Names

Aspects of the results of production activities. Production accounting. Value streams

An important condition for making future-oriented management decisions, as well as for reporting to external users, is the display of economically significant production processes in a visible form. This purpose is served by production accounting. This concept summarizes the procedure for accounting for all cash flows that take place in the enterprise, in quantitative and value terms.

Production accounting covers ongoing and / or expected processes within the enterprise, as well as between the enterprise and external environment in quantitative and/or value terms. Along with this, production accounting also contains methods for evaluating and comparing the indicators taken into account (for example, structuring and generalizing), as well as their analysis.

Production accounting covers four areas:

I. Financial accounting (accounting and balance sheet, external accounting) covers the value of all property and capital of the enterprise, as well as all types of expenses and income for a certain reporting period. The accounting department performs the primary fixation of business transactions on the basis of documents. It is given a central place within the entire enterprise, as it delivers the legally required necessary information for external and internal users financial statements on the size of property and capital, as well as on the financial result of the enterprise. The legislation on annual financial statements prescribes that the balance sheet, profit and loss statement, additions to them be drawn up, observing the principles of proper accounting.

The financial result is determined by contrasting all income received during the reporting period, all expenses of the same period. The difference between income and expenses results in changes in the value of net assets and capital of the enterprise, i.e. profit or loss for the period.

Financial result = income - expenses

II. Production accounting carries out internal, production-oriented accounting, which reflects only that part of economic activity that is in direct connection with the main production target enterprises. In production accounting, the result of an enterprise's activity (production result, operating result) is determined from the difference between the multiplied and consumed value (respectively, output and costs):

Production result= production - costs

For internal accounting, as a rule, there are no provisions and instructions provided for by law.

III. Production statistics deals with the analysis of financial and production accounting data in order to control economic activities and provide the information necessary for planning. Comparing statistical data, the company receives important information that can lead to improved business results. At the same time, comparisons are distinguished over time, industry, actual and average.

IV. Planning is based on financial and production accounting data, as well as statistics. Its task is to assess the prospective development of production, development in the form of estimates, for example, investment or financial plans. Planning is a guiding and controlling tool.

Rice. one Areas production accounting

The considered areas of production accounting, although they differ from each other in the specialization of the tasks assigned to them, however, are in close connection and are mutually complementary. So, financial accounting supplies data for cost accounting to production accounting. The prices of products and services determined on its basis are, in turn, the basis for accounting for turnover in financial accounting. Statistics assist both internal and external accounting, for example by providing data on average receivables from consumers of products and services for adjustment of requirements and risk assessment. Planning serves to develop norms that find their application in financial and industrial accounting. The above system for organizing production accounting is necessary due to the close interweaving of these areas and contributes to an increase in the economic efficiency of economic activity.

Tasks of production accounting

The main task of production accounting is the complete, continuous and causal accounting of costs arising from the main production activities enterprises, as well as in the distribution and attribution of costs to cost objects (products or services). The solution of this problem pursues the following goals:

Determination of the cost of production and calculation on its basis of the preliminary price of products and services
Summing up intermediate results for a short period (for example, a month, quarter, half a year) and profitability control various kinds products, their groups and the entire enterprise
Preparing data for operational management by the enterprise when choosing the range and volume of products, the optimal production program, deciding whether to accept an additional order, determining the break-even threshold and economic efficiency various ways production, the degree of load, the establishment of a lower price limit, etc.
Formation of intra-production prices in mutual settlements for consumed services between various departments
Estimation of the increase or decrease in stock balances of finished products and semi-finished products, as well as own services for the needs of the enterprise

Cost accounting system

Depending on the goals set for production accounting, the amount of costs taken into account, as well as the time of the analyzed period, determine the choice of a cost accounting system. Several systems may be used.

Rice. 2. Cost accounting system

In relation to the period of time, accounting for actual, ordinary (average) and planned costs is distinguished.

Accounting for actual costs covers the production and costs incurred during the last billing period as a whole, as well as by product groups and individually. This accounting system is not used to determine the preliminary price of products, since the real costs become known only after the expiration of the considered period.

The normal cost calculation used to calculate the provisional price is based on empirical data. accounting past periods, which are usually six to twelve months. At the end of the billing period, the normal costs will be commensurate with the actual costs.

Planned costing is future-oriented and enables efficient management and control of the production process. First, the planned costs for the planning period are determined. At the same time, planned costs are understood not only as expected costs, but also as costs that come in the course of the production process provided for by the plan. Thus, planned costs are a goal and have the character of a given value.

