure to comply with the requirements of deontology and medical ethics leads to the emergence of iatrogeny.

Iatropathogeny, abbreviated iatrogeny (iatros = doctor, gennao = to do, produce) is a method of examination, treatment or preventive measures, as a result of which the doctor harms the health of the patient. In a broader sense we are talking about causing harm to a patient by a medical worker. In this regard, the term sorrorigeny is also used, that is, the harm caused by a nurse (sorror = sister), just like in other industries, the term didactogeny or pedagogy is used, that is, harm to a student by a teacher in the learning process.

There are somatic iatrogenies, in which we can talk about harm caused by drugs (example: allergic reactions after antibiotics), mechanical manipulations (surgical operations), radiation (X-ray examination and X-ray therapy), etc. Somatic iatrogeny, which arose through no fault of medical workers, may arise due to an unusual and unexpected pathological reactivity of the patient, for example, to a drug that otherwise does not cause complications. Sometimes they are associated with the insufficient qualifications of the doctor, the characteristics of his personality, his temperament and character, and also because of his mental state, for example, the inability to concentrate when tired and hasty. The reason for the harmful effect of an unsuccessfully chosen remedy lies not primarily in the remedy itself, but in the person who prescribed it.

Psychic iatrogenic is a type of psychogeny. Psychogeny means the psychogenic mechanism of the development of the disease, that is, the development of the disease, due to mental influences and impressions. Psychic iatrogenesis includes the harmful mental influence of the doctor on the patient. Words and all means of contacts between people that act not only on the psyche, but also on the entire body of the patient matter.

Sources of iatrogenics can be as follows. Improperly conducted medical education and popularization of the data of medical science can become a collective source of psychic iatrogenesis. Conducting sanitary-educational work, it is impossible to describe the signs of the disease without purposeful selection and it is impossible to give a complete objectivistic description of the treatment. It is necessary to focus only on those facts and circumstances that can help people who do not have a medical education to get a real idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe disease and the necessary information on how to prevent the disease. Non-medical listeners should not be given a differential diagnosis even when they ask questions about their personal symptoms and complaints, but the whole picture of the disease and its treatment is not known. Such explanations can be given during individual sanitary-educational work among sick and healthy individuals.

During preventive examinations at factories, examinations of conscripts, donors, athletes, expectant mothers (activities whose purpose is to improve the health of the population), random, meaningless deviations from the norm are often detected, for example, minor deviations on the electrocardiogram, insignificant gynecological or neurological signs etc. If the subject learns about these deviations, then he must immediately explain their significance; otherwise, the subject may think that these deviations are very serious and that this is why he was not told anything about them. Preventive examinations, however, are best done so that he does not know about these minor deviations at all.

Psychotraumatic influences are exerted by the “medical labyrinth”. The patient seeks medical help, but he is referred from one doctor to another, everywhere he is told that he "refers to another doctor", with varying degrees of politeness he is denied help. The patient develops a feeling of discontent, tension, anger, he fears that his disease will become neglected as a result and it will be difficult to cure him.

There are several types of iatrogenic:

    Etiological iatrogenic, for example, iatrogenic due to overestimation of heredity. The phrase “this is hereditary” said by the doctor causes hopelessness in the patient, fear that the same will happen to other family members.

    Organocalistic iatrogeny occurs where the doctor explains an unrecognized neurosis, that is, a functional, psychogenic disease, as an organic local process in the brain, for example, cerebral thrombosis

    Diagnostic iatrogenesis, when an unfounded, later unsuccessfully changed diagnosis, becomes a source of mental trauma for the patient.

Some words act on the patient, one might say, “toxically”, first of all, these are expressions such as “heart attack, paralysis, tumor, cancer, schizophrenia”. Therefore, it is better to avoid these expressions. Sometimes the source of iatrogenics is the vague statements of the doctor.

Even seemingly harmless expressions in the x-ray room in front of the patient lead to unexpected trauma to the patient, especially if they are pronounced with meaning or with surprise.

    Therapeutic iatrogenic develops during treatment. An example of psychic therapeutic iatrogenics is the use of a drug that the patient knows has worked for him in the past. There is a negative placebo effect here. Therefore, it is recommended to follow the history of previous treatment in terms of its effectiveness before prescribing treatment. As a rule, due to lack of time, this is often forgotten. Therapeutic iatrogeny is facilitated by the so-called therapeutic nihilism, i.e. a pessimistic view of the doctor on the expected results of treatment.

