Andes mountains where. Cordillera: "Great Mountain Ranges

andes map, andes and cordillera




32°39′10″ S sh. 70°00′40″ W / 32.65278°S sh. 70.01111° W d. / -32.65278; -70.01111 (G) (O) (I)Coordinates: 32°39′10″ S sh. 70°00′40″ W / 32.65278°S sh. 70.01111° W d. / -32.65278; -70.01111(G)(O)(I)(T)
Countries	Venezuela Venezuela Colombia Colombia Ecuador Ecuador Peru Peru Bolivia Bolivia Chile Chile Argentina Argentina
Length	9000 km
Width	500 km
highest peak	aconcagua

at Wikimedia Commons

Andes, Andean Cordillera (Spanish Andes; Cordillera de los Andes) - the longest (9000 km) and one of the highest (Mount Aconcagua, 6962 m) mountain systems of the Earth, bordering all of South America from the north and west; southern part of the Cordillera. In some places, the Andes reach a width of over 500 km (the greatest width - up to 750 km - in the Central Andes, between 18 ° and 20 ° S). The average height is about 4000 m.

The Andes are a major inter-oceanic divide; to the east of the Andes, the rivers of the Atlantic Ocean basin flow (the Amazon itself and many of its large tributaries, as well as tributaries of the Orinoco, Paraguay, Parana, the Magdalena River and the Patagonia River, originate in the Andes), to the west - the basin Pacific Ocean(mostly short).

The Andes serve as the most important climatic barrier in South America, isolating the territories to the west of the Cordillera Main from the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, to the east - from the influence of the Pacific Ocean. The mountains lie in 5 climatic zones (equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical and temperate) and are distinguished (especially in the central part) by sharp contrasts in the moistening of the eastern (leeward) and western (windward) slopes.

Due to the considerable length of the Andes, their individual landscape parts differ significantly from each other. By the nature of the relief and other natural differences, as a rule, three main regions are distinguished - the Northern, Central and Southern Andes.

The Andes stretched through the territories of seven states of South America - Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina

1 Name history
- 1.1 Geological structure and relief
2 Orography
- 2.1 Northern Andes
- 2.2 Central Andes
- 2.3 Southern Andes
3 Climate
- 3.1 Northern Andes
- 3.2 Central Andes
- 3.3 Southern Andes
4 Vegetation and soils
5 Animal world
6 Ecology
7 Housekeeping
- 7.1 Industry
- 7.2 Agriculture
8 See also
9 Notes
10 Links
11 Literature

Name history

Landform, Salta (Argentina).

According to the Italian historian Giovanni Anello Oliva (1631), the eastern ridge was originally called the "Andes or Cordilleras" ("Andes, o cordilleras") by the European conquerors, while the western one was called the "sierra" ("sierra"). The scientific consensus is that the name comes from the Quechua word anti (high ridge, ridge), although there are other opinions.

Geological structure and relief

Andes - revived mountains erected by the latest uplifts on the site of the so-called Andean (Cordillera) folded geosynclinal belt; The Andes are one of the largest Alpine folding systems on the planet (on the Paleozoic and partly Baikal folded basement). The formation of the Andes dates back to the Jurassic. The Andean mountain system is characterized by troughs formed in the Triassic, subsequently filled with layers of sedimentary and volcanic rocks of considerable thickness. Large massifs of the Main Cordillera and the coast of Chile, the Coastal Cordillera of Peru are Cretaceous granitoid intrusions. Intermountain and marginal troughs (Altiplano, Maracaibo, etc.) formed in the Paleogene and Neogene times. Tectonic movements, accompanied by seismic and volcanic activity, continue in our time. This is due to the fact that a subduction zone passes along the Pacific coast of South America: the Nazca and Antarctic plates go under the South American one, which contributes to the development of mountain building processes. The extreme southern part of South America, Tierra del Fuego, is separated by a transform fault from the small Scotia plate. Beyond the Drake Passage, the Andes continue the mountains of the Antarctic Peninsula.

The Andes are rich in ores, mainly of non-ferrous metals (vanadium, tungsten, bismuth, tin, lead, molybdenum, zinc, arsenic, antimony, etc.); the deposits are confined mainly to the Paleozoic structures of the eastern Andes and the vents of ancient volcanoes; in Chile - large copper deposits. there are oil and gas in the forward and foothill troughs (in the foothills of the Andes within Venezuela, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina), and in the weathering crusts - bauxite. The Andes also have deposits of iron (in Bolivia), sodium nitrate (in Chile), gold, platinum and emeralds (in Colombia).

The Andes consist mainly of meridional parallel ranges: the Eastern Cordillera of the Andes, the Central Cordillera of the Andes, the Western Cordillera of the Andes, the Coastal Cordillera of the Andes, between which lie internal plateaus and plateaus (Puna, Altiplano - in Bolivia and Peru) or depressions. The width of the mountain system is mainly 200-300 km.

Orography

Northern Andes

Bolivar Peak in Venezuela

The main system of the Andes mountains (Andean Cordillera) consists of parallel ridges stretching in the meridional direction, separated by internal plateaus or depressions. Only the Caribbean Andes, located within Venezuela and belonging to the Northern Andes, stretch sublatitudinally along the coast of the Caribbean Sea. The northern Andes also include the Ecuadorian Andes (in Ecuador) and the Northwestern Andes (in western Venezuela and Colombia). The highest ridges of the Northern Andes have small modern glaciers, and eternal snows on volcanic cones. The islands of Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao in the Caribbean are the peaks of the continuation of the Northern Andes descending into the sea.

In the Northwestern Andes, fan-shaped diverging north of 12 ° N. sh., there are three main Cordillera - Eastern, Central and Western. All of them are high, steeply sloping and have a folded-block structure. They are characterized by faults, uplifts and subsidences of modern times. The main Cordilleras are separated by large depressions - the valleys of the rivers Magdalena and Cauca - Patia.

The Eastern Cordillera has its highest altitude in its northeastern part (Mount Ritakuwa, 5493 m); in the center of the Eastern Cordillera - an ancient lake plateau (the prevailing heights are 2.5 - 2.7 thousand m); the Eastern Cordillera is generally characterized by large leveling surfaces. highlands - glaciers. In the north, the Eastern Cordillera is continued by the Cordillera de Merida (the highest point is Mount Bolivar, 5007 m) and the Sierra de Perija (reaches a height of 3,540 m); between these ridges in a vast low-lying depression lies Lake Maracaibo. In the far north - the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta horst massif with altitudes up to 5800 m (Mount Cristobal Colon)

The valley of the Magdalena River separates the Eastern Cordillera from the Central, relatively narrow and high; in the Central Cordillera (especially in its southern part) there are many volcanoes (Huila, 5750 m; Ruiz, 5400 m; and others), some of which are active (Kumbal, 4890 m). To the north, the Central Cordillera drops somewhat and forms the Antioquia massif, strongly dissected by river valleys. The Western Cordillera, separated from the Central Valley of the Cauca River, has lower altitudes (up to 4200 m); in the south of the Western Cordillera - volcanism. Further to the west is the low (up to 1810 m) Serraniu de Baudo ridge, which passes in the north into the mountains of Panama. North and west of the Northwest Andes are the Caribbean and Pacific alluvial lowlands.

As part of the Equatorial (Ecuadorian) Andes, reaching up to 4 ° S, there are two Cordilleras (Western and Eastern), separated by depressions 2500-2700 m high. Along the faults that limit these depressions (depressions) - one of the highest volcanic chains (the highest volcanoes are Chimborazo, 6267 m, Cotopaxi, 5897 m). These volcanoes, as well as those of Colombia, form the first volcanic region of the Andes.

Central Andes

El Misti volcano in Peru

In the Central Andes (up to 28 ° S), the Peruvian Andes (spreading south to 14 ° 30′ S) and the Central Andes proper are distinguished. Peruvian Andes, due to recent uplifts and intensive incision of rivers (the largest of which - Marañon, Ucayali and Huallaga - belong to the system upper amazon) formed parallel ranges (Eastern, Central and Western Cordillera) and a system of deep longitudinal and transverse canyons, dismembering the ancient alignment surface. The peaks of the Cordillera of the Peruvian Andes exceed 6000 m (the highest point is Mount Huascaran, 6768 m); in Cordillera Blanca - modern glaciation. Alpine landforms are also developed on the blocky ridges of the Cordillera Vilcanota, Cordillera de Vilcabamba, Cordillera de Carabaia.

Glacial Lake Palcacocha

To the south is the widest part of the Andes - the Central Andean Highlands (up to 750 km wide), where arid geomorphological processes predominate; a significant part of the highlands is occupied by the Puna plateau with heights of 3.7 - 4.1 thousand m. Pune is characterized by drainless basins (“bolsons”) occupied by lakes (Titicaca, Poopo, etc.) and salt marshes (Atacama, Koipasa, Uyuni, etc. .). To the east of Pune - Cordillera Real (Ankouma peak, 6550 m) with powerful modern glaciation; between the Altiplano plateau and the Cordillera Real, at an altitude of 3700 m, is the city of La Paz, the capital of Bolivia, the highest mountain in the world. East of the Cordillera Real - Subandian folded ranges of the Eastern Cordillera, reaching up to 23 ° S. The southern continuation of the Cordillera Real is the Central Cordillera, as well as several blocky massifs (the highest point is Mount El Libertador, 6720 m). From the west, Pune is framed by the Western Cordillera with intrusive peaks and numerous volcanic peaks (Sahama, 6780 m; Lullaillaco, 6739 m; San Pedro, 6145 m; Misti, 5821 m; etc.), which are part of the second volcanic region of the Andes. South of 19° S the western slopes of the Western Cordillera go to the tectonic depression of the Longitudinal Valley, occupied in the south by the Atacama Desert. Behind the Longitudinal Valley there is a low (up to 1500 m) intrusive Coastal Cordillera, which is characterized by arid sculptural relief forms.

In Pune and in the western part of the Central Andes there is a very high snow line (in some places above 6,500 m), therefore, snow is noted only on the highest volcanic cones, and glaciers are found only in the Ojos del Salado massif (up to 6,880 m high).

Southern Andes

Andes near the border of Argentina and Chile

In the Southern Andes, extending south of 28 ° S, there are two parts - the northern (Chile-Argentine or Subtropical Andes) and the southern (Patagonian Andes). The Chilean-Argentinean Andes, tapering to the south and reaching 39 ° 41′ S, have a pronounced three-membered structure - the Coastal Cordillera, the Longitudinal Valley and the Main Cordillera; within the latter, in the Cordillera Frontal, there is the highest peak of the Andes, Mount Aconcagua (6960 m), as well as the large peaks of Tupungato (6800 m), Mercedario (6770 m). The snow line here is very high (at 32°40′ S - 6000 m). East of the Cordillera Frontal are the ancient Precordillera.

South of 33°S (and up to 52 ° S) there is the third volcanic region of the Andes, where there are many active (mainly in the Main Cordillera and to the west of it) and extinct volcanoes (Tupungato, Maipa, Lyimo, etc.)