Further division occurs according to the amount of added costs. So, if all the costs incurred (fixed and variable) are transferred to the product, there is a full cost accounting. The main purpose of such accounting is to determine the total cost of a unit of production for a certain period. If only a part of the costs is transferred to cost objects, when only their variable component is taken into account, and their constants are taken into account as period costs, we are dealing with partial cost accounting. The most important value of partial cost accounting is the determination of the operating result of the enterprise's production activities.

Although each cost calculation system is based on the costs recorded in the accounting department, nevertheless, they cannot be accepted into the production accounting department without certain corrections. The task of the accountant is to cover all the expenses incurred during the period under review and contrast them at the end of the year in the profit and loss account with the income of this period. This becomes clear if we visually show the calculation of products, which serves as the basis for the formation of a preliminary price.

Imagine that a shoe manufacturer invests €100,000 of temporarily unused liquid funds to acquire shares. A few months later, a need arose to purchase a new car and the shares are again sold. Unfortunately, he only gets back 70,000 €, because at the time of the sale of the shares, the exchange rate fell by 30.000 €. This loss of exchange rate must be recorded as an expense by the accountant. However, these costs can in no way affect the calculation of shoes, since they have nothing to do with the main purpose of the enterprise, namely the production of shoes. The compiler of the cost estimate cannot take the incurred costs into the calculation of costs.

Another example: In 2013, the garbage that has been stored on the territory belonging to the enterprise since 2010 is eliminated. Deductions to the reserve fund for garbage disposal were not created. The garbage disposal bill was 50.000 €, the accountant considers it in 2013 as an expense. Waste disposal cannot affect the calculation of boots in 2013, as they should be attributed to 2010. Waste disposal costs are not included in the cost estimate.

As shown in both examples, financial accounting takes into account expenses that cannot be included in costing as costs. However, most of the costs recognized as such in financial accounting, such as wages, raw materials, etc., are taken into account as costs. they are both costs and expenses.

Let us now consider several separate concepts that have great importance in the science of economics of production, especially in production accounting.

The content of the concepts of income and payments, income and expenses, income and expenses, output and costs.

The science of the economics of production has developed its own terminology to denote the value flows of the property of an enterprise that take place in production accounting. The flow of property value refers to the emergence of assets and liabilities of the enterprise, their transformation, exchange, transfer or consumption during a certain period. In this case, the following four pairs of concepts are used:

receipts - payments
income - expenses
income - expenses
production - costs

These eight terms characterize the value flows during the analyzed period and entail a change in the composition of the property of the enterprise. Positive flows (revenues, revenues, incomes and output) lead to an increase, and negative flows (payments, costs, expenses, costs) to a decrease in the assets and liabilities of the enterprise.

Receipts increase, and payments decrease means of payment: the cash balance plus the cash balance in the bank account.

Revenues increase, and costs reduce financial resources: means of payment + short-term receivables - short-term accounts payable.

Income increases, and expenses reduce the property of the enterprise, changing the financial result (profit or loss at the reporting date).

Production increases, and costs reduce the production property of the enterprise, affecting the financial result.

The difference between the positive value flows during the settlement period (increase in property) and the negative value flows belonging to this period (decrease in property) results in the change in the value of the relevant property in this period.

Rice. 3. Value streams and their components

Payments and receipts

The process that leads to an increase in means of payment is called receipt. Each process that leads to a decrease in the means of payment is called a payout.

The payouts represent outflows of liquid funds from the cash on hand or bank accounts of the entity. Payments take place, for example, when paying for cash purchases of materials and stationery (outflow of means of payment from the cash desk); upon payment Bank transaction debt to suppliers, payment of interest and repayment of loans (outflow of funds from a bank account).

Receipts, on the contrary, are the inflows of liquid funds to the cash desk of the enterprise and to its bank accounts. Examples are the cash sale of finished products, as well as the sale of these products to customers with payment via bank transfer; crediting funds to a bank account.

Payments and receipts can occur both in connection with increases or decreases in fixed and working capital, and in own and loan capital, as well as influence the financial result of the enterprise.

Costs and income

The process that leads to an increase in financial resources is called income. A process that reduces funds is referred to as an expense.

Financial assets consist of means of payment, monetary claims in the form of short-term receivables less monetary liabilities - short-term accounts payable.