    In the course of treatment, pharmacogenesis can take place, i.e. harming the patient by the unsuccessful expression of the pharmacist. Patients often demand from the pharmacist an explanation of the quality and effect of the drug prescribed by the doctor. Expressions such as: "This is too strong for you" or "this is no good, I have something better" are dangerous.

    Prognostic iatrogenic results from a poorly formulated prognosis of the disease. From this point of view, cynical and openly traumatic expressions, such as "You have a few hours left to live," are condemnable. Of dubious value, however, are both straightforward and nonapologetically optimistic statements even when the doctor believes that by doing so he will have a suggestive positive effect on the patient. Expressions such as "in a week you will be healthy as a cucumber, I give them my word of honor" may turn out to be false and in the future may undermine the patient's confidence in the doctor.

In addition to the situations and circumstances mentioned above, the sources of iatrogenics can be sought in the personality of a doctor in the first place, for example, in overly categorical statements, excessive conceit - an “all-knowing” doctor. Such a person easily inspires the patient with his opinions and views. Individuals of the categorical type easily replace high probability in their statements with complete certainty. But once formed, the opinion does not allow them to observe in the process the development of the disease and for other potential features that may become predominant, for example, in the transition of the disease from the bronchitis syndrome, diagnosed at first as a normal disease, to a malignant process.

An insecure and doubting doctor, as a personality type, is at the opposite pole. The patient often explains to himself the way he behaves in relation to his illness, for example, he regards the doctor's hesitation as evidence of the severity or even incurability of his condition. The doctor reinforces this impression by “thinking aloud”, telling the patient about all the possibilities of a differential diagnosis, not completing a long series of auxiliary examination methods and leaving the patient without treatment for this time or giving him the initiative regarding the type of treatment, for example, with these words: "If I knew what to do with you!" The doctor should always, in the correct sense of the word, be a bit of an artist, he should be able to hide the possible complexity and, in most cases, the temporary uncertainty of his diagnostic and therapeutic approach to the patient. The subjective uncertainty of the doctor should not be reflected in his objective behavior.

The next source of iatrogenics may be the personality of the patient. A timid, frightened, insecure, emotionally vulnerable, mentally inflexible patient is recognized by a tense expression of facial expressions, by increased sweating of the palms when giving a hand, often by a small tremor. He tends to fearfully interpret our verbal or other manifestations, often those to which we ourselves do not attach any importance. In addition, we may be surprised how such a patient explains to himself our silence or a tired hand gesture, which he considers more important than words. The sister may observe how such a patient walks restlessly in the waiting room before his turn comes, how he actively participates in the conversation of patients about illnesses, or listens quietly and intensely to them. Others, before going to the doctor, elicit irrelevant details from their sister. It is necessary to warn the sister so that she informs the doctor about such patients.

Sometimes the role of the patient's personality in the "iatrogenic lesion" is so pronounced and decisive that in fact it will not be about iatrogenic, but about pseudo-iatrogenic, which did not arise at all through the fault of the doctor. Pseudo-iatrogeny occurs when the patient quotes the doctor's expressions that he never said, or pulls out only certain parts from the doctor's explanation.

test questions:

    List the main functions of communication

    List the types of conflicts

    The intern of the surgical department is constantly competing with colleagues, trying by all means to prove that he is the best, tries to be present at all operations, at any cost to get permission to assist, on duty with the curator, asks many questions at planning meetings, what type of conflict management he chose

A. Fixture

B. Competition

C. Compromise

D. Avoidance

E. Collaboration

    The therapist, tired of competitive relations in the team, proposed an equal distribution of workloads, taking into account the interests and capabilities of all employees, a clear and equivalent schedule of time off and night shifts for everyone, what type of conflict management he chose

A. Competition

B. Compromise

C. Fixture

D. Avoidance

E. Collaboration

    After a quarrel with a doctor, a nurse tries to avoid communicating with him and fulfilling his instructions, even to the detriment of her own interests, does not participate in collective events, what type of conflict regulation she chose

A. Competition

B. Avoidance

C. Fixture

D. Compromise

E. Collaboration

    A 45-year-old man developed depressive symptoms after an X-ray examination. He believes that his life is over, as a malignant tumor was found on his x-ray. It turned out that for the diagnosis of a malignant tumor, he took the expression of a radiologist who showed students a part of the colon with the words: "Here is sigma." Determine the form of the patient's response to the doctor's words.