When moving south, the snow line gradually decreases and under 51 ° S.l. reaches a mark of 1460 m. High ridges acquire the features of an alpine type, the area of \u200b\u200bmodern glaciation increases, and numerous glacial lakes appear. South of 40°S the Patagonian Andes begin with lower ridges than in the Chilean-Argentine Andes (the highest point is Mount San Valentin - 4058 m) and active volcanism in the north. About 52° S the heavily dissected Coastal Cordillera plunges into the ocean, and its peaks form a chain of rocky islands and archipelagos; The longitudinal valley turns into a system of straits reaching the western part of the Strait of Magellan. In the area of the Strait of Magellan, the Andes (here called the Andes of Tierra del Fuego) deviate sharply to the east. In the Patagonian Andes, the height of the snow line barely exceeds 1500 m (in the extreme south it is 300-700 m, and from 46 ° 30′ S. glaciers descend to ocean level), glacial landforms predominate (below 48 ° S - powerful Patagonian ice sheet) with an area of over 20 thousand km², from where many kilometers of ice descend to the west and east glacial tongues); some of the valley glaciers on the eastern slopes end in large lakes. Young volcanic cones (Corcovado and others) rise along the shores, strongly indented by fjords. The Andes of Tierra del Fuego are relatively low (up to 2469 m).

Climate

Northern Andes

The northern part of the Andes belongs to the subequatorial belt northern hemisphere; here, as in sub equatorial belt southern hemisphere, there is an alternation of wet and dry seasons; precipitation falls from May to November, but the wet season is shorter in the northernmost regions. The eastern slopes are much more humid than the western ones; precipitation (up to 1000 mm per year) falls mainly in summer. The Caribbean Andes, located on the border of the tropical and subequatorial zones, are dominated by tropical air throughout the year; there is little precipitation (often less than 500 mm per year); the rivers are short with characteristic summer floods.

In the equatorial belt, seasonal fluctuations are practically absent; so, in the capital of Ecuador Quito change average monthly temperatures per year is only 0.4 °C. Precipitation is plentiful (up to 10000 mm per year, although usually 2500-7000 mm per year) and more evenly distributed over the slopes than in the subequatorial zone. The altitudinal zonality is clearly expressed. the lower part of the mountains - a hot and humid climate, precipitation falls almost daily; in the depressions there are numerous swamps. With altitude, the amount of precipitation decreases, but at the same time, the thickness of the snow cover increases. Up to altitudes of 2500-3000 m, temperatures rarely drop below 15 ° C, seasonal temperature fluctuations are insignificant. Here, daily temperature fluctuations are already large (up to 20 ° C), the weather can change dramatically during the day. At altitudes of 3500-3800 m, daily temperatures already fluctuate around 10 °C. Above - a harsh climate with frequent snowstorms and snowfalls; daytime temperatures are positive, but there are severe frosts at night. The climate is dry, as there is little precipitation due to high evaporation. Above 4500 m - eternal snow.

Central Andes

In the Atacama Desert

Between 5° and 28° S there is a pronounced asymmetry in the distribution of precipitation along the slopes: the western slopes are much less moistened than the eastern ones. West of the Cordillera Main - deserted tropical climate(the formation of which is greatly facilitated by the cold Peruvian current), there are very few rivers. If in the northern part of the Central Andes 200-250 mm of precipitation falls annually, then to the south their amount decreases and in some places does not exceed 50 mm per year. This part of the Andes is home to the Atacama, the driest desert in the world. Deserts rise in places up to 3000 m above sea level. A few oases are located mainly in the valleys of small rivers fed by the waters of mountain glaciers. The average January temperature in coastal areas ranges from 24 °C in the north to 19 °C in the south, the average July temperature ranges from 19 °C in the north to 13 °C in the south. Above 3000 m, in a dry puna, there is also little precipitation (rarely more than 250 mm per year); arrivals of cold winds are noted, when the temperature can drop to -20 ° C. The average July temperature does not exceed 15 °C.

At low altitudes, with an extremely small amount of rain, significant (up to 80%) air humidity, so fogs and dews are frequent. The Altiplano and Puna plateaus have a very harsh climate, with average annual temperatures not exceeding 10 °C. The large Lake Titicaca has a moderating effect on the climate of the surrounding areas - in the lakeside areas, temperature fluctuations are not as significant as in other parts of the plateau. To the east of the Main Cordillera - a large (3000 - 6000 mm per year) amount of precipitation (brought mainly in the summer east winds), dense river network. Through the valleys air masses from the Atlantic Ocean they cross the Eastern Cordillera, moistening its western slope as well. Above 6000 m in the north and 5000 m in the south - negative average annual temperatures; due to the dry climate, there are few glaciers.

Southern Andes

In the Chilean-Argentine Andes, the climate is subtropical, and the humidification of the western slopes - due to winter cyclones - is greater than in the subequatorial zone; when moving south, the annual precipitation on the western slopes increases rapidly. Summer is dry, winter is wet. As you move away from the ocean, the continentality of the climate increases, and seasonal temperature fluctuations increase. the city of Santiago, located in the Longitudinal Valley, the average temperature of the warmest month is 20 ° C, the coldest - 7-8 ° C; there is little precipitation in Santiago, 350 mm per year (to the south, in Valdivia, there is more precipitation - 750 mm per year). On the western slopes of the Main Cordillera, precipitation is more than in the Longitudinal Valley (but less than on the Pacific coast).

On the coast of Tierra del Fuego

When driving south subtropical climate on the western slopes smoothly passes into the oceanic climate of temperate latitudes: the annual amount of precipitation increases, the differences in moistening by seasons decrease. Strong westerly winds brought to the coast a large number of precipitation (up to 6000 mm per year, although usually 2000-3000 mm). More than 200 days a year it rains heavily, thick fogs often fall on the coast, while the sea is constantly stormy; the climate is unfavorable for living. The eastern slopes (between 28° and 38° S) are drier than the western (and only in the temperate zone, south of 37° S, due to the influence of westerly winds, their moisture increases, although they remain less humid compared to Western). The average temperature of the warmest month on the western slopes is only 10-15 ° C (the coldest - 3-7 ° C)

In the extreme southern part of the Andes, on Tierra del Fuego, there is a very humid climate, which is formed by strong humid western and southwestern winds; precipitation (up to 3000 mm) falls mainly in the form of drizzling rain (which occurs most of the days of the year). Only in the easternmost part of the archipelago is much less precipitation. temperatures are low throughout the year (with very little seasonal fluctuation).

Vegetation and soils

Coca

The soil and vegetation cover of the Andes is very diverse. This is due to the high altitudes of the mountains, a significant difference in the moisture content of the western and eastern slopes. Altitudinal zonality in the Andes is clearly expressed. There are three altitudinal belts - tierra caliente, tierra fria and tierra elada.

In the Andes of Venezuela, deciduous (during the winter drought) forests and shrubs grow on red mountainous soils. The lower parts of the windward slopes from the Northwestern Andes to the Central Andes are covered with mountain moist equatorial and tropical forests on lateritic soils (mountain hylaea), as well as mixed forests of evergreen and deciduous species. The external appearance of the equatorial forests differs little from the external appearance of these forests in the flat part of the mainland; various palms, ficuses, bananas, a cocoa tree, etc. are characteristic. Higher (up to altitudes of 2500-3000 m), the nature of the vegetation changes; Bamboos, tree ferns, coca shrub (which is the source of cocaine), cinchona are typical. Between 3000 m and 3800 m - alpine hylaea with stunted trees and shrubs; epiphytes and creepers are widespread, bamboos, tree-like ferns, evergreen oaks, myrtle, heather are characteristic. Above - predominantly xerophytic vegetation, paramos, with numerous Compositae; moss swamps on flat areas and lifeless rocky spaces on steep slopes. Above 4500 m - a belt of eternal snow and ice.

To the south, in the subtropical Chilean Andes - evergreen shrubs on brown soils. Longitudinal valley - soils resembling chernozems in composition. The vegetation of the alpine plateaus: in the north - mountain equatorial meadows of paramos, in the Peruvian Andes and in the east of Pune - dry alpine-tropical steppes of halka, in the west of Pune and in the entire Pacific west between 5-28 ° south latitude - desert types of vegetation (in the Atacama Desert - succulent vegetation and cacti). Many surfaces are saline, which hinders the development of vegetation; in such areas, mainly wormwood and ephedra are found. Above 3000 m (up to about 4500 m) - semi-desert vegetation, called dry puna; grow dwarf shrubs (tholoi), grasses (feather grass, reed grass), lichens, cacti. To the east of the Main Cordillera, where there is more rainfall, there is steppe vegetation (puna) with numerous grasses (fescue, feather grass, reed grass) and cushion-like shrubs. On the humid slopes of the Eastern Cordillera, tropical forests (palm trees, cinchona) rise to 1500 m, stunted evergreen forests with a predominance of bamboo, ferns, and lianas reach 3000 m; at higher altitudes - alpine steppes. A typical inhabitant of the Andean highlands is polylepis, a plant of the Rosaceae family, common in Colombia, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador and Chile; these trees are also found at an altitude of 4500 m.

In the middle part of Chile, the forests are largely reduced; once forests rose along the Main Cordillera to heights of 2500-3000 m (mountain meadows with alpine grasses and shrubs, as well as rare peat bogs, began higher), but now the mountain slopes are practically bare. Nowadays, forests are found only in the form of separate groves (pines, araucaria, eucalyptus, beeches and plane trees, in the undergrowth - gorse and geraniums).

Araucaria

On the slopes of the Patagonian Andes south of 38°S. - subarctic multi-tiered forests of tall trees and shrubs, mostly evergreen, on brown forest (podzolized to the south) soils; there are many mosses, lichens and lianas in the forests; south of 42°S - mixed forests(in the region of 42 ° S there is an array of araucaria forests). Beeches, magnolias, tree ferns, tall conifers, and bamboos grow. On the eastern slopes of the Patagonian Andes - mostly beech forests. In the extreme south of the Patagonian Andes - tundra vegetation.

In the extreme southern part of the Andes, on Tierra del Fuego, forests (from deciduous and evergreen trees - for example, southern beech and canelo) occupy only a narrow coastal strip in the west; above the forest border, the snow belt begins almost immediately. In the east and in places in the west, subantarctic mountain meadows and peat bogs are common.

The Andes are the birthplace of cinchona, coca, tobacco, potatoes, tomatoes and other valuable plants.

Animal world

Pudu deer - endemic to the Andes

The fauna of the northern part of the Andes is part of the Brazilian zoogeographic region and is similar to the fauna of the adjacent plains. The fauna of the Andes south of 5 ° south latitude belongs to the Chilean-Patagonian subregion. The fauna of the Andes as a whole is characterized by an abundance of endemic genera and species. The Andes are inhabited by llamas and alpacas (representatives of these two species are used local population for obtaining wool and meat, as well as pack animals), chain-tailed monkeys, relic spectacled bear, pudu and gaemal deer (which are endemic to the Andes), vicuña, guanaco, Azar fox, sloths, chinchillas, marsupial opossums, anteaters, degu rodents. In the south - the blue fox, the Magellanic dog, the endemic rodent tuco-tuco, etc. There are many birds, among them hummingbirds, which are also found at altitudes of more than 4000 m, but are especially numerous and diverse in the "foggy forests" (the tropical rainforests of Colombia, Ecuador , Peru, Bolivia and the extreme northwest of Argentina, located in the fog condensation zone); endemic condor, rising to a height of up to 7 thousand meters; and others. Some species (such as, for example, chinchillas, which were intensively exterminated in the 19th and early 20th centuries for the sake of obtaining skins; wingless grebes and the Titicaca whistler, found only near Lake Titicaca; etc.) are endangered.