Costs cover outflows of funds during the billing period. Costs include not only decreases in liquidity, similar to disbursements, but also outflows of funds that do not affect the composition of the means of payment. This is possible only when only one of the components of financial assets changes, that is, receivables or payables, which are not components of means of payment (cash and/or bank accounts).

Examples of costs are the purchase of property on credit (increase in liabilities), as well as the purchase of stationery for cash (decrease in means of payment).

However, there are also benefits that are not costs. In these cases, we are talking about processes, as a result of which the means of payment decrease, but the financial means do not change. This phenomenon occurs when claims and liabilities (receivables and payables) change in equal amounts, but in different directions. For example, when repaying a bank loan, an outflow of liquid funds (payments) occurs from the bank account, while at the same time the accounts payable (liability) to the bank decreases. As a result, the means of payment decrease, and the change in financial means does not occur. Therefore, there is no room for costs.

Receipts cover all receipts of financial resources during the billing period. These include not only an increase in liquid funds similar to receipts, but also an increase in financial funds that do not affect the means of payment. This is possible only when only one of the components of the financial resources that are not part of the means of payment is changed, i.e. requirements and/or obligations. Examples of receipts are sales of products on credit (increase in claims, i.e. receivables) or for cash (increase in means of payment).

There are also receipts that do not correspond to receipts. At the same time, we are talking about processes due to which means of payment grow, while financial means do not change. Such situations arise when both components of financial resources - receivables and payables - change in equal amounts and in opposite directions. As a result, there is an increase in payment means. For example, when a bank loan is credited to a bank account, there is an inflow of liquid funds (receipt), at the same time an obligation arises in the form of accounts payable to the bank. However, there is no change in financial resources, therefore, one should not talk about the arrival.

There are payments that are not costs. Wherein we are talking on processes that cause a decrease in means of payment without changing financial means. This is possible if, in the composition of financial assets, claims or liabilities change by an equal amount, but in the opposite direction to the composition of means of payment, as a result of which the decrease in means of payment is compensated. This happens when repaying a bank loan: liquid funds (repayment) decrease in the bank account, at the same time the obligation to the bank decreases, i.e. there is no change in financial assets.

In practice, there are also receipts that are not receipts. Here we are talking about processes due to which means of payment increase, but financial means do not change. This is possible if, in the composition of financial assets, claims or liabilities change by an equal amount, but in the opposite direction to the composition of means of payment, due to which the increase in the composition of means of payment is compensated. Such a phenomenon takes place when receiving a bank loan: Liquid funds (contribution) are received in the bank account, at the same time an obligation arises in relation to the bank, i.e. there is no change in funds.

Expenses and income

The basis of the data used in production accounting is the profit and loss account of financial accounting. In the outer accounting profit or loss of the reporting period is obtained by contrasting income and expenses.

Expenses represent the total cost of absorbed resources (property) of the enterprise during a certain period. Examples of expenses are salaries and mandatory contributions, material consumption, balance sheet depreciation of fixed and working assets, donations, etc.

Income is the inflow of resources as a result of economic activity enterprises in the reporting period. Examples include income from the sale of own products and services rendered, renting out property, income from interest on invested capital and an increase in the price of securities listed on the stock exchange.

The amount of assets minus liabilities is referred to as net assets or net assets ( net assets). The growth of net assets is called income. The reduction in net assets is referred to as an expense.

Income increases, and expenses reduce the property of the enterprise by the reporting date, affecting the financial result.

The profit and loss account applies to the entire enterprise and includes all expenses and income that may not be taken into account in production accounting, especially in costing. In production accounting, only current incomes (production) and expenses (expenses) that have arisen in the reporting period, corresponding to the main production activity of the enterprise, are taken into account. The main activity is understood as the production activity that creates most of gross value added.

Production and costs

Costs are the estimated consumption of resources during the reporting period. In this case, the costs are determined by three criteria:

absorption, i.e. there must be resource consumption,
consumption must be carried out in direct connection with the main production activity of the enterprise and during the reporting period,
assessment of absorbed resources.

Examples of costs are wages, material consumption, estimated depreciation of fixed assets, and estimated salary entrepreneur.

Production should be understood as the estimated resources created as part of the main production activities during the reporting period.

Examples of output are sales revenue from the sale of manufactured products; the cost of products manufactured but not sold in the reporting period; warehouse services; own-made fixed assets included in the assets of the balance sheet, etc.

The production increases the property of the enterprise necessary for the main production activity at the reporting date, and the costs of this property are reduced. Both production and costs affect the financial result of the enterprise.