A. Somatic iatrogenic

B. Psychic iatrogenic

C. Etiological iatrogenic

D. Organocalistic iatrogenesis

E. Diagnostic iatrogenic

    A young specialist, mastering the method of laparoscopic cholecystectomy, caused damage to the bile ducts to the patient, what type of iatrogeny does the developed pathology belong to

A. Psychic

B. Organocalistic

C. Diagnostic

D. Etiological

E. Somatic

    A 27-year-old patient complains of increased irritability, weakness, fatigue, headaches “as if a nail is being hammered into the head”, sensations of a “lump in the throat”, laryngospasms, autonomic lability that occurs during excitement and tension. When taking an anamnesis, the young specialist did not focus on the patient's psychotraumatic experiences, diagnosed an organic lesion of the central nervous system, prescribed nootropics and vascular preparations, there was no effect from this therapy, the patient felt worse, what type of iatrogeny the developed pathology belongs to

A. Psychic

B. Organocalistic

C. Diagnostic

D. Etiological

E. Somatic

    A 47-year-old woman suffering from hypertension, when buying an antihypertensive drug prescribed by a doctor, heard from the pharmacist the phrase “This is too strong for you, better take another drug” and bought what he recommended. The purchased drug had no effect, the pressure rose to critical numbers, the resulting pathology refers to

A. Sorrogania

B. iatrogenia

C. Pharmacology

D. Didactogeny

E. Pedagogy

    Conducting classes on propaedeutics of internal diseases, the teacher demonstrates the technique of palpation, then asks students to repeat his actions. Determine the direction of communication.

A. Perceptual

B. Communicative

C. Interactive

D. Electoral

Lecture 6 Classification of conflicts

Issues for discussion

Conflicts, as already noted when characterizing their main features, are not only an inevitable and ubiquitous phenomenon, but also many-sided. They are of great variety. Conflicts take place in all areas public life, and therefore it is legitimate single out socio-economic, ethnic, interethnic, political, ideological, religious, military, legal, family, social and other types of conflicts.

The analysis and evaluation of conflicts involve their grouping, systematization, division according to essential features, types and types. Such a classification is needed as a kind of model for studying the subject in its entirety, a methodological tool for distinguishing the entire spectrum of conflict manifestations.

Approaches to classification can be very different. For example, sociologists focus primarily on macro or micro level conflicts, into their main types, such as socio-economic, national-ethnic and political. Lawyers distinguish internal and external conflicts, spheres of their manifestation, including family, domestic, cultural, social and labor, as well as a wide variety of economic, financial and property conflicts that arise in a market economy.

For managerial conflictology, its own approach is preferable. In terms of personnel management, the subject study of conflicts is a priority production and economic type, which are mainly associated with the practice of management, the relationship of people in the world of work and entrepreneurial activity, satisfaction of the material and spiritual needs of workers, their social protection, the device of life, rest and leisure.

Conflicts in the practice of managing an organization are a complex production-economic, ideological, socio-psychological and family phenomenon, they are diverse and can be classified according to various criteria. The classification of conflicts allows you to navigate in their specific manifestations and, therefore, helps to find possible ways their permissions (Table 2.2).

With the inevitable conditionality of such a division, it nevertheless allows a systematic approach to the characterization of the conflict in the organization, to give it a proper assessment, taking into account the social nature, dynamics and consequences.

By areas of manifestation, conflicts are divided for production and economic, the basis of which are production and economic contradictions; ideological, which are based on contradictions in views; socio-psychological arising from conflicts in social sphere, as well as the characteristics of the human psyche, and household reflecting the contradictions of family and domestic relations. If workers are tied family relations, then family and domestic conflicts can be intertwined with the types of conflicts listed above.

In terms of scale, duration and tension, conflicts are distinguished: general and local; stormy, fleeting, short-term, arising on the basis of individual psychological characteristics of the individual, they are distinguished by the aggressiveness and extreme hostility of the conflicting parties; acute long-term, protracted, arising in the presence of deep contradictions; weakly expressed and sluggish, arising on the basis of not very sharp contradictions, or associated with the passivity of one of the parties; mild and fleeting, arising in connection with superficial causes, they are episodic. According to the subjects of conflict interaction, conflicts are divided into: intrapersonal, which are associated with the collision of oppositely directed immanent motives of the personality; interpersonal in the clash of interests of two personalities; interpersonal-group, in which the opposing parties are, on the one hand, the individual, and on the other, the group; intergroup, arising from the clash of interests of two social groups.

Distinguish between conflicts according to the subject of the conflict real (objective), having a clear subject, and unreal (non-objective), which do not have a clear subject or have a subject of vital importance to only one side.