The peculiarity of the Andes is the great species diversity amphibians (over 900 species). Also in the Andes, there are about 600 species of mammals (13% are endemic), over 1,700 species of birds (of which 33.6% are endemic) and about 400 species of freshwater fish (34.5% are endemic).

Ecology

One of the main environmental issues Andes is the reduction of forests, which are no longer renewed; The humid tropical forests of Colombia, which are being intensively reduced to plantations of cinchona and coffee trees, and rubber plants, have been particularly hard hit.

With a developed agriculture, the Andean countries face the problems of soil degradation, soil pollution with chemicals, erosion, as well as desertification of land due to overgrazing (especially in Argentina).

Environmental problems of coastal zones - pollution of sea water near ports and large cities (caused not least by the release of sewage and industrial waste into the ocean), uncontrolled fishing in large volumes.

As elsewhere in the world, the Andes are facing an acute problem of greenhouse gas emissions (mainly from electricity generation, as well as from the iron and steel industry). Significant contribution to pollution environment oil refineries, oil wells and mines also contribute (their activity leads to soil erosion, pollution of groundwater; the activity of mines in Patagonia has adversely affected the biota of the area).

Due to a number of environmental problems, many animal and plant species in the Andes are endangered.

economy

Industry

One of the most significant branches of the economy in the Andes is the mining industry. Deposits of copper (in Chile), iron (in Bolivia), gold (in Colombia, etc.), emeralds (in Colombia), tungsten, tin, silver, oil (in foredeeps and intermountain depressions of Argentina, Bolivia, Venezuela, Peru) are being developed. and etc.). See also the section "Geological structure and relief".

Agriculture

Agriculture is also developed, specializing in the cultivation of coffee (in Colombia (up to 13% of the world harvest), Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru), bananas (in Colombia, Ecuador), potatoes, and barley. Caribbean Andes - growing cotton, tobacco, sisal. in the equatorial zone at medium altitudes, tobacco, coffee, and corn are cultivated; at high altitudes (up to 3800 m) they grow corn, wheat, potatoes, as well as the quinoa plant, which is an important part of the diet of the local Indian population. On the well-moistened slopes of the Eastern Cordillera (within the Central Andes), sugar cane, cocoa, coffee and tropical fruits are grown. Many crops cultivated in Chile are imported from Europe - these are olives, grapes, citrus trees; in the fields - wheat and corn. Due to the considerable steepness of the slopes, crop production is carried out on terraces.

The main direction of animal husbandry is sheep breeding (in the highlands of Peru, Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego, etc.). In the mountains, the Indian population (Quechua) breeds llamas. Fishing is developed on large lakes (especially on Lake Titicaca).

Notes

Strictly speaking, the most extended mountain system of the Earth is the Mid-Ocean Ridge, which is a network of ridges with a total length of about 80,000 km. However, in the Guinness Book of Records, the Mid-Ocean Ridge is noted as the largest mountain system on Earth, while the Andes is the longest mountain range. See relevant entries, as well as wwww.rgo.ru/geography/fiz_geography/uamerika/andqqq1
The Andes are the highest mountain system on Earth outside of Asia; the highest mountain system of our planet - the Himalayas. See www.igras.ru/index.php?r=41&id=153
See wwww.rgo.ru/geography/fiz_geography/uamerika/andqqq1
Juan Anello Oliva, HISTORIA DEL REINO Y PROVINCIAS DEL PERÚ. Archived from the original on July 9, 2012.
Actually, the word "Cordillera" itself comes from the Spanish cordillera - "mountain range"
Tropical Andes

Literature

E. N. Lukashova, South America, M, 1958;
Latin America, Encyclopedic reference book, vol. 1, M, 1980.

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Andes Information About

One of the highest and longest mountain systems in the world are Andes(the Andes), consisting of ridges, between which lie plateaus, depressions and plateaus. The Andes are often compared to the Dragon lying on the west coast. The head of the Dragon rests at, the tail is immersed in the ocean at, the back is strewn with thorns.

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Description and characteristics

The worlds of the Andes are amazing, hard to reach and little studied. The length of the mountain range is more than 8000 km, the average width of the Andes is 250 km (maximum - 700 km). The average height of the Andes is 4000 meters above sea level. In the extreme south of the continent, where the Andes descend to the ocean, giant icebergs break off from glaciers and are considered the most insidious strait on the planet. In the south of the Andes lies the glacier San Rafael, which moves, squeezing the slopes of the mountains.

Until today, the growth of the Andes continues, over the past 100 years they have "grown" by more than a dozen meters. Here, the air currents from the Pacific Ocean cool, falling as precipitation, and already dry air moves to the east. In these young mountains go active educational processes, from this there are many active volcanoes, earthquakes often occur.

Mountain ranges run through the territories of seven South American countries:

Northern Andes - , and;
Central Andes - and;
Southern Andes - and.

It is in the Andes that it originates greatest river.

The highest point of the Andes and the highest peak of the Southern Hemisphere is, whose height is 6962 m above sea level.

The highest mountain lake in the world

Lying in the Andes at an altitude of 3820 m (on the border of Bolivia and Peru), contains the richest fresh water reserves in South America.

Since the outline of the lake resembles a puma, its name consists of the words "rock" and "puma". The lake and its surroundings remember the civilization of the Incas, they built their temples on the islands and along the banks. This lake is often mentioned in Indian myths about the origin of the world and the birth of the gods.

Lake Titicaca

The most "desert" desert

The desert in the Andes is the driest place on earth. Not a single rain fell here for centuries.

Here the height of the Andes is about 7000 m, but there are no glaciers on the peaks, and the rivers dried up many centuries ago. Local residents collect water with the help of special fog eliminators made of nylon threads, and up to 18 liters of condensate flowing down them per day!

There is a place in the Atacama called the Valley of the Moon, where salt hills create an unearthly landscape that is constantly changing with the action of the winds. Many fantastic films about alien civilizations were filmed on this huge, nature-created set.

Alpine field of geysers

El Tatio, located in the Andes at an altitude of 4200 m (the border of Bolivia and Chile), is the highest field of geysers in the world and the most extensive in the Southern Hemisphere.

There are about 80 geysers here, which in the morning shoot hot water and steam to a height of about a meter, although sometimes hot water fountains reach 5-6 m. paintings. Near the geysers there are thermal wells, the water of which has a temperature of 49 ° C and a rich mineral composition swimming in it is good for health.

Copper Mountains - that's what the Incas call these longest mountains in the world. We are talking about the Andean Cordillera, known to us as the Andes. This mountain range is not comparable in length to any of the existing ones on our planet. The Andes are about 9,000 km long. They originate from the Caribbean Sea and reach Tierra del Fuego.

Width and height of the Andes

Aconcagua (pictured below) is the highest peak of the Andean Cordillera. The height of the Andes at this point is 6962 meters. Aconcagua is located in Argentina. What are the prevailing ones have a number of large peaks. Among them, Mount Ritakuva (5493 meters), El Libertador (6720 meters), Huascaran (6768 meters), Mercedario (6770 m) and others should be noted. There are sections where mountains reach 500 km in width. As for their maximum width, it is about 750 km. The main part of them is occupied by the Puna plateau, which has a very high snow line, which reaches 6500 m. The average height of the Andes is approximately 4000 m.

Age of the Andes and their formation

According to experts, these mountains are quite young. A few million years ago, the process of mountain building ended here. Even in the Precambrian period, the origin of fossils began. Land plots then began to appear in place of the boundless ocean. The area where the modern Andean Cordillera is located was for a long time either sea or land, and the height of the Andes changed significantly. The mountain range completed its formation after the uplift of rocks. Huge folds of stone were pushed to an impressive height as a result of this process. By the way, this process is not finished. It continues in our time. Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes sometimes occur in the Andes.

Rivers originating in the Andes

The longest mountains on our planet are at the same time considered the largest inter-oceanic watershed. The famous Amazon originates precisely in the Andean Cordillera, as well as its tributaries. It should also be noted that the tributaries of the large rivers of the states of Paraguay, Orinoco and Parana begin in the Andes. For the mainland, mountains are a climatic barrier, that is, they protect the land from the west from the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, and from the east - from the influence of the Pacific Ocean.

Relief

The Andes are so long that it is not surprising that they are located in six climatic zones. Unlike the southern slopes, the amount of precipitation is high on the western slopes. It reaches 10 thousand mm per year. Consequently, not only the height of the Andes, but also their landscape varies significantly.

The Andean Cordilleras are divided by relief into 3 regions: the Central, Northern and Southern Andes. The main Cordilleras are separated by the depressions of such rivers as the Magdalena and the Cauca. There are many volcanoes here. One of them, Huila, reaches 5750 m. The other, Ruiz, rises to 5400 m. Cumbal, which is now active, reaches a height of 4890 m. The Ecuadorian Andes, belonging to the Northern, include a volcanic chain marked by the most high volcanoes. Chimborazo alone is worth something - it rises to 6267 m. The height of Cotopaxi is not much less - 5896 m. The highest point of the Ecuadorian Andes is Huascaran - 6769 m is the absolute height of the mountain. The Andes South are divided into Chile-Argentine and Patagonian. Most high points in this part - Tupungato (about 6800 m) and Medcedario (6770 m). The snow line reaches six thousand meters here.

Volcano Llullaillaco

This is a very interesting active volcano located on the border of Argentina and Chile. It belongs to the Peruvian Andes (Western Cordillera range). This volcano is located in the Atacama Desert, which is one of the driest places on our planet. The absolute height of the Andes at the point is 6739 m. It is the highest of all the existing ones. In the region of this volcano, the Andes mountains are very peculiar. Its relative height reaches 2.5 km. On the western slope of the volcano, the snow line exceeds 6.5 thousand meters, which is its highest position on the planet.

Atacama Desert

In this unusual place, there are areas where it has never rained. The Atacama Desert is the driest place on earth. The fact is that the rains cannot overcome, therefore they fall on the other side of the mountains. The sands in this desert stretch to the very tropics for thousands of kilometers. The cold fog rising from the sea is the only source of moisture for native plants.

San Rafael Glacier

Another interesting place that I would like to talk about is the San Rafael Glacier. It should be noted that in the south of the Alpine Cordillera, where it is located, it is very cold. At one time, this surprised the pioneers very much, since the south of France and Venice lie at the same latitude in the northern hemisphere, and here they discovered the San Rafael glacier. It moves along the slopes of the mountains, the peaks of which become sharper and steeper over time. Only in 1962 was its source discovered. An ice sheet of gigantic size cools the entire region.

Vegetation

Andes are unique place on our planet, and not only due to the impressive values that the width and height of the mountains have. The Andes are extremely picturesque. AT different places they have their own flair. In the Andes of Venezuela, for example, shrubs and deciduous forests grow on red soils. Equatorial and tropical rainforests cover the lower slopes from the Northwest Andes to the Central. Bananas, ficuses, cocoa trees, palm trees, creepers and bamboos are found here. However, there are also rocky lifeless spaces, and many moss swamps. In places where the average height of the Andes exceeds 4500 m, there is an area eternal ice and snow. The Andean Cordillera is known as the birthplace of coca, tomatoes, tobacco and potatoes.

Animal world

The fauna of these mountains is no less interesting. Llamas, alpacas, pudu deer, vicuñas, spectacled bears, blue foxes, sloths, hummingbirds, chinchillas live here. Residents of our country can find all these animals only in zoos.