Separation of payments and costs

As noted above, there are payments that are not costs. There are payments representing costs. There are costs that are not payments:

Fig 4. Separation of payments and costs

1. Payouts ≠ costs.

We pay off accounts payable by bank transfer. Due to this operation, the balances in the bank account are reduced. Therefore, there is a payout. The reduction in means of payment is simultaneously opposed by a decrease in accounts payable. The amount of financial resources does not change, i.е. no cost.

2. Payments = costs.

We buy stationery for cash. Cash balance decreases, i.e. there is a payment, which is also a cost, because funds are being cut.

3. Costs ≠ benefits

We buy goods on credit. The cash balance does not change, but accounts payable increases, which reduces financial resources.

Separation of costs and expenses

The distinctions between "costs and expenses" on the one hand, and between "revenues and incomes" on the other hand, are of some significance, at least for financial accounting. So here are some comments:

There are costs that are not costs. There are costs that are countered at the same level by costs. There are costs that are not countered by any costs. This situation should be explained by the following diagram:

Fig 5. Separation of costs and expenses

Examples.

1. By January 1, 2012, a car is purchased at a price of 100,000 €. Payment is made by bank transfer.

There is a cost, since only the financial resources of the enterprise are reduced. Net assets (property of the company) remain unchanged, since the withdrawal of 100.000 € of financial assets is opposed by the arrival of fixed capital in the amount of 100.000 €. There is no expense. In other words, this business transaction does not affect the financial result of the enterprise in any way, there is only an exchange of assets in the balance sheet.

2. By December 31, 2012, the machine is partially depreciated, depreciation in the amount of 10.000 € takes place.

The funds don't change, there is no cost. However, the company's net assets change as the fixed assets decrease by 10.000 €, while the liabilities do not change. There is an expense. This business transaction affects the financial result of the enterprise, leads to a decrease in the balance sheet.

This business transaction changes both the financial resources and the net assets of the enterprise. Paying salaries is both a cost and an expense.

The same distinctions as for expenses and expenses apply to receipts and incomes:

Rice. 6. Separation of income and income

Examples.

1. The fixed asset is sold at book value with payment by bank transfer.

This operation increases the financial and reduces the fixed assets by the same amount. There is an exchange of assets, so there is no impact on the financial result. Therefore, we are talking about income, not income.

2. Own products are sold with bank transfers.

We are talking about the arrival, as the financial resources increase. A counter entry is made to the income account "Income from turnover", that is, there is income. business transaction affects the financial result, there is an increase in the balance sheet.

3. The asset of the balance reflects the main means of own production.

Financial resources do not increase, therefore, there is no income. The assets of the balance sheet increase, while the liabilities do not change. A counter entry to the active account "Fixed assets" will be made to the income account "Other income and expenses".

Separation of costs and expenses

While expenses represent the total absorption of the value of the property of the enterprise, accounted for in financial accounting, expenses refer only to expenses caused by the main activities within the current production processes. The complexity of distinguishing between costs and expenses is due to their partial interweaving. There are expenses that cannot be included in the estimate as expenses, since they are not connected in any way with the main production goal of the enterprise, or the reason for their occurrence lies outside the reporting period and therefore they should not be included in the current period, or these expenses come only in the form exceptions.

Rice. 7. Separation of costs and expenses

Expenses

The cost structure can be represented in the following way:

Rice. eight. Expenses

The differences between target and neutral spending are determined by three criteria:

Cost reduction during current production processes,

I. Neutral costs

Neutral costs are not costs, therefore, in the cost account, respectively, when compiling a cost estimate, they should not be taken into account. In contrast, expenditures corresponding to costs are targeted expenditures, similar to the main costs. It is customary to consider the main costs, the cost of which fully corresponds to the costs accounted for in financial accounting.

Neutral costs include:

Non-manufacturing expenses
Expenses of other periods
extraordinary expenses

Let's look at neutral costs in more detail.

a) Non-manufacturing costs

If the expenses incurred are not related to the main production activities of the enterprise, they speak of non-production expenses.

Losses from the sale of securities due to a fall in the price,
gifts or donations,
interest expense,
Expenses for the arrangement and maintenance of the land.

Donations, for example, represent an expense for the company, since the amount of donations reduces the liquidity of the company. Despite the fact that donations are made by the enterprise and paid for by it, they are clearly not an integral part of the costs, since this process is not directly related to the main production activity of the enterprise.

b) Expenses of other periods

The expenses of other periods are understood as negative value flows, which, although caused by the main production activity of the enterprise, should not be included in the current period. They refer either to the past or only to the future reporting period (year). These expenses should be delimited, they should in no case be taken into account in the current year's cost account, but should be added to the period in which they arose.