According to the sources and causes of conflicts are divided into objective and subjective. In the first case, the conflict can develop outside the will and desire of its participants, simply because of the circumstances that are developing in the organization or its subdivision. But a conflict situation can also be created because of the motives of behavior, the deliberate aspirations of a particular subject of social ties. The object of the conflict is a specific material or spiritual value, which the conflicting parties seek to possess. The subjects of the conflict are employees of the organization with their own needs, interests, motives and ideas about values.

CLASSIFICATION OF CONFLICTS

Table 2.2

p/n

Classification sign

Types of conflicts

By areas of manifestation

Production and economic Ideological Socio-psychological Family and household

In terms of scale, duration and intensity

general and local

By subjects of conflict interaction

Intrapersonal Interpersonal Interpersonal-group Intergroup

On the subject of the conflict

Real (objective) Unreal (non-objective)

By sources and causes

Objective and subjective Organizational Emotional and social and labor Business and personal

In terms of communication

Horizontal Vertical Mixed

For social impact

Positive and negative Constructive and destructive Creative and destructive

By forms and degree of collision

Open and hidden Spontaneous, proactive and provoked Inevitable, forced, inappropriate

According to the methods and scale of settlement

Antagonistic and compromising Fully or partially resolved Leading to agreement and cooperation

For immediate reasons, conflicts appear as organizational, i.e. occurring within a certain social system, one or another structural formation in connection with a change in external circumstances or a violation of the regulated order; emotional, associated, as a rule, with a personal perception of what is happening around, with a sensual reaction to the behavior and actions of other people, differences in views, etc.; social and labor caused by mismatch, confrontation of private and common interests, incompatibility of goals individuals and social groups; business and personal.

Conflicts of communicative orientation are divided into horizontal, in which people participate who are not, as a rule, subordinate to each other; vertical, whose participants are connected by certain types of subordination. These conflicts can also be mixed, representing relationships of submission and non-subordination. A vertical conflict (both “top-down” and “bottom-up”) bears a special stamp, usually expressing the inequality of forces of the conflicting parties, differences between them in terms of hierarchical level and influence (for example, a leader - a subordinate, an employer - an employee, etc. ). In this case, unequal status and rank may be valid, which, of course, will affect the course and outcome of the conflict.

According to the social consequences of conflicts are: positive, when conflict resolution contributes to the development of the organization, and negative, leading to a deterioration in the performance of the organization; Constructive, which are based on objective contradictions that contribute to the improvement of the organization's activities, and destructive, which are based on subjective reasons that contribute to the growth of social tension and the deterioration of the organization's activities; creative, contributing to the prosperity of the organization, its rapid development, and destructive, leading to the destruction of the socio-economic system.

According to the forms and degree of collision, confrontation can be open(dispute, quarrel, etc.) and hidden(stealth actions, disguise of true intentions, etc.); spontaneous those. spontaneously occurring and enterprising, pre-planned or simply provoked.

According to the methods and scale of settlement (resolution), conflicts are divided into antagonistic accompanied by intransigence and intransigence of the parties, as well as compromise, allowing for the diversity of overcoming differences, the mutual convergence of views, interests, goals. Each person, any social group reveals a manner of communication inherent only to them, establishing and maintaining relationships, a special style of behavior in conflict situations. From the degree of flexibility of behavior opposing sides in an antagonistic or compromise conflict, the method and scale of its settlement depend.

There are many criteria for classifying conflicts. If we take the object of conflict as a criterion, then we can single out the following types conflicts.

Economic. They are based on a clash of economic interests, when the needs of one side are satisfied at the expense of the needs of the other. The deeper these contradictions, the more difficult it is to resolve them. Exactly economic reasons are most often the basis global crises between society and government.

Socio-political. They are based on contradictions concerning the policy of the state in the sphere of power and social relations, parties and political associations. They are closely connected with interstate and international clashes.

Ideological. They are based on contradictions in the views, attitudes of people on a variety of problems in the life of society and the state. They can arise both at the level of the macrosphere, and in the smallest associations at the level of the individual.

Socio-psychological. They can manifest themselves both between individuals and between social groups. They are based on violations in the field of relationships. The reason may be psychological incompatibility, unmotivated rejection of a person by a person, a struggle for leadership, prestige, influence, etc.

Social and household. They are associated with different views groups and individuals and life, everyday life, etc. Chief among them is the disharmony of family relations. Its reasons: domestic troubles, moral and everyday licentiousness, as well as serious ideological differences.

If we take the duration and degree of tension as a criterion, then conflicts can be divided into the following types:

Stormy and fast paced. They are characterized by great emotionality, extreme manifestations negative attitude conflicting parties. They can end in severe outcomes and have tragic consequences: they are based on the psychological state of people.