One of the features of the Andes is a large variety of amphibian species (about 900). About 600 species of mammals live in the mountains, as well as about two thousand species of birds. The variety of freshwater fish is also great. There are about 400 species of them in local rivers.

Tourism and locals

Andean Cordillera, except for remote and difficult areas, is not an untouched corner of nature. Local residents cultivate almost every piece of land here. However, the road to the Andes for most tourists means a "departure" from modernity. For centuries, these places have maintained an unchanged way of life, which allows tourists to feel like they are in the past.

Travelers can follow ancient Indian trails, where, however, sometimes you need to stop to let a herd of guanacos, sheep or goats go ahead. No matter how many times you have already visited these local places are always mesmerizing. Meetings with the locals also turn out to be unforgettable. Their way of life is far from familiar to us. The huts in these places are built of raw bricks. Local residents often do without electricity. In order to get water, they go to the nearest stream.

Hiking in the mountains is not mountaineering in the usual sense of the word. Rather, it is walking along steep trails. However, they should be performed only by absolutely healthy and well-trained people with special equipment.

ANDES (Andes, from Anta, in the Inca language copper, copper mountains), Andean Cordillera (Cordillera de los Andes), the longest (estimated from 8 to 12 thousand km) and one of the highest (6959 m, Mount Aconcagua) mountain systems of the globe; frames South America from the north and west. In the north they are bounded by the basin of the Caribbean Sea, in the west they face the Pacific Ocean, in the south they are washed by the Drake Passage. The Andes are the main climatic barrier of the mainland, isolating the eastern part from the influence of the Pacific Ocean, the western part from the influence of the Atlantic Ocean.

Relief. The Andes consist mainly of submeridional ridges Western Andean Cordillera, Central Andean Cordillera, Eastern Cordillera Andes, Coastal Cordillera Andes, separated by internal plateaus and depressions (see map).

According to the totality of natural features and orography, the Northern, Peruvian, Central and Southern Andes are distinguished. The northern Andes include the Caribbean Andes, the Colombian-Venezuelan and Ecuadorian Andes. The Caribbean Andes are elongated latitudinally and reach a height of 2765 m (Mount Naiguata). The Colombian-Venezuelan Andes have a northeast strike and are formed by the Western, Central and Eastern (height up to 5493 m) Cordillera. The ridges fan out north of 1° north latitude and are separated by the valleys of the Cauca and Magdalena rivers. The northern branches of the Eastern Cordillera cover the intermountain depression of Maracaibo. The isolated massif of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (altitude 5775 m, Mount Cristobal Colon) rises steeply above the Caribbean coast. Along the coast of the Pacific Ocean there is a lowland up to 150 km wide, with low (up to 1810 m) ridges, separated from the Western Cordillera by the valley of the Atrato River. The Ecuadorian Andes (1 ° north latitude - 5 ° south latitude), less than 200 km wide (the minimum width of the Andes), are elongated submeridionally and formed by the Western (height up to 6310 m, Mount Chimborazo) and Eastern Cordillera, separated by a depression - the Quito graben. Along the coast - lowlands and low mountains. The Peruvian Andes (5°-14° south latitude), up to 400 km wide, strike northwest. The coastal plain is almost non-existent. Western (altitude up to 6768 m, Mount Huascaran), Central and Eastern Cordillera are separated by the valleys of the Marañon and Huallaga rivers. In the Central Andes (Central Andean Highlands, 14°28° S), the strike changes from northwest to submeridional. The Western Cordillera (altitude up to 6900 m, Mount Ojos del Salado) is separated from the Central and Cordillera Real by the vast Altiplano basin. The Eastern and Central Cordillera are separated by a narrow depression with the upper reaches of the Beni River. The Coastal Cordillera stretches along the coast, framed from the east by the Longitudinal Valley. The Southern Andes (Chilean-Argentinean Andes and Patagonian Andes), 350-450 km wide, are located south of 28 ° south latitude and have mainly a submeridional strike. They are formed by the Coastal Cordillera, the Longitudinal Valley, the Main Cordillera (altitude up to 6959 m, Mount Aconcagua) and the Precordillera. To the south, the heights decrease to 1000 m (on Tierra del Fuego). The Patagonian Andes are strongly dissected by modern and ancient (Quaternary) glaciers into numerous massifs and ranges. The Coastal Cordillera passes into the chain of islands of the Chilean archipelago with deep valleys and fjords, and the Longitudinal Valley into a system of straits. The Andes are part of the Pacific volcanic ring, and the shape of the relief is largely determined by volcanic forms - plateaus, lava flows, volcanic cones. There are up to 50 large active, 30 extinct volcanoes and hundreds of small volcanic structures. In the Northern Andes - the volcanoes Cotopaxi (5897 m), Huila (5750 m), Ruiz (5400 m), Sangay (5230 m) and others; in the Central Andes - Lullaillaco (6723 m), Misti (5822 m) and others; in the Southern Andes - Tupungato (6800 m), Liaima (3060 m), Osorno (2660 m), Corcovado (2300 m), Berni (1750 m), etc.

Geological structure and minerals. The Andes as the newest mountain structure was formed at the Alpine stage (in the Cenozoic) in connection with the evolution of the active margin of South America. In its position, the Andes inherit the Andean fold system that developed throughout the Phanerozoic, the largest of the systems in the eastern part of the Pacific mobile belt. The modern Andes are a typical marginal continental volcanic-plutonic belt. At earlier stages of development (the end of the Triassic - Cretaceous), island-arc systems of the West Pacific type existed here. According to the geological structure of the Andes, they have transverse and longitudinal zonality. From north to south, three segments are distinguished: Northern (Colombian-Ecuadorian), Central (with Peruvian-Bolivian and Northern Chilean-Argentinean subsegments) and Southern (Southern Chilean-Argentinean). The easternmost element of the Andes is the band of the Subandy Foredeeps, which gradually narrows to the south and consists of separate links separated by transverse uplifts. The troughs are filled with weakly deformed Eocene-Quaternary molasses. The Andean orogen, thrust to the east, consists of several large uplifts with a cover-fold structure (expressed in the relief by the Cordillera mountain ranges) and narrower intermountain troughs or plateaus (Altiplano) separating them, filled with powerful Neogene-Quaternary molasses. The eastern (outer), partly central zones of the orogen are composed of fragments of the Early Precambrian metamorphic basement of the platform, its Paleozoic cover, Late Precambrian (Brazilides) and Hercynian metamorphic folded complexes. The structure of the western (inner) zones involves Mesozoic (partly Paleozoic) sedimentary, volcanic-sedimentary, volcanogenic complexes formed in volcanic island arcs, back-arc basins on the ancient active margin of South America, as well as ophiolites of various origins. These formations were attached (accreted) to the margin of South America in the Late Cretaceous. At the same time, there was an intrusion of giant multiphase granite batholiths (Coastal Cordillera of Peru, Main Cordillera of Chile, Patagonian). In the Cenozoic, chains of large terrestrial stratovolcanoes formed along the active continental margin. Three volcanic groups are currently active: northern (Southern Colombia and Ecuador), central (Southern Peru - Northern Chile) and southern (Southern Chile). The Andes retain high tectonic mobility, are characterized by intense seismicity associated with the subduction (subduction) of the Nazca plate under the South American plate.

The bowels of the Andes are extremely rich in minerals. The deposits of the Copper Belt of South America are associated with granite batholiths. Deposits of ores of silver, copper, lead, zinc, tungsten, gold, platinum and other rare and non-ferrous metals (deposits in Peru and Bolivia) are confined to Cenozoic volcanic and subvolcanic formations. Deposits of oil and natural combustible gas are associated with the band of foredeeps filled by Cenozoic molasses, especially in the north (Venezuela, Ecuador, Northern Peru) and the extreme south of the Andes (Southern Chile, Argentina). Large deposits of saltpeter, iron ore in Chile, emeralds in Colombia.

Climate. The Andes cross 6 climatic zones (equatorial, northern and southern subequatorial, southern tropical and subtropical, temperate), characterized by sharp contrasts in the moisture content of the western (windward) and eastern (leeward) slopes. In the Caribbean Andes, 500-1000 mm of precipitation falls per year (mainly in summer), in the equatorial Andes (Ecuador and Colombia) on the western slopes - up to 10,000 mm, on the eastern - up to 5000 mm. The western slopes of the Peruvian and Central Andes and the interior of the Central Andes are characterized by a tropical desert climate, the eastern slopes receive up to 3000 mm of precipitation per year. To the south of 20 ° south latitude on the western slopes, the amount of precipitation increases, on the eastern slopes it decreases. The western slopes south of 35° south latitude receive 5,000–10,000 mm of precipitation per year, while the eastern slopes receive 100–200 mm. Only in the very south, with a decrease in altitude, there is some equalization in the moistening of the slopes. The snow line is located in Colombia at an altitude of 4700-4900 m, in Ecuador - 4250 m, in the Central Andes 5600-6100 (in Pune 6500 m is the highest on Earth). It decreases to 3100 m to 35 ° south latitude, 1000-1200 m - in the Patagonian Andes, 500-600 m - in Tierra del Fuego. South of 46° 30' south latitude, glaciers descend to sea level. Large glaciation centers are located in the Cordillera de Santa Marta and in the Cordillera de Merida (the total ice volume is about 0.5 km 3), in the Ecuadorian Andes (1.1 km 3), the Peruvian Andes (24.7 km 3 ), in the Western Cordillera of the Central Andes (12.1 km 3), in the Central Cordillera (62.7 km 3), in the Chilean-Argentine Andes (38.9 km 3), the Patagonian Andes (12.6 thousand km 3, in including the Uppsala Glacier). The Patagonian ice sheet is formed by two vast fields with a total length of 700 km, a width of 30-70 km, and a total area of 13 thousand km2.

Rivers and lakes. The Andes are interoceanic watershed, they originate the components and tributaries of the Amazon, as well as tributaries of the Orinoco, Paraguay, Parana and Patagonia rivers. In the Northern and Peruvian Andes, in narrow depressions located between the ridges, flow major rivers: Cauca, Magdalena, Marañon (source of the Amazon), Huallaga, Mantaro, etc. Most of their tributaries and the rivers of the Central and Southern Andes are relatively short. The rivers of the Western and Coastal Cordillera between 20 ° and 28 ° south latitude have almost no permanent watercourses, the river network is sparse. The Central Andes have extensive areas of internal runoff. The rivers flow into lakes Titicaca, Poopo, and salt marshes (Coipasa, Uyuni, and others). In the southern, especially Patagonian, Andes, there are many large lakes of glacial origin (Buenos Aires, San Martin, Viedma, Lago Argentino, etc.) and hundreds of small ones (finally moraine and cirque).

Soils, flora and fauna. The position in several climatic zones, contrasts in the moisture content of the western and eastern slopes, and the significant heights of the Andes determine the great diversity of soil and vegetation cover and a pronounced altitudinal zonality. In the Caribbean Andes - deciduous (during the winter drought) forests and shrubs on mountain red soils. On the eastern slopes of the Colombian-Venezuelan, Ecuadorian, Peruvian and Central Andes there are mountain rainforests (mountain hylaea) on lateritic soils, including the Yungas natural region. On the western slopes of the Peruvian and Central Andes - the Tamarugal and Atacama deserts, in the interior highlands - Puna. In the subtropical Andes of Chile - evergreen dry forests and shrubs on brown soils, south of 38 ° south latitude - humid evergreen and mixed forests on brown forest, in the south - podzolized soils. High plateaus are characterized by special high-mountain types of vegetation: in the north - equatorial meadows (paramos), in the Peruvian Andes and in the northeast of Pune - dry cereal steppes (halka). The Andes are home to potatoes, cinchona, coca and other valuable plants.