Other expenses include, for example:

Identified and additionally accrued taxes for the past periods, wage surcharges, warranty payments and commission expenses.
Subsequent historical contributions (for example, to a trade union, chamber of commerce, etc.)

The expenses of other periods are also divided into:

Future expenses
Past expenses

For example, an entrepreneur pays in December 2010 2,500 € by bank transfer for the rent of a warehouse for January 2011. The reason for these expenses relate to the future year 2011. If this payment is taken into account as December expenses, then their total amount for 2010 will be overestimated by 2,500 € and, accordingly, underestimated by the same amount in 2011. Simply put, the costs would be erroneously attributed to another year, distorting the balance sheet and making it incomparable.

If an entrepreneur makes payment in October 2011 of additionally assessed taxes for 2008, then this amount must be recorded in a separate account, since it is no longer possible to correct the reporting in 2008. The reason for these costs was caused in the past period, so they cannot be taken into account in the cost account for 2011.

c) Extraordinary expenses.

Extraordinary expenses are understood as expenses that, although they arise as a result of economic activity, however, occur so irregularly that they cannot be attributed to ordinary expenses taken into account. Their inclusion in the cost account of the main production would make it difficult to compare costs during different accounting periods and in comparison with other enterprises. Extraordinary expenses are expenses arising, for example, from the sale of property, plant and equipment at a price below their carrying amount. Expenses that arise in case of fires, floods, accidents are also referred to as extraordinary expenses.

Suppose a fire in 2010 severely damaged production equipment. The cost of its repair amounted to 100.000 €. These extraordinary expenses cannot affect the 2010 main production cost account, as this event does not hopefully happen annually, therefore it is not typical for the production process and should not be included in the current cost account.

II. Target spending

Target refers to the costs that are received in the normal course of business. These include current planned expenses, they do not contain non-production, emergency, and expenses of other periods.

If neutral expenses for the same period are deducted from the total expenses incurred during a certain period, target expenses remain.

Part of the target costs can be taken into account in the production accounting directly as costs. They represent the main costs. Another part of the target costs - non-equivalent costs - are taken into account with a deviating cost. They are also part of the accounting costs.

Costs

The composition of costs can be represented as three components: basic, other (non-equivalent) and additional costs. As noted above, it is customary to consider the main costs, the cost of which fully corresponds to the costs accounted for in financial accounting. Others are considered to be costs that oppose expenses, but at a different level. Ancillary costs are costs that are not countered by any costs. Both other and additional costs are components of the estimated (accounting) costs.

Rice. 1.9. Costs

Using the estimated costs, the entrepreneur aims to improve the accuracy of accounting. This is achieved by the fact that the actual absorption of the cost of production property is included in the cost of products, and periodically occurring damages are distributed evenly over settlement periods.

Let us consider in more detail the content of the concepts "Non-equivalent and additional costs".

Rice. ten. Estimated cost classification

I. Additional costs

a) Estimated salary

The general director in a limited liability company, as well as the members of the management board of a JSC, receive a salary for their activities, which is taken into account in the company's expenses. In an individual enterprise or partnership, an entrepreneur does not receive direct compensation in the form of a salary for his work, since there is no employment contract between him and his enterprise. An entrepreneur can only rely on the profit achieved. The profit of the enterprise, taking into account deposits and withdrawals from a personal bank account, is considered as income. In a sole proprietorship or partnership, the income of the entrepreneur is taxed as income. Paying salaries would reduce taxable income. In financial accounting, expenses are not recorded in the form of an entrepreneurial salary during the reporting year, since there are no actual payments.

The estimated salary of the entrepreneur must, however, be included in the cost of the main production in the form opportunity cost. When calculating the level of entrepreneurial wages, they are guided by the wages accepted in the field for executives in comparable companies. In a similar way, the salary of employees of an entrepreneur can be calculated.

b) Estimated rent

AT individual enterprises and partnerships, the calculation takes into account the estimated costs of renting premises or buildings used for production purposes that are owned by the entrepreneur, as well as one or more participants. While joint-stock companies may enter into employment contracts and account for rental costs, reducing profits, partnerships (partnerships) are not allowed.