Sharp and long lasting. They arise mainly in those cases when the contradictions are deep enough, stable, irreconcilable or difficult to reconcile. The conflicting parties control their reactions and actions. The prognosis of the decision is mostly uncertain.

Weak and sluggish. They are typical for contradictions that are not sharp, or for clashes where only one side is active; the second does not seek to clearly state its position or avoids confrontation.

Weak and fast flowing. One can speak of a favorable prognosis only if such a conflict takes place in a certain episode. If it is followed by a new chain of similar conflicts, then the prognosis can be not only difficult, but also unfavorable.

If we take the degree of contradictions as a criterion, then there are conflicts:

aggressive;

compromise.

Of course, it is impossible to reduce all conflicts into a single universal scheme. There are conflicts such as "fights", where the resolution can only be if one of the parties wins, and "debates", where a compromise is possible. In addition, there are other views on the typology of conflicts. American sociologist M. Roych, for example, identifies the following types of conflicts (taking into account the motivation of the conflict and subjective perceptions of the situation):

False conflict - the subject perceives the situation as a conflict, although real reasons for this no. Has no objective grounds, arises as a result misconceptions or misunderstandings.

Potential conflict - there are real grounds for the emergence of a conflict, but so far one of the parties or both, for one reason or another (for example, due to lack of information), has not yet recognized the situation as a conflict. It can take place due to objective reasons, but until a certain time it is not updated.

A true conflict is a real clash between the parties. This clash of interests exists objectively, is realized by the participants and does not depend on an easily changeable factor. In turn, the true conflict can be divided into the following subspecies:

a) constructive - arising on the basis of real contradictions between the subjects;

b) accidental or conditional - arising from a misunderstanding or a random coincidence, which is not realized by its participants; it stops when real alternatives are realized;

c) displaced - arising on a false basis, when true reason hidden. Here the perceived cause of the conflict is only indirectly related to the objective causes underlying it, when the effect is presented as a cause;

d) an incorrectly attributed conflict is a conflict in which the true culprit, the subject of the conflict, is behind the scenes of the confrontation, and participants who are not related to it are involved in the conflict. This is done either intentionally or deliberately, with the aim of provoking a clash in the enemy group.

If the mental state of the parties and the behavior of people in conflict situations corresponding to this state are taken as the basis of the conflict, then conflicts are divided into:

rational;

emotional.

Depending on the goals of the conflict and its consequences, conflicts are divided into:

positive;

negative;

constructive;

destructive.

Social psychologist V.I. Kurbatov offers other approaches to the classification of conflicts:

external - confrontation between subjects;

internal - confrontation of motives, intentions, goals of the subject;

choice conflict - difficulty in choosing one of two equal goals;

• the conflict of choosing the lesser evil - the difficulty of choosing between options, each of which is equally undesirable;

group - between groups of people;

· communicative - the result of speech confrontation, which is the result of barriers to understanding the setting of the first impression;

motivational - between needs and intentions;

open - the fight with the aim of causing damage to the enemy;

Hidden - implicit confrontation, tense relationships;

· conflict of needs - a kind of motivational, associated with the fact that a person wants to achieve conflicting goals;

conflict of need and social norm- between motivating personal motives and prohibitive general imperatives;

status - a confrontation determined by the status, position and role of the participants;

target - confrontation about achieving a specific goal, etc.

According to the degree of involvement of people in the conflict, the following types can be distinguished: intrapersonal; interpersonal; between the individual and the group; intergroup; intercollective; inter-party; interstate.

Consider the main types of conflicts, depending on the degree of involvement of people in them, concerning social interaction in the family of the generation of "parents" and "children".

intrapersonal conflict. Its possible dysfunctional consequences are similar to those of other types of conflict. He can take various forms, and of these, the most common form of role conflict is when conflicting demands are made on one person about what the result of his work should be or, for example, when production requirements inconsistent with personal needs or values. For example, children and a husband demand from a woman-mother that she pays a lot of attention to them and the house, to be a good housewife. But, at the same time, in the current economic situation, a woman is forced to work and make a material contribution to the family budget. In the workplace, she is also required to give back and spend time. A woman perceives both types of claims as personal. There is an intrapersonal conflict. Intrapersonal conflict can also arise as a result of the fact that production requirements are not consistent with personal needs or values. For example, the wife was going to go on Sunday to relax with her husband, as her excessive attention to work began to have a bad effect on family relationships. But on Friday, her boss comes into her office with a problem and insists that she deal with it over the weekend. Or, for example, many organizations are faced with the fact that some leaders object to moving to another city, although this promises them a solid promotion and salary. This is especially common in families where the husband and wife are in leadership positions or are qualified professionals. Intrapersonal conflict can also be a response to work overload or underload. Research shows that such intrapersonal conflict is also associated with low job satisfaction, low self-confidence and organization, and stress.