The fauna of the Andes is similar to the fauna of the adjacent plains; endemic species include the relic spectacled bear, llamas (vicuna and guanaco), Magellanic dog (culpeo), Azar fox, pudú and uemul deer, chinchilla, Chilean opossum. Birds are numerous (especially in the Coastal Cordillera): condor, mountain partridge, geese, ducks, parrots, flamingos, hummingbirds, etc. It is possible that the horse, sheep and goat brought to South America contributed to the desertification of the Andean landscapes.

In the Andes 88 national parks with a total area of 19.2 million hectares, including: Sierra Nevada (Venezuela), Paramilho, Cordillera de los Picachos, Sierra de la Macarena (Colombia), Sangay (Ecuador), Huascaran, Manu (Peru) ), Isiboro Secura (Bolivia), Alberto Agostini, Bernardo O'Higshns, Laguna - San Rafael (Chile), Nahuel Huapi (Argentina), as well as numerous reserves and other protected areas.

Lit .: Lukashova E. N. South America. Physiography. M., 1958; American Cordillera. M., 1967.

M. P. Zhidkov; A. A. Zarshchikov (geological structure and minerals).

Cordillera or Andes (Cordilleros de Los Andes) - the Spanish name for a huge mountain system (from the Peruvian word Anti, copper); the ranges near Cuzco were formerly called by this name, but later the mountain range of South America became so called. The Spaniards and Spanish-Americans also call the Cardillera part of the ranges of Central America, Mexico and the SW of the United States, but it is completely wrong to call the mountains of these countries by the same name with the huge mountain range of South America, which, starting in the extreme south, at Cape Horn, stretches almost parallel to the Pacific Ocean, along the entire south.

America to the Isthmus of Panama, for almost 12,000 km. The mountain ranges of the western part of the North American mainland have no connection with the South American Cordillera or the Andes; in addition to a different direction of the ridges - they are separated from the Andes by the lowlands of the Isthmus of Panama, Nicaragua and the Isthmus of Teguanten.

To prevent misunderstanding, therefore, it is better to call the South American Cordillera Andes. For the most part they consist of a whole series of high ridges, running more or less parallel to one another and covering almost 1/6 of the entire south with their uplands and slopes. America.

General description of the Andean mountain system.

Description of the Andean mountain system.

The mountain system of great extent, with complex orography and diverse geological structure, differs sharply from the eastern part of South America. It is characterized by completely different patterns of relief formation, climates and a different composition of the organic world.

The nature of the Andes is exceptionally diverse. This is explained, first of all, by their huge length from north to south. The Andes lie in 6 climatic zones (equatorial, northern and southern subequatorial, southern tropical, subtropical and temperate) and are distinguished (especially in the central part) by sharp contrasts in the moisture content of the eastern (leeward) and western (windward) slopes Northern, central and southern parts of the Andes differ from each other no less than, for example, the Amazon from the Pampas or Patagonia.

The Andes appeared due to a new (Cenozoic-Alpine) folding, the time of manifestation of which is from 60 million years to the present day. This also explains the tectonic activity manifested in the form of earthquakes.

Andes - revived mountains, erected by the latest uplifts on the site of the so-called Andean (Cordillera) folded geosynclinal belt. The Andes are rich in ores, mainly non-ferrous metals, in the advanced and foothill troughs - in oil and gas. They consist mainly of meridional parallel ranges: the Eastern Cordillera of the Andes, the Central Cordillera of the Andes, the Western Cordillera of the Andes, the Coastal Cordillera of the Andes, between which lie the internal plateaus and plateaus (Puna, Altipano - in Bolivia and Peru) or depressions.

The Andes are interoceanic watershed, they originate the Amazon and its tributaries, as well as tributaries of the Orinoco, Paraguay, Parana, the Magdalena River and the Patagonia River. In the Andes lies the highest mountain lake in the world - Titicaca.

Windward wet slopes from the Northwestern Andes to the Central Andes are covered with mountainous equatorial and tropical rainforests. In the Subtropical Andes - evergreen dry subtropical forests and shrubs, south of 38 ° south latitude - humid evergreen and mixed forests. The vegetation of the alpine plateaus: in the north - the mountain equatorial meadows of Paramos, in the Peruvian Andes and in the east of Pune - the dry alpine-tropical steppes of Halka, in the west of Pune and in the entire Pacific west between 5-28 ° south latitude - desert types of vegetation.

The Andes are the birthplace of cinchona, coca, potatoes and other valuable plants.

Andean classification.

Depending on the position in a particular climatic zone and on differences in orography and structure, the Andes are divided into regions, each of which has its own relief, climate and altitudinal zonality.

Allocate among the Andes: the Caribbean Andes, the Northern Andes, lying in the equatorial and subequatorial zones, the Central Andes of the tropical zone, the subtropical Chilean-Argentine Andes and the Southern Andes, lying within the temperate zone. The island region - Tierra del Fuego - is especially considered.

From Cape Horn, the main chain of the Andes runs along the western coast of Tierra del Fuego and consists of rocky peaks from 2000 - 3000 above sea level; the highest of them is Sacramento, 6910 above sea level. The Patagonian Andes run straight north to 42°S. sh., accompanied by parallel rocky, mountainous islands in the Pacific Ocean. The Chilean Andes stretch from 42° S. sh. to 21°S sh. and form a continuous chain, dividing in a northerly direction into several ridges. The highest point not only of this region, but of all the Andes, is Aconcogua 6960 above sea level).

Between the Chilean Cordillera and the Pacific Ocean, at a distance of 200-375 km., there are huge plains lying at an altitude of 1000-1500 above sea level. In the south, these plains are covered with rich vegetation, but higher mountainous areas completely devoid of it. The Bolivian Andes form central part the entire system and are heading north of 21°S. up to 14°S huge masses of rocks stretching in length for almost seven degrees of latitude, and in width for a distance of 600 - 625 km. About 19°S sh. the mountain chain is divided into two huge longitudinal parallel ridges to the east - the Cordillera Real and to the west - Coastal. These ridges enclose the Dezaguadero Highlands, which stretches for 1000 km. in length and 75 - 200 km. in width. These parallel ridges of the Cordillera stretch for a distance of about 575 km. one from the other and are connected, at some points, by huge transverse groups or single ridges, cutting them like veins. The slope to the Pacific Ocean is very steep, it is also sheer to the east, from where the spurs diverge to the low plains.

The main peaks of the Coastal Cordillera: Sajama 6520m. 18°7′ (S and 68°52′ W, Illimani 6457m. 16°38 S and 67°49′ W, Peruvian Cordillera. separated from the Pacific Ocean by a desert of 100 - 250 km wide, extending from 14 ° to 5 °, and are divided into two eastern spurs - one running northwest, between the Marañón and Guallaga rivers, the other between Guallaga and Ucayalle.Between these spurs lies the Pasco or Guanuco highlands The Cordillera of Ecuador begins at 5°S and blows northward to the Quito Highlands surrounded by the most magnificent volcanoes in the world in the eastern branch: Sangay, Tunguragua, Cotopaxi, in the western branch - Chimborazo.On the eastern chain, at 2°N There is a mountain junction of Paramo, from which there are three separate chains: Suma Paz - to the northeast past Lake Maracaibo to Caracas, by the Caribbean Sea; Kuindiu to the northeast, between the rivers Cauca and Magdalena.

Choco - along the Pacific coast to the Isthmus of Panama. Here the Tolimo volcano is 4°46′ N latitude. and 75°37′ W. The giant Andes mountain range intersects between 35°S. and 10° N many, for the most part, narrow, steep and dangerous passages and roads at heights equal to the highest peaks of European mountains, such as, for example, the passages: between Arequipa and Pune, (and the highest passage between Lima and Pasco. The most convenient of them are accessible only by passing on mules and llamas or carrying travelers on the backs of the natives Along the Andes for 25,000 km, there is a large trade road from Trujillo to Papaya.

Peru has a railway through the main Cordillera range, from the ocean east to the basin of Lake Titicaca. Minerals found here: salt, gypsum and, at high altitudes, veins of coal; the Cordillera are especially rich in gold, silver, platinum, mercury, copper, iron, lead, topazes, amethysts and other precious stones.

Andes.

Caribbean Andes.

The northern latitudinal segment of the Andes from the island of Trinidad to the Maracaibo lowland differs from the system of the Andes proper in terms of orographic features and structure, as well as the nature of climatic conditions and vegetation, and forms a special physical and geographical country.

The Caribbean Andes belong to the Antilles-Caribbean folded region, which, in terms of structural and developmental features, differs both from the Cordilleras of North America and from the Andes proper.
There is a point of view according to which the Antilles-Caribbean region is the western sector of the Tethys, separated as a result of the "opening" of the Atlantic Ocean.

On the mainland, the Caribbean Andes consist of two anticlines, which correspond to the Cordillera da Costa and Sierra del Interior ranges, separated by a wide valley of an extensive synclinal zone. At the Bay of Barcelona, the mountains are interrupted, breaking up into two links - western and eastern. From the side of the platform, the Sierra del Interior is separated by a deep fault from the oil-bearing Subandian trough, which merges in relief with the Orinoco lowland. A deep fault also separates the Caribbean Andean system from the Cordillera de Mérida. In the north, a syncline trough, flooded by the sea, separates the anticlinorium of the Margarita-Tobago Islands from the mainland. The continuation of these structures can be traced to the Paraguana and Goajira peninsulas.

All mountain structures of the Caribbean Andes are composed of Paleozoic and Mesozoic folded rocks and are penetrated by intrusions of various ages. Their modern relief was formed under the influence of repeated uplifts, the last of which, accompanied by subsidence of synclinal zones and faults, occurred in the Neogene. The entire Caribbean Andean system is seismic, but has no active volcanoes. The relief of the mountains is blocky, medium-altitude, the highest peaks exceed 2500 m, mountain ranges are separated from each other by through erosional and tectonic depressions.

Located on the border between the subequatorial and tropical zones, the Caribbean Andes, especially the islands and peninsulas of Paraguana and Goajira, have a drier climate than neighboring areas. Throughout the year they are under the influence of tropical air brought by the northeast trade wind. Annual precipitation does not exceed 1000 mm, but more often they are even lower than 500 mm. Most of them fall from May to November, but in the driest northern regions, the wet period lasts only two to three months. Small short streams flow down from the mountains towards the Caribbean Sea, carrying a large amount of detrital material to the shore; places where limestones come to the surface are almost completely waterless.

The lagoon coasts of the mainland and the islands are covered with wide strips of mangrove thickets; on the dry lowlands, thickets such as moyte dominate, consisting of candelabra-shaped cacti, prickly pear, euphorbia, and mosquito. Among this gray-green vegetation, gray soil or yellow sand shines through. More abundantly irrigated mountain slopes and valleys open to the sea are covered with mixed forests, which combine evergreen and deciduous species, coniferous and deciduous trees. The upper parts of the mountains are used as pastures. On not high altitude above sea level, groves or single specimens of royal and coconut palms stand out as bright spots. The entire northern coast of Venezuela has been turned into a resort and tourist area, with beaches, hotels and parks.