For example, an enterprise created in the organizational and legal form of an open trade partnership uses a warehouse that belongs to one of the partners to store purchased goods. If this company rented a similar property of the same size and in the same location, it would have to pay a rent of 30.000 € per year. In our case, the company has a cost advantage over its competitors who have to pay for warehouse rent. However, this benefit is not passed on to customers through a reduction in the price of stocked goods. In this case, the actual unpaid rent is included in the account of own production costs in the form of lost profit from renting, i.e. as an additional cost. By using his own storage space, the entrepreneur waives the rental income. When determining the level of costs of renting your own warehouse, they are guided by the market value of the rent accepted in the area. In the above example, it would be 30.000 €. Estimated costs for rent are not taken into account in financial accounting, but should be taken into account when calculating the cost of products (services).

If an enterprise includes in the expense account the estimated depreciation of the building, which includes the estimated interest on the loan capital provided, the costs of repairs, insurance, land tax and other costs of maintaining the land, then the estimated costs of rent cannot be taken into account, as otherwise their double counting.

II. Non-equivalent costs

a. Estimated depreciation

Estimated depreciation is intended to capture the actual decline in the value of property, plant and equipment and is treated as an expense. The level of estimated depreciation should be determined as realistically as possible. Balance depreciation, on the contrary, is carried out on the basis of the norms established by tax law. Often, these norms provide enterprises with tax advantages due to the fact that very high depreciation amounts are allowed during the first years of operation and the life of fixed assets is calculated much shorter. An example of this was the law on aid to Berlin, according to which enterprises could write off fixed assets within three years, the actual life of which was several decades.

There is no regulation of the procedure for calculating cost depreciation by any instructions. The level of calculated depreciation should be determined solely by production and economic criteria. This means that the calculation basis should be based, for example, not on the cost of acquiring an asset, but on the replacement cost (the actual price at which exactly the same asset can be purchased after a certain period of time). In this case, one should focus not on the allowable tax legislation, but on the actual operating life.

If only one product is produced on a machine with a 10-year useful life, a purchase cost of 100,000 € and a replacement value of 150,000 €, then at the end of the useful life the purchase of the same machine must be ensured. This only happens when the company receives 150.000 € through estimated depreciation over 10 years of operation of the fixed asset. In this regard, they talk about the principle of maintaining fixed capital, since the property of an enterprise is preserved only on the basis of an estimated write-off, which ensures the possibility of replacing fixed assets. If the machine were written off for 10 years at 10,000 € annually, then at the end of its useful life only 100,000 € of depreciation would be available, while the cost of the machine would already be 150,000 €. The company would be forced to shut down.

Estimated depreciation can only affect the production result (production - costs), but not the overall result of the enterprise (income - expense).

b. Calculation interest

Interest is a compensation (payment) for the provided capital. If an entrepreneur receives a loan from a bank to purchase fixed assets, he must pay interest to the bank. This interest on borrowed capital is treated in financial accounting as an expense that reduces taxable income.

If an entrepreneur sells, for example, his securities that belonged to his personal property and contributes the proceeds to his firm to create equity, then he can rightfully expect interest to accrue on equity, which corresponds in terms of, for example, the interest rate that could be received on the long-term capital market. However, the accrual of interest on equity occurs not in financial, but in production accounting through the use of calculated interest.

Let's imagine that two absolutely identical companies A and B differ only in the structure of their financing: company A is financed exclusively by equity, company B is financed by borrowed funds. The latter pays interest on borrowed capital, which is both an expense and an expense. The actually paid interest on borrowed capital thus increases the cost of manufactured goods. If enterprise A did not take into account the calculated interest on equity, the cost of its products would be lower than that of enterprise B. However, the calculated cost of products cannot depend on the capital structure of the enterprise.

c. Settlement risks

Any production activity is associated with risks and can lead to accidents and losses that cannot be foreseen by their size and moment of occurrence. At the same time, it is necessary to distinguish between general entrepreneurial risk and individual private risks.

Rice. eleven. Classification of settlement risks

While private risks relate only to individual sections of the enterprise, individual cost centers (sources of costs), production functions, the general entrepreneurial risk covers the entire enterprise and affects it much more strongly.

Common business risks include, for example, risks that arise from the macroeconomic situation - a downturn in the market, a sudden drop in demand, inflation, technological progress, etc.

Private risks include, for example, fires, theft, accidents, uncollectible receivables, etc. Along with them, from industry specifics arise special risks, for example, loss of a ship, losses of mining enterprises from gassing or flooding, payments for warranty obligations, expenses for failed research and construction work, etc.