Interpersonal conflict. This is the most common type of conflict. It manifests itself in organizations in different ways. Imagine that two artists are working on the same ad but have different points perspective on the way it is presented. Everyone tries to convince the director to accept his point of view. Similar, only more subtle and prolonged, can be a conflict between two candidates for promotion in the presence of one vacancy.

Frequent interpersonal conflicts in families. The confrontations are well-known: mother-in-law - son-in-law, mother-in-law - daughter-in-law. The cause of such conflicts may be the struggle for a dominant role in the family, personal hostility, various family structures, etc. Interpersonal conflict can also manifest itself as a clash of personalities. People with different personality traits, attitudes and values ​​are sometimes just not able to get along with each other. As a rule, the views and goals of such people differ radically.

Conflict between the individual and the group. As a rule, production groups establish norms of behavior and attitudes towards production. Everyone must comply with them in order to be accepted by an informal group and, thereby, satisfy their social needs. However, if the expectation of the group is in conflict with the expectations of the individual, conflict may arise. For example, someone wants to earn more, either by doing overtime work, or overfulfilling the norms of production, and the group considers such "excessive" zeal as negative behavior.

Conflict can arise between an individual and a group if this individual takes a position that differs from those of the group. For example, when discussing ways to increase sales in a meeting, most will assume that this can be achieved by lowering the price. And someone alone will be convinced that such tactics will lead to a decrease in profits and create the opinion that their products are of lower quality than competitors' products. Although this person, whose opinion differs from that of the group, may take the interests of the company to heart, he can still be seen as a source of conflict because he goes against the opinion of the group. A similar conflict can arise on the basis of the manager's job responsibilities: between the need to ensure appropriate performance and observe technological discipline. The manager may be forced to take administrative measures that may be unpopular in the eyes of subordinates. Then the group can strike back - change the attitude towards the leader and, possibly, reduce labor productivity.

Intergroup conflict. Organizations are made up of many formal and informal groups. Even in the most the best organizations conflicts may arise between such groups. Informal groups that feel that the manager is treating them unfairly can rally tighter and try to "pay off" with a decrease in productivity. A striking example of intergroup conflict is the conflict between the trade union and the administration. Unfortunately, disagreements between line managers and administrative staff are a frequent example of intergroup conflict. This is an example of dysfunctional conflict. The administrative staff is usually younger and more educated than the line staff and likes to use technical vocabulary when communicating. These differences lead to clashes between people and difficulty in communication. Line managers may reject the advice of management specialists and complain about their dependence on them for everything related to information. AT extreme situations line managers may deliberately choose to implement the specialists' proposal in such a way that the whole undertaking will end in failure. And all this in order to put specialists "in their place." The administrative staff, in turn, may be indignant that their representatives are not given the opportunity to implement their decisions themselves, and try to maintain the informational dependence of the line staff on them.

TYPOLOGY OR CLASSIFICATION OF CONFLICTS

The typology of conflicts is also associated with a variety of concepts of conflict. When developing typologies, their authors divide conflicts according to different grounds- by the number of participants, the degree of severity, the breadth of conflict interaction, the speed of flow, objects, goals, etc. Without dwelling in detail on each of the numerous classifications of conflicts that exist today, we note only those that relate primarily to conflicts in organizations.

Depending on the number and level of participants conflicts are divided into:

· intrapersonal, those. individual conflicts;

· interpersonal , those. conflicts between individuals;

· conflicts between the individual and the group ;

· intergroup, those. conflicts in which groups are parties various levels: from small informal to large organizations and even states.

In classifications (typologies) according to rank differences conflicts are divided into conflicts between participants of equal rank (horizontal conflict) , for example, between two line employees or two heads of departments; between lower and higher subjects on the social ladder (vertical conflict), for example, a conflict between a leader and a subordinate. Adjacent to vertical conflicts conflict between the whole and the part, for example, between an individual employee and the rest of the group, or between an individual group and the entire organization; to horizontal ones - a linear-functional conflict that characterizes the relationship between line management and specialists.

Depending on the number of reasons stand out single-factor , when the conflict is based on one cause, and multifactorial conflicts , arising from two or more causes, and cumulative conflicts , when several reasons overlap one another, and this leads to a sharp increase in the intensity of the conflict.