In a wide valley, separated from the sea by the Cordillera da Costa, and on the slopes of the surrounding mountains, the capital of Venezuela, Caracas, is located. The mountain slopes and plains cleared from the forest are occupied by plantations of coffee and chocolate trees, cotton, tobacco, and sisal.

Northern Andes

Under this name is known the northern segment of the Andes proper from the Caribbean coast to the border between Ecuador and Peru in the south. Here, in the region of 4-5 ° S, there is a fault separating the Northern Andes from the Central.

Off the coast of the Caribbean Sea in Colombia and Venezuela, fan-shaped ridges alternate with foothill depressions and wide intermountain valleys, reaching a total width of 450 km. In the south, within Ecuador, the entire system narrows to 100 km. In the structure of the main part of the Northern Andes (approximately between 2 and 8 ° N), all the main orotectonic elements of the Andean system are clearly expressed. A narrow, low and heavily dissected Coast Range stretches along the Pacific coast. It is separated from the rest of the Andes by the longitudinal tectonic basin of the Atrato River. To the east, the higher and more massive ranges of the Western and Central Cordilleras rise parallel to each other, separated by a narrow valley of the Cauca River. The Cordillera Central is the highest mountain range in Colombia. On its crystalline base, individual volcanic peaks rise, among which Tolima rises to a height of 5215 m.

Still further east, beyond the deep valley of the Magdalena River, is the less high ridge of the Eastern Cordillera, which is composed of highly folded sedimentary rocks and is divided in the central part by extensive basin-like depressions. In one of them, at an altitude of 2600 m, is the capital of Colombia, Bogota.

About 8° N. sh. The Eastern Cordillera is divided into two branches - the submeridian Sierra Perija and the Cordillera de Merida, which extends to the northeast and reaches a height of 5000 m. On the middle massif located between them, a vast intermountain depression of Maracaibo was formed, occupied in the central part by the lake of the same name - lagoon. To the west of the Sierra Perija ridge, the swampy lowland of the lower Magdalena - Kauki extends, corresponding to a young intermountain trough. At the very coast of the Caribbean Sea, the isolated massif Sierra Neva da de Santa Marta (Cristobal Colon - 5775m) rises, which is a continuation of the anticlinorium of the Central Cordillera, separated from its main part by the Magdalena valley trough. The young deposits that fill the depressions of Maracaibo and Magdalena - Cauca contain the richest deposits of oil and gas.

From the side of the platform, the entire zone of the Northern Andes is accompanied by a young Subandian trough, which also differs
oil content.

In the southern part of Colombia and in the territory of Ecuador, the Andes narrow and consist of only two parts. The coastal Cordillera disappears, and in its place a rolling coastal plain appears. The Central and Eastern Cordillera merge into one ridge.

Between the two mountain ranges of Ecuador lies a depression with a fault line, along which extinct and active volcanoes rise. The highest of them are the active volcano Cotopaxi (5897 m) and the extinct volcano Chimborazo (6310 m). Within this tectonic depression at an altitude of 2700 m is the capital of Ecuador - Quito.

Active volcanoes also rise above the Eastern Cordillera of South Colombia and Ecuador - these are Cayambe (5790 m), Antisana (5705 m), Tunnuragua (5033 m) and Sangay (5230 m). The regular cones of these snow-capped volcanoes are one of the most striking features of the Ecuadorian Andes.

The northern Andes are characterized by a clearly defined system of altitudinal belts. In the lower part of the mountains and on the coastal lowlands, it is humid and hot, where the highest average annual temperature South America (+ 2°C). At the same time, there are almost no seasonal differences. In the lowlands of Maracaibo, the average temperature in August is + 29 ° С, the average in January is + 27 ° С. The air is saturated with moisture, precipitation falls almost the entire year, their annual amounts reach 2500-3000 mm, and on the Pacific coast -5000-7000 mm.

The entire lower belt of mountains, called the "hot land" by the local population, is unfavorable for people's lives. High and constant air humidity and sweltering heat have a relaxing effect on the human body. Vast swamps are breeding grounds various diseases. The entire lower mountain belt is occupied by a tropical rainforest, which in appearance does not differ from the forests of the eastern part of the mainland. It consists of palm trees, ficus trees (among them - rubber castilloa, cocoa tree, bananas, etc. On the coast, the forest is replaced by mangroves, and in wetlands - extensive and often impenetrable reed swamps.

Sugarcane and bananas, the main tropical crops of the northern regions of South America, are grown in many areas of the coast in place of cleared tropical rainforests. In the oil-rich lowlands along the Caribbean and the Pacific Ocean, large tracts of rainforest have been cleared away, and in their place have been "forests" of countless oil rigs, numerous workers' settlements, large cities.

Above the lower hot mountain belt is the temperate zone of the Northern Andes (Perga Getriaya), rising to a height of 2500-3000 m. This belt, like the lower one, is characterized by an even temperature variation throughout the year, but due to the height there are quite significant daily amplitudes. temperature. Strong heat, characteristic of the hot zone, does not happen. The average annual temperature ranges from +15 to +20°C, the amount of precipitation and humidity are much less than in the lower zone. The amount of precipitation is especially strongly reduced in closed high-mountain basins and valleys (no more than 1000 mm per year). The original vegetation cover of this belt differs greatly in composition and appearance from the forests of the lower belt. Palm trees disappear and tree-like ferns and bamboos predominate, cinchona (Strinopa species), coca shrub, whose leaves contain cocaine, and other species unknown in the forests of the "hot land" appear.

The temperate belt of mountains is the most favorable for human life. Because of the uniformity and moderation of temperature, it is called the belt eternal spring. A significant part of the population of Northern Hades lives within its boundaries, the largest cities are located there and agriculture is developed. Maize, tobacco and the most important Colombian crop, the coffee tree, are widespread.

The local population calls the next belt of mountains "cold land" (Pegga /g/a). Its upper limit lies at an altitude of about 3800 m. Within this zone, a uniform temperature is maintained, but it is even lower than in the temperate zone (only +10, +11 ° C). This belt is characterized by an alpine hylaea, consisting of low and twisted trees and shrubs. A variety of species, an abundance of epiphytic plants and lianas bring the alpine hylaea closer to the plains. tropical forest.

The main representatives of the flora of this forest are evergreen oaks, heather, myrtle, undersized bamboos and tree ferns. Despite the high altitude, the cold zone of the Northern Andes is inhabited. Small settlements along the basins rise to a height of 3500 m. The population, predominantly Indian, cultivates corn, wheat and potatoes.

The next altitudinal belt of the Northern Andes is alpine. Among the local population, it is known as "paramos". It ends at the border of eternal snows at an altitude of about 4500 m. The climate is severe within this belt. With positive daytime temperatures in all seasons, there are strong night frosts, snow storms and snowfalls. There is little precipitation, and evaporation is very strong. The vegetation of paramos is peculiar and has a pronounced xerophytic appearance. It consists of rare, growing turf grasses, cushion-shaped, rosette-shaped or tall (up to 5 m), strongly pubescent composite plants with bright inflorescences. On flat areas of the surface, large areas are occupied by moss swamps, and completely barren rocky spaces are characteristic of steep slopes.

Above 4500 m in the Northern Andes begins a belt of eternal snow and ice with a constantly negative temperature. Many massifs of the Andes have large alpine-type glaciers. They are most developed in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Central and Western Cordillera of Colombia. The high peaks of the Tolima, Chimborazo and Cotopaxi volcanoes are covered with huge caps of snow and ice. There are also significant glaciers in the middle part of the Cordillera de Mérida.

Central Andes

The Central Andes stretch for a huge distance from the state border between Ecuador and Peru in the north to 27 ° S. on South. This is the widest part of the mountain system, reaching a width of 700,800 km within Bolivia.

In the south, the middle part of the Andes is occupied by plateaus, which are accompanied on both sides by the Eastern and Western Cordillera ranges.

The Western Cordillera is a high-mountain chain with extinct and active volcanoes: Ojos del Salado (6880 m), Coropuna (6425 m), Huallagiri (6060 m), Misti (5821 m) and others. Within Bolivia, the Western Cordillera forms the main watershed of the Andes .

In Northern Chile, a chain of the Coastal Cordillera appears from the Pacific Ocean, reaching a height of 600-1000 m. It is separated from the Western Cordillera by the Atacama tectonic depression. The coastal Cordillera breaks off directly into the ocean, forming a straight rocky coast, very inconvenient for ships. Rocky islands protrude from the ocean along the coasts of Peru and Chile, where, as on coastal rocks, billions of Birds nest, depositing masses of guano - the most valuable natural fertilizer widely used in these countries.

The Andean plateaus, called by the local population of Chile and Argentina "poons", and Bolivia "altiplano", located between the Western and Eastern Cordillera, reach a height of 3000-4500 m. products. In some places depressions are distinguished, partly occupied by lakes. An example is the basin of Lake Titicaca, located at an altitude of 3800 m. Somewhat southeast of this lake at an altitude of 3700 m above sea level at the bottom of a deep gorge cut into the surface of the plateau, and on its slopes lies the main city of Bolivia - La Paz - the most highest mountain capital in the world.

The surface of the plateaus in different directions is crossed by high ridges, exceeding their average height by 1000-2000 m. Many peaks of the ridges are active volcanoes. Since the watershed runs along the Western Cordillera, the plateaus are crossed by rivers flowing to the east and forming deep valleys and wild gorges.

In its origin, the pun - altiplano zone corresponds to the median massif, consisting of leveled folded structures of the Paleozoic age, which experienced subsidence at the beginning of the Cenozoic and did not undergo such a strong uplift in the Neogene as the Eastern and Western Cordillera.

The high Eastern Cordillera has a complex structure and forms the eastern margin of the Andes. Its western slope, facing the plateaus, is steep, the eastern slope is gentle. Since the eastern slope of the Central Andes, in contrast to all other parts of the region, receives a significant amount of precipitation, it is characterized by deep erosional dissection.

Above the crest of the Eastern Cordillera, reaching an average height of about 4000 m, individual snowy peaks rise. The highest of them are Ilyampu (6485 m) and Illimani (6462 m). There are no volcanoes on the Eastern Cordillera.

Throughout the Central Andes in Peru and Bolivia there are large deposits ores of non-ferrous, rare and radioactive metals. The coastal and Western Cordillera within Chile occupy one of the first places in the world in terms of copper mining, in Atacama and on the Pacific coast there is the world's only deposit of natural saltpeter.

The Central Andes are dominated by desert and semi-desert landscapes. In the north, 200-250 mm of precipitation falls annually, with most of it occurring in the summer. The highest average monthly temperature is +26°C, the lowest is +18°C. The vegetation has a sharply xerophytic appearance and consists of cacti, prickly pear, acacia and hard grasses.

Further south it gets much drier. Within the Atacama Desert Basin and on the adjacent section of the Pacific coast, less than 100 mm of precipitation falls annually, and in some places even less than 25 mm. At some points east of the Cordillera Coast it never rains. In the coastal strip (up to a height of 400-800 m), the lack of rain is somewhat compensated by the high relative humidity of the air (up to 80%), fogs and dews, which usually occur in the winter season. Some plants are adapted to live on this moisture.

The cold Peruvian current moderates the temperature on the coast. The average January from north to south varies from +24 to + 19°С, and the average July from + 19 to +13°С.