Unlike general business risks, private risks do not directly affect the position of the entire enterprise and can be determined on the basis of experience or insurance payments. If there are insurance payments, then they are costs, expenses and expenses. In the absence of insurance, uninsured settlement risks, so-called. "self-insurance".

Since accidents occur unexpectedly and irregularly, including them in the total costs of the period in which they occur would lead the cost account to random fluctuations. Therefore, the expenses caused by accidents are taken into account as neutral expenses only in the profit and loss account of the period in which they are received. In the cost account, this absorption of value is taken into account with the help of uniform calculated risk premiums.

Rice. 12. Scheme of delimitation of costs and expenses

Separation of income and output

The distinction between income and output is similar to the distinction between costs and expenses.

Rice. 13. Separation of income and output

Income

The differences between target and neutral incomes are determined by the following criteria:

The increment of value in the course of current production processes,
relation to the main activity of the enterprise and
Assignment to the billing period

Rice. fourteen. Income

Neutral revenues are not output and therefore should not be taken into account as costs. The income of the enterprise corresponding to the production, on the contrary, is the target income.

Working out

The composition of the working can also be represented in the form of two components: the main and the estimated.

Rice. fifteen. Working out

Under the main development understand the estimated increase in the value of production assets, the level of which is fully consistent with the income recorded in financial accounting.

Estimated (estimated) generation may include both non-equivalent and additional generation.

Non-equivalent is considered to be output, which is opposed by income, but at a different level. For example, production exceeds or does not reach the level of income corresponding to it due to an increase in the balance of products and items of own manufacture reflected in the assets of the balance sheet, valued at cost, or an estimated increase in the cost of production factors to their market level, which exceeds the cost of acquisition.

Additional is the production, which is not opposed by any income. For example, own-produced intangible assets accounted for in assets, such as self-developed patents, business reputation etc.

Accounting for associated costs

The costs arising at the enterprise are taken into account in financial accounting on the basis of documents. In this case, the purpose for which these costs are received is decisive, since not all costs taken into account in financial accounting represent costs.

Costs of third-party organizations that arise in the sphere of production from contractual relations should be taken into account. For example, these include the cost of repairs, Maintenance, advertising, cleaning of the factory area, electricity, communications, cargo turnover, rent, insurance, transport, leasing, patent and license costs, legal and tax advice.

Payments collected by the state in the form of fees for services provided by the municipality (for example, for cleaning city streets) and subsistence contributions public organizations(for example, mandatory contributions to the Chamber of Industry and Commerce) should be included in the cost account if they are directly related to the main production activity.

Taxes should be checked for the nature of the costs, as they only represent costs when they are closely connected with production. Thus, for example, trade tax, land tax, tax on vehicles and taxes on commodities are related to costs in the form of production costs, but turnover tax is not. Also not included in the calculation of the so-called. personal taxes (for example, income tax or inheritance tax). Personal taxes are taxes that are levied on the income of individuals and legal entities. In individual enterprises and partnerships, personal taxes include income and church taxes, and in joint-stock companies corporate income tax. accrued backdating additional tax payments cannot be included in the cost account as neutral expenses in other periods.

Accounting methods

The source of data used in production accounting is the Profit and Loss Statement. It covers the overall decline in value, respectively, the result of all economic activities for the reporting period, as well as expenses and income that are not related to the main production purpose of the enterprise. The transition from the Profit and Loss Statement to the Cost Account in practice is carried out in two steps. First, neutral income and expenses are separated. The second step is the addition and correction with the help of estimated (estimated) costs.

Extraordinary expenses received from the Profit and Loss Statement are adjusted and taken into account as non-equivalent expenses. Estimated additional costs cannot be taken from the Profit and Loss Statement, but supplement the Cost Account also in the form of non-equivalent costs.

The selection of data for the Cost Account from financial accounting can occur using both single-loop and double-loop accounting systems. In a single-loop system, financial and production accounting form single block accounting accounts, in which postings are made from the financial accounting account to the cost account and vice versa. The two-loop system is different in that financial and production accounting form their own and independent from each other contours of accounting accounts.

For industrial enterprises, a two-loop system is preferable, since production accounting (class 9), on the one hand, and financial accounting (class 0-8), on the other hand, are separated more accurately than in a single-loop system.

Within the framework of financial accounting (Circuit I), the overall result is determined through account classes 5-8 in the profit and loss account by contrasting all production and non-production expenses and income (i.e. without dividing into neutral and target expenses and income).