Within the framework of typologies drawn up on the basis of time parameters , conflicts are divided into single, occasional and frequent, by duration - on the transient and long, lingering(on either short term and long term). Depending on the forms of manifestation distinguish open, with overtly aggressive acts, and hidden or latent characterized by the absence of such actions and indirect, camouflaged confrontation. Usually, the participants in such a conflict hide it from prying eyes, or the conflict is not yet “ripe”, which, of course, makes it difficult to manage or resolve it.

By origin and development conflicts can be divided into business associated with the performance of a person's official duties, and personal affecting his informal relationships.

By its consequences conflicts happen constructive and destructive. Structural suggest the possibility rational transformations in the organization, as a result of which their very cause is eliminated, and, therefore, they can be of great benefit to it, contribute to development. If the conflict has no real ground, it becomes destructive, first destroying relations between people, and then disorganizing the management system.

CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT

Identification and awareness of conflict tendencies emerging in the organization require the manager to understand the potential causes of their occurrence. Consider several groups of causes of conflicts given by foreign and domestic authors.

Resource allocation. Even in the largest organizations, resources are always limited. Management can decide how to allocate materials, people, and finances in order to achieve the organization's goals in the most efficient way. To allocate a larger share of resources to any one manager, subordinate, or group means that others will receive a smaller share from total. It doesn’t matter what the decision concerns: which of the four secretaries to assign a computer with an editor program, which department of the university to give the opportunity to increase the number of teachers, which leader will receive additional funds to expand his production, or which department will receive priority in data processing - people will always want to get more, not less. Thus, the need to share resources almost inevitably leads to various types conflict.

Interdependence of tasks. The possibility of conflict exists wherever one person or group is dependent on another person or group for tasks. For example, a production manager may attribute the low productivity of his subordinates to the inability of the maintenance department to repair equipment quickly enough. The head of the repair service, in turn, can blame the personnel department for not hiring new workers that the repairmen needed. Similarly, if one of the six engineers involved in the development new products does not work well, others may feel that this affects their ability to perform their own task. This can lead to conflict between the group and the engineer they think is not performing well. Since all organizations are systems consisting of interdependent elements, if one unit or person does not work adequately, the interdependence of tasks can cause conflict.

Some types organizational structures and relations, as it were, contribute to the conflict arising from the interdependence of tasks. The cause of the conflict between line and staff personnel will be the interdependence of industrial relations. On the one hand, the line staff depends on the staff, because they need the help of specialists. On the other hand, the staff staff depends on the line staff, as they need their support at the moment when they find out problems in manufacturing process or when acting as a consultant. Moreover, the staff at the implementation of their recommendations usually depends on the line.

Certain types of organizational structures increase the potential for conflict. This possibility increases, for example, with the matrix structure of the organization, where the principle of unity of command is deliberately violated. The possibility of conflict is also great in functional structures, since each major function focuses mainly on its own area of ​​specialization. In organizations where departments are the basis of the organizational chart (no matter what criteria they are created for: product, consumer or territorial), the heads of interdependent departments report to one common boss for more than high level, thereby reducing the possibility of conflict that arises for purely structural reasons.



Differences in purpose. The potential for conflict increases as organizations become more specialized and broken down into divisions. This is because departments can formulate their own goals and pay more attention to achieving them than to achieving the goals of the organization.

For example, a sales department may insist on producing as many different products and varieties as possible because this improves competitiveness and increases sales. However, the goals of the manufacturing unit, expressed in terms of cost - efficiency, are easier to achieve if the product range is less diverse. Similarly, a purchasing department may want to purchase large quantities of raw materials in order to lower the average unit cost. On the other hand, the finance department may want to take the money taken against inventory and invest it to increase the overall return on invested capital.

Differences in perceptions and values. The idea of ​​a situation depends on the desire to achieve a certain goal. Instead of assessing a situation objectively, people may consider only those views, alternatives, and aspects of the situation that they believe are favorable to the group or personal needs. This trend was identified in a study where sales executives, personnel services and Customer Relations were asked to resolve one issue. And everyone believed that only his functional unit could cope with the problem.

Differences in values ​​are a very common cause of conflict. For example, a subordinate may believe that he always has the right to express his opinion, while a leader may believe that a subordinate can only express his opinion when asked, and unquestioningly do what he is told. The highly educated R&D staff values ​​freedom and independence. If their boss finds it necessary to closely monitor the work of their subordinates, differences in values ​​are likely to cause conflict. Conflicts often arise in universities between departments focused on education (business and technology). Conflicts also often arise in healthcare organizations between administrative staff, who strive for efficiency and cost-effectiveness, and medical staff, for whom the quality of patient care is more valuable.