Soils and vegetation are almost non-existent in the Atacama. Individual ephemeral plants that do not form a dense cover appear during the foggy season. Large areas are occupied by saline surfaces, on which vegetation does not develop at all. The slopes of the Western Cordillera, facing the Pacific Ocean, are also very dry. Deserts rise here to a height of 1000 m in the north and up to 3000 m in the south. The slopes of the mountains are covered with rarely standing cacti and prickly pear. The annual course of temperatures, precipitation within the Pacific deserts and the relative humidity of the desert are relatively few oases. In the central part of the Pacific coast, natural oases exist along the valleys of small rivers starting from glaciers. Most of them are located on the coast of Northern Peru, where plantations of sugar cane, cotton and coffee trees grow green among desert landscapes on irrigated and fertilized guano sites. The largest cities are also located in oases on the coast, including the capital of Peru - Lima.

The deserts of the Pacific coast merge with a belt of mountainous semi-deserts known as the dry puna. Dry puna extends to the southwestern part of the interior plateaus, to an altitude of 3000 to 4500 m, in some. places going down and down.

Precipitation in the dry puna is less than 250 mm, with a maximum in the summer. In the course of temperature, the continental climate is manifested. The air is very warm during the day, but cold winds in the warmest season can cause severe cooling. In winter, there are frosts down to -20°C, but the average monthly temperature is positive. The average temperature of the warmest months is +14, +15°С. In all periods of the year, there is a great difference in the temperatures of day and night. Precipitation falls mainly in the form of rain and hail, but there are also snowfalls in winter, although there is no snow cover.

The vegetation is very sparse. Dwarf shrubs predominate, among which representatives are called tola, which is why the entire landscape of dry puna is often called tola. Some cereals are mixed with them, such as reed grass, feather grass and various lichens. There are also cacti. Salt areas are even poorer in plants. They grow mainly wormwood and ephedra.
In the east and north of the Central Andes, the annual rainfall gradually increases, although other climate features remain. The exception is the area adjacent to Lake Titicaca. The huge water mass of the lake (area over 8300 km2, depth up to 304 m) has a very tangible impact on climatic conditions surroundings. In the lakeside region, temperature fluctuations are not so sharp and the amount of precipitation is higher than in other parts of the plateau. Due to the fact that the amount of precipitation increases in the east to 800 mm, and in the north even up to 1000 mm, the vegetation becomes richer and more diverse, the mountain semi-desert passes into the mountain steppe, which the local population calls "puna".

The vegetation cover of the puna is characterized by a variety of grasses, especially fescue, feather grass and reed grass. A very common type of feather grass, called "ichu" by the local population, forms rarely sitting hard turfs. In addition, various cushion-shaped shrubs grow in the puna. In some places, there are also individual stunted trees.

The Punas occupy vast territories in the Central Andes. In Peru and Bolivia, especially along the shores of Lake Titicaca and in the most humid valleys, before the arrival of the Spaniards, they were inhabited by cultural Indian peoples who formed the state of the Incas. The ruins of ancient Inca buildings, stone-paved roads and the remains of irrigation systems are still preserved. The ancient city of Cusco in Peru at the foot of the Eastern Cordillera was the capital of the Inca state.

The modern population of the inner plateaus of the Andes consists mainly of the Quechua Indians, whose ancestors formed the basis of the Inca state. The Quechua practice irrigated agriculture, tame and breed llamas.

Agriculture is practiced at high altitudes. Potato plantings and crops of some cereals can be found up to a height of 3500-3700 m, quinoa is grown even higher - an annual plant from the haze family, which gives a large crop of small seeds, which are the main food of the local population. Around large cities (La Paz, Cuzco), the surface of the puns has been turned into a "patchwork" landscape, where fields alternate with groves of eucalyptus trees introduced by the Spaniards and thickets of gorse and other shrubs.

On the shores of Lake Titicaca, the Aymara people live, engaged in fishing and making various products from reeds growing near the low shores of the lake.
Above 5000 m in the south and 6000 m in the north, the temperature is negative throughout the year. Glaciation is insignificant due to the dryness of the climate, only on the Eastern Cordillera, which receives more precipitation, there are large glaciers.

The landscapes of the Eastern Cordillera differ significantly from the landscapes of the rest of the Central Andes. Humid winds bring a significant amount of moisture from the Atlantic Ocean in summer. Partly through through valleys, it penetrates the western slope of the Eastern Cordillera and the adjacent parts of the plateaus, where abundant "cages" fall out. Therefore, the lower parts of the slopes of the mountains up to a height of 1000-1500 m are covered with dense tropical forests with palm trees and cinchona. Within this belt, sugar cane, coffee, cocoa and various tropical fruits are grown in the valleys. Up to a height of 3000 m, undersized evergreen mountain forests grow - dense thickets of bamboo and ferns with lianas. Thickets of bushes and alpine steppes rise above. Native American villages huddle in the through river valleys, surrounded by fields and groves of eucalyptus trees. And in one of the valleys belonging to the Amazon basin, on the eastern slope of the Cordillera, there are the ruins of an ancient Inca fortress, created during a fierce struggle with the Spanish conquerors - the famous Machu Picchu. Its territory has been turned into a museum-reserve.

Chilean-Argentine Andes.

In the subtropical zone between 27 and 42 ° S.l. within Chile and Argentina, the Andes narrow and consist of only one mountain range, but reach their greatest height.

Along the coast of the Pacific Ocean stretches a strip of a low plateau of the Coastal Cordillera, which serves as a continuation of the Coastal Cordillera of the Central Andes. Its average height is 800 m, some peaks rise up to 2000 m. Deep river valleys divide it into table plateaus, which abruptly break off to the Pacific Ocean. Behind. The coastal Cordillera lies a tectonic basin parallel to it of the Central, or Longitudinal, Valley of Chile. It is an orographic continuation of the Atacama Basin, but is separated from it by the transverse spurs of the Andes. Similar spurs of the main range divide the valley into a series of isolated depressions. The height of the valley floor in the north is about 700 m, to the south it decreases to 100-200 m. Isolated cones of ancient volcanoes rise above its hilly surface, reaching several hundred meters relative height. The valley is the most populated region of Chile, it is the capital of the country Santiago.

From the east, the Central Valley is bounded by the high chain of the Main Cordillera, along the ridge of which the border of Chile and Argentina runs. In this part of the Andes, they are composed of highly folded Mesozoic deposits and volcanic rocks and reach an enormous height and integrity of the uplift. The highest peaks of the Andes - Aconcagua (6960 m), Mercedario (6770 m), active volcanoes Tupungato (6800 m), Milo (5223 m) protrude above the wall of the main ridge. Above 4000 m, the mountains are covered with snow and ice, their slopes are almost sheer and impregnable. The whole strip of mountains, including also the Central Valley, is subject to seismic and volcanic phenomena. Especially frequent and destructive earthquakes occur in Central Chile. A catastrophic earthquake broke out in Chile in 1960. Repeated aftershocks reached 12 points. The waves caused by the earthquake crossed the Pacific Ocean and hit the shores of Japan with great force.

In the coastal part of the Chilean Andes, the climate is subtropical, with dry summers and wet winters. The area of distribution of this climate covers the coast between 29 and 37 ° S. sh., the Central Valley and the lower parts of the western slopes of the Main Cordillera. In the north, a transition to semi-deserts is planned, and in the south, an increase in precipitation and fade out the period of summer drought marks the transition to the conditions of the oceanic climate of temperate latitudes.

As you move away from the coast, the climate becomes more continental and dry than on the shores of the Pacific Ocean. In Valparaiso, the temperature of the coolest month is + 11 ° C, and the warmest + 17, + 18 ° C, seasonal temperature amplitudes are small. In the Central Valley, they are more palpable. In Santiago, the average temperature of the coldest month is +7, +8°C, and the warmest is +20°C. Precipitation is scarce, increasing from north to south and from east to west. In Santiago, about 350 mm falls, in Valdivia - 750 mm. Farming in these areas requires artificial irrigation. Towards the south, annual precipitation increases rapidly and the differences in their distribution between summer and winter are almost erased. On the western slopes of the Main Cordillera, precipitation increases, but on its eastern slope it again becomes very small.

The soil cover is very variegated. The most common are typical brown soils, characteristic of dry subtropical regions. Dark-colored soils resembling chernozems are developed in the Central Valley.

The natural vegetation has been severely exterminated, since almost the entire population of the country, engaged mainly in agriculture, lives in the middle part of Chile. Therefore, most of the land suitable for plowing is occupied by crops of various crops. The natural vegetation is characterized by the predominance of thickets of evergreen shrubs, reminiscent of the maquis of Southern Europe or the chaparral of North America.

In the past, forests covered the slopes of the Andes up to a height of 2000-2500 m. On the eastern dry slopes, the upper boundary of the forest lies 200 m lower than on the wetter western ones. Now the forests have been destroyed and the slopes of the Andes and the Coastal Cordillera are bare. woody vegetation occurs mainly in the form of artificial plantations in settlements and along fields. On conical volcanoes rising from the bottom of the valley within Santiago, you can see groves of eucalyptus, pine and araucaria, plane trees, beeches, in the undergrowth - thickets of brightly flowering geraniums and gorse. In these plantations, local flora is combined with species imported from Europe.

Above 2500 m in the Andes there is a belt of mountain meadows, within which narrow strips of stunted forest and shrubs enter along the valleys. The vegetation cover of mountain meadows includes species of those genera of plants that are also found in the alpine meadows of the Old World: buttercup, saxifrage, oxalis, primrose, etc. Some shrubs are also common, such as currant and barberry. There are areas of peat bogs with typical bog flora. Mountain meadows are used as summer pastures.

The cultivated vegetation is similar to the vegetation of the regions of Europe and North America corresponding in terms of climate. Most of the subtropical crops were brought to South America from the Mediterranean countries of Europe. These are grapevine, olive tree, citrus and other fruit trees. The largest part of the plowed area is occupied by wheat, much less - by corn. On the slopes of the mountains, farmers grow potatoes, beans, peas, lentils, onions, artichokes and capsicum on small plots. In the most convenient areas at the site of deforestation, there are artificial tree plantations.

Southern (Patagonian) Andes.

In the extreme south, within temperate zone The Andes are downgraded and fragmented. Coastal Cordillera south of 42°S sh. turns into thousands of mountainous islands of the Chilean archipelago. The longitudinal valley of Central Chile in the south descends, and then disappears under the waters of the ocean. Its continuation is a system of bays and straits that separate the islands of the Chilean archipelago from the mainland. The main Cordillera is also heavily declining. Within Southern Chile, its height rarely exceeds 3000 m, and in the extreme south it does not even reach 2000 m. Many fjords cut into the coast, cutting the western slope of the mountains into a number of isolated peninsular sections. The fjords are often continued by large glacial lakes, the basins of which cross a low ridge and, leaving on its eastern Argentine slope, make it easier to overcome the mountains. The whole area along the Pacific Ocean is very reminiscent of the Norwegian coast of the Scandinavian Peninsula, although the fjords of the Chilean coast are not as grandiose as those of Norway.

Glacial landforms are widespread in the Southern Andes. In addition to fjords and glacial lakes, one can find there large cirques, valleys with a typical trough-shaped profile, hanging valleys, moraine ridges, which often serve as dams for lakes, etc. Forms of ancient glaciation are combined with powerful modern glaciation and the development of glacial processes.