Differences in behavior and life experience. These differences can also increase the possibility of conflict. It is not uncommon to meet people who are constantly aggressive and hostile and who are ready to challenge every word. Such individuals often create an atmosphere around them that is fraught with conflict.

Research shows that people with personality traits that make them the highest degree authoritarian, dogmatic, indifferent to such a concept as self-respect, rather come into conflict. Other studies have shown that differences in life experience, values, education, seniority, age and social characteristics reduce the degree of mutual understanding and cooperation between representatives of different departments.

Poor communications. Poor communication can be both a cause and a consequence of conflict. It can act as a catalyst for conflict, making it difficult for individuals or groups to understand the situation or the perspectives of others. For example, if management fails to communicate to workers that new scheme Performance-related wages are not intended to "squeeze" workers, but to increase the company's profits and its position among competitors, subordinates may react in such a way that the pace of work slows down. Other common communication problems that cause conflict are ambiguous quality criteria, failure to accurately define official duties and functions of all employees and departments, as well as the presentation of mutually exclusive requirements for work. These problems may arise or be exacerbated by the inability of managers to develop and communicate to subordinates an accurate job description.

Conflict - this is such a relationship between the subjects of social interaction, which is characterized by their confrontation based on oppositely directed motives (needs, interests, goals, ideals, beliefs) or judgments (opinions, views, assessments, etc.)

The conflict as a complex phenomenon is characterized by many parameters, the most important of which are its essence, structure, causes and dynamics.

Classification of conflicts

An intrapersonal conflict is a conflict within the psychological world of a person, which is a clash of oppositely directed motives (needs, values, goals, ideals)

Intrapersonal conflict is one of the most complex psychological conflicts that is played out in the inner world of a person. Personal development is impossible without overcoming internal contradictions, resolving psychological conflicts. Intrapersonal conflicts of a constructive nature are necessary moments in the development of personality. Intrapersonal conflicts of a destructive nature carry a serious serious danger to the individual from difficult experiences that cause stress to the extreme form of their resolution - suicide. Therefore, it is important for each person to know the essence of intrapersonal conflicts, their causes and ways of resolving.

Interpersonal conflict - the most common type of conflict, which covers almost all spheres of human relations. At the heart of interpersonal conflict lies the contradictions between people, the incompatibility of their views, interests, needs.

Conflict between the individual and the group . The reasons for such a conflict are always associated with: a) violations of role expectations; b) with the inadequacy of the internal setting of the status of the individual (especially the conflict of the individual with the group is observed when her internal setting is overestimated); c) in violation of group norms.

Intergroup conflict - is a confrontation based on the collision of oppositely directed group motives (interests, values, goals). Group conflicts are less common in social practice, but they are always larger and more severe in their consequences.

Conflicts have both negative and positive consequences. If they contribute to the adoption of informed decisions and the development of relationships, then they are called functional (constructive). Conflicts that impede effective interaction and decision-making are called dysfunctional (destructive). To direct conflicts in a constructive direction, it is necessary to be able to analyze them, understand their causes and possible consequences.

Conflicts can be realistic (objective) and unrealistic (non-objective).

Realistic conflicts are caused by the dissatisfaction of certain requirements of the participants or unfair, in the opinion of one or both parties, the distribution of any advantages between them and are aimed at achieving a specific result.

Unrealistic conflicts have as their goal the open expression of accumulated negative emotions, resentment, hostility, that is, acute conflict interaction becomes here not a means to achieve any result, but an end in itself.

Having started as a realistic conflict, it can turn into an unrealistic one if the subject of the conflict is extremely significant for the participants, and they cannot find an acceptable solution to cope with the situation.

This increases emotional tension and requires release from accumulated negative emotions. Unrealistic conflicts are always dysfunctional. It is much more difficult to regulate them, to give them a constructive character.

Structure of the conflict

The main structural elements of the conflict

Parties to the conflict

These are subjects of social interaction that are in a state of conflict or that explicitly or implicitly support those in conflict.

The subject of the conflict

This is what causes conflict.

The image of the conflict situation

This is a reflection of the subject of the conflict in the minds of the subjects of conflict interaction.

Motives for the conflict

These are internal motivating forces that push the subjects of social interaction to conflict (motives appear in the form of needs, interests, goals, ideals, beliefs).

Positions of the conflicting parties

This is what they declare in the course of conflict interaction.