The climate of Southern Chile is humid, with little difference in temperature between summer and winter, and is very inhospitable to humans. The coast and the western slopes of the mountains are under the constant influence of strong westerly winds, bringing a huge amount of precipitation. With an average amount of up to 2000-3000 mm, in some areas of the western coast, up to 6000 mm of precipitation falls annually. On the eastern slope, leeward of the western air currents, the amount of precipitation decreases sharply. Constant high winds and rainfall over 200 days a year, low cloud cover, fog and mild temperatures throughout the year - characteristics climate of southern Chile. On the coast itself and the islands, constant storms rage, bringing huge waves ashore.

With an average winter temperature of +4, +7°C, the average summer temperature does not exceed +15°C, and in the extreme south it drops to +10°C. Only on the eastern slope of the Andes do the amplitudes of fluctuations between the average temperature of summer and winter increase somewhat. At high altitudes in the mountains, negative temperatures prevail throughout the year, at the highest high peaks On the eastern slope, frosts down to -30°C last for a long time. In connection with these features of the climate, it is snowy, the border in the mountains lies very low: in the north of the Patagonian Andes, at an altitude of about 1500m, in the south - below 1000m. Modern glaciation occupies a very large area, especially at 48°S, where a thick ice cover covers an area of more than 20,000 km2. This is the so-called Patagonian Ice Sheet. Powerful valley glaciers diverge from it to the west and east, the ends of which lie much below the snow line, sometimes near the ocean itself. Some glacial tongues of the eastern slope end in large lakes.

Glaciers and lakes feed a large number of rivers flowing into the Pacific and partly into Atlantic Ocean. The river valleys are deeply cut into the surface. In some cases, they cross the Andes, and rivers starting on the eastern slope empty into the Pacific Ocean. The rivers are winding, full-flowing and turbulent, their valleys usually consist of lake-like extensions, followed by narrow rapids.
The slopes of the Patagonian Andes are covered with moisture-loving subantarctic forests, consisting of tall trees and shrubs, among which evergreen species predominate: at 42 ° S. sh. there is an array of araucaria forests, and mixed forests are common to the south. Due to the density, abundance of species, multi-layered, variety of lianas, mosses and lichens, they resemble forests of low latitudes. Soils under them are like burozems, in the south - podzolic. There are many swamps on flat areas.

The main representatives of the flora of the forests of the South Andes are species of evergreen and deciduous southern beech, magnolias, giant conifers, bamboos and tree ferns. Many plants bloom with beautiful fragrant flowers, especially decorating the forest in spring and summer. The branches and trunks of trees entangle lianas and put on a lush moss and lichen cover. Mosses and lichens, along with leaf litter, cover the surface of the soil.

With the rise in the mountains, the forests are thinned out and their species composition is depleted. In the extreme south, forests are gradually replaced by tundra-type vegetation.
On the eastern slope of the mountains, facing the Patagonian plateau, precipitation is much less than in the west.

There grow forests less dense and poorer in species composition than on the Pacific coast. The main forest-forming species of these forests are beeches, to which some double beech trees are mixed. At the foot of the mountains, the forests turn into dry steppes and shrubs of the Patagonian plateau.

The forests of the South Andes contain huge reserves of high-grade timber. However, so far they have been used unevenly. Araucaria forests have undergone the greatest deforestation. In the southern, least accessible areas, there are still significant forests, almost untouched by man.

Fire Earth.

Tierra del Fuego is an archipelago of dozens of large and small islands located off the southern coast of South America between 53 and 55 ° S. sh. and owned by Chile and Argentina. The islands are separated from the mainland and from one another by narrow winding straits. The easternmost and largest island is called Tierra del Fuego or the Big Island.

Geologically and geomorphologically, the archipelago serves as a continuation of the Andes and the Patagonian plateau. The coasts of the western islands are rocky and deeply indented by fjords, while the eastern ones are flat and slightly dissected.

The entire western part of the archipelago is occupied by mountains up to 2400 m high. Ancient and modern glacial forms in the form of heaps of boulders, trough valleys, "ram's foreheads" and dammed moraine lakes play an important role in the relief of the mountains. Mountain ranges dissected by glaciers rise from the ocean itself, narrow winding fjords cut into their slopes. In the eastern part of the largest island there is a vast plain.

The climate of Tierra del Fuego is very humid, with the exception of the extreme east. The archipelago is under the constant influence of sharp and humid southwesterly winds. Precipitation in the west falls up to 3000 mm per year, and drizzling rains prevail, which go 300-330 days a year. In the east, the amount of precipitation decreases sharply.

The temperature throughout the year is low, and its seasonal fluctuations are negligible. We can say that the Tierra del Fuego archipelago is close to the tundra in summer temperature, and to the subtropics in winter.
The climatic conditions of Tierra del Fuego are favorable for the development of glaciation. The snow line in the west lies at an altitude of 500 m, and the glaciers break directly into the ocean, forming icebergs. Mountain ranges are covered with ice, and only individual sharp peaks rise above its cover.

In a narrow coastal strip, mainly in the western part of the archipelago, forests of evergreen and deciduous trees are widespread. Particularly characteristic are southern beeches, canelo, magnolia, blooming with white fragrant flowers, and some conifers. The upper boundary of the forest vegetation and the snow boundary almost merge with each other. In some places above 500 m, and sometimes near the sea (in the east), forests are replaced by sparse subantarctic mountain meadows without flowering plants and peatlands. In areas where constant strong winds blow, sparse and low twisted trees and shrubs grow in groups with "flag-shaped" crowns inclined in the direction of the prevailing winds.

The fauna of the archipelago of Tierra del Fuego and the Southern Andes is approximately the same and rather peculiar. Along with the guanaco, the blue fox, fox-like, or Magellanic, dog, and many rodents are common there. An endemic, underground tuco-tuco rodent is characteristic. Numerous birds: parrots, hummingbirds.
Of domestic animals, sheep are the most common. Sheep breeding is the main occupation of the population.

Ecological problems in the Andean zone.

Careless use of natural resources.

Among the minerals mined in the Andes, ores of ferrous and non-ferrous metals (copper, tin, tungsten, molybdenum, silver, antimony, lead and zinc) of igneous and metamorphic origin stand out. Platinum, gold and precious stones are also mined there. On the eastern highlands, large deposits of zirconium, beryl, bismuth, titanium, uranium, nickel are associated with the outcrop of igneous rocks; deposits of iron and manganese - with outcrops of metamorphic rocks; deposits of bauxite containing aluminum - with a weathering crust. Oil, natural gas and coal deposits are confined to platform troughs, intermountain and foothill depressions. In a desert climate, the biochemical decomposition of seabird droppings formed deposits of Chilean saltpeter.

Also, the use of forest resources is being carried out at a fairly rapid pace, at the same time at such a pace that they are no longer renewable. The three main problems in the area of forest conservation are: deforestation for pastures and agricultural land illegal deforestation by local people to sell wood or use it as fuel for heating houses, due to economic reasons.

Countries located in the Andean zone are faced with a number of environmental problems in coastal and marine areas. First of all, these are large volumes of fish catch, which is actually not controlled in any way, which creates a threat of extinction of many species of fish and marine animals, given that the catch is constantly increasing. The development of ports and transport has led to serious pollution of coastal areas, where landfills, equipment depots and ship fuel depots are often located. But the most serious damage is caused by the release of sewage waste, as well as industrial waste into the sea, which negatively affects coastal zones, flora and fauna.

It must be said that it is rather difficult to obtain sufficiently reliable information on greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere, since statistical data on this issue are either absent or do not look quite reasonable. However, it is reliably known that industrial production and power generation are the cause of air pollution in 50% of cases. In addition, there is a trend to abandon the promising direction in the field of renewable energy in favor of fuel combustion, both in power generation and in the transport sector. The largest share of air pollution in South America and in the Andes in particular comes from thermal power plants and steel and iron factories, while transport pollution accounts for 33% of all emissions.

The most active industrial activity unfolded on the territory of the pampas, an area of vast green steppes. Mines, oil wells, smelters and the oil refining industry are concentrated here, which significantly pollute the surrounding areas. Oil refineries in particular damage water and underground sources by polluting them with heavy metals such as mercury and lead and other chemicals. Oil refining activities in Salta have led to soil erosion, deterioration of water quality, negatively affecting the agriculture of the regions. Southern territories Patagonia has been significantly affected by mining activities in mountainous areas, which adversely affected the flora and fauna of the area, which in turn had a negative impact on tourism, which is one of the most important sources of income for local budgets.

Since ancient times, the states of South America were mostly agrarian countries. Therefore, soil degradation is a serious problem for the economy. Soil degradation is caused by erosion, pollution from misuse of fertilizers, deforestation and poor management of agricultural land. For example, the production of soybeans for export forced the Ministry Agriculture Argentina to expand the application of new technologies, resulting in pesticide pollution large area In the north of the country. Misuse of pastures has led to land desertification in the Argentine steppes, where 35% of fertile land has been lost. Misallocation of land and economic instability lead to land being overused for quick profits, a pattern seen throughout the Andes. If appropriate measures are not taken to protect land resources, soil degradation will continue and countries will face serious agricultural difficulties.

The Andes are richly populated species, but many animals and birds are endangered due to the spread of agriculture and human activities in coastal areas. Thus, more than 50% of birds and mammals are endangered. Although a large number of reserves are used in many countries, many natural areas are not sufficiently assessed in terms of risk. Moreover, many protected areas are such only on paper and are practically not protected in any way.

Possible ways out of the problem.

The main environmental problems of the Andes are:

soil and coastal degradation
illegal logging and desertification
destruction of biological species
groundwater and air pollution
recycling problems and heavy metal pollution

The main task of Latin American governments today is to improve the economic situation in their countries in order to cope with environmental problems. The first priority is to eliminate environmental problems in urban areas, where more than 1/3 of the population lives. Sanitary improvement, solution transport problems and problems with poverty and unemployment - these are the directions in which the authorities need to act. Conservation of biological diversity is the second most important task.

Gradually, Latin America is beginning to realize the need to protect its natural resources. But further implementation of the government program on environmental protection is possible only after the improvement of the economic situation in the countries.

However, we must not forget that the forests located on the territory of Latin America, especially in the Amazon basin, are, and have long been recognized, the lungs of our planet, and how forests are cut down and burned are not only the poor countries of Latin America, but rich countries are to blame, coldly pumping out of the bowels of these countries are natural resources, not caring about the future, living according to the principle: “After us, at least the flood.”

Andes mountains where. Cordillera: "Great Mountain Ranges

Name history

Geological structure and relief

Orography

Northern Andes

Central Andes

Southern Andes

Climate

Northern Andes

Central Andes

Southern Andes

Vegetation and soils

Animal world

Ecology

economy

Industry

Agriculture

see also

Notes

Links

Literature

Andes Information About

Description and characteristics

The highest mountain lake in the world

The most "desert" desert

Alpine field of geysers

Width and height of the Andes

Age of the Andes and their formation

Rivers originating in the Andes

Relief

Volcano Llullaillaco

Atacama Desert

San Rafael Glacier

Vegetation

Animal world

Tourism and locals

General description of the Andean mountain system.

Description of the Andean mountain system.

Andean classification.

Andes.

Caribbean Andes.

Northern Andes

Central Andes

Chilean-Argentine Andes.

Southern (Patagonian) Andes.

Fire Earth.

Ecological problems in the Andean zone.

Careless use of natural resources.

Possible ways out of the problem.