In circuit II, costs and output are fixed, and the production (operational) result is determined. These two circuits are connected to each other through a delimitation account (account group 90/92), the main task of which is the localization of neutral expenses and incomes, as well as the adjustment of costs.

The distinction is made either in accounts or in a table. In practice, the tabular form (table of results) is preferable, therefore, in the future, a tabular representation of the procedure is adopted.

Rice. 16. Two circuit accounts of an industrial enterprise

Rice. 17. Results table

The table of results reflects in its structure a two-loop system of separate financial and production accounting of the industrial chart of accounts. First, as in the profit and loss account, all expenses are transferred to circuit I on left side, and income, which are in the classes of accounts 5, 6 and 7 or profit and loss accounts, on the right side. Contour I reflects the financial result of the enterprise. On the other side of the table is contour II, which takes the main costs and output from expenses and incomes with non-equivalent and additional costs added to them, from which the production (operational) result is determined.

The delimitation area reflects non-productive income and expenses, income and expenses of other periods, as well as extraordinary income and expenses, and is designated as neutral. In addition, in the Adjustment of delimitation area column, production costs recorded in the Profit and Loss Statement (Form No. 2) are entered, for example, depreciation, costs for raw materials and materials. They are opposed to costing non-equivalent and additional costs. In the Adjustment column, no profit or loss is determined, but only the discrepancy between the accounting and production accounting data is revealed. This discrepancy, together with the sum of the delimitation, form a neutral result. If you add the production result to the neutral result, you should get an amount equal to the total result calculated in financial accounting.

Thus, the financial (general), neutral and production results presented in a visual form are interconnected and available for analysis. The operating result provides information about whether the main activity of the enterprise was successful. By adjusting the demarcation area, it becomes known how extraordinary, non-productive and processes that took place outside the reporting period influenced the final result, and to what extent the financial result is distorted due to political measures and set commercial legal and tax rules.

Rice. eighteen. Calculation of financial, neutral and production results

Example: The profit and loss statement of the open trade partnership "Elektro OHG" contains the following data:
(price is in Euro)

Determine the neutral, operating and financial results, considering the following data in the results table:

The consumption of raw materials due to price fluctuations must be accounted for at internal settlement prices, totaling 1.012.850 €.
The estimated write-off of fixed assets is calculated at the replacement cost and amounts to 480.750 €.
Other expenses include non-production expenses in the amount of 116.450 €. Other income is exclusively non-productive and extraordinary.
The capital required by the company is 4 850 300 € and is paid with accrual of accrued interest - 9%.
The amount of 124.800 € should be taken into account as the calculated entrepreneurial salary.
Calculation risks of sales of the company's products must be taken into account on the average data of previous years in the amount of 20.000 €.
The article Taxes takes into account only deductions accepted in the calculation of the cost of products.

Solution:

On account of costs (into production accounting) of circuit II, first those expenses and incomes that fully represent costs and output are taken from circuit I of financial accounting. These include income from turnover and objects of fixed assets of own manufacture, a decrease in the balance of finished products, salaries, social contributions, commission expenses, taxes, as well as part of other expenses.

Neutral expenses and incomes must be selected from financial accounting and transferred to the "Neutral expenses and incomes" column of the "FB delimitation" section. These include, for example, interest income, income from the sale of property, plant and equipment, income from the release of reserves, and other income and expenses in the amount of EUR 78,305 and EUR 116,450 respectively.

In the BOP Adjustment section, the left column reflects the "Recognized as Expenses" expense from the Profit and Loss Statement (Form No. 2), which is countered by the accounting cost in the right column. Calculation costs include the estimated cost of consumed raw materials and materials, the estimated depreciation of fixed assets and claims, as well as interest expenses. Transferring expenses from Form 2 of the Profit and Loss Statement and contrasting them with estimated costs in the "Adjustment in the BOP" section allows you not to mix them with neutral expenses.

In the cost account, the raw materials and materials consumed are valued at internal settlement prices due to their fluctuations in the market. The estimated cost of raw materials, which is taken into account in production accounting as costs (Circuit II), is 1,012,850 €. This amount is entered on the right side of the 'Recognized as a cost' column in the 'BOP Adjustment' section. Material costs recorded in the income statement in the amount of €1,013,995 are transferred to the left side of the column "Recognized as expenses" of the expense in the "BOP Adjustment" section. Now balance costs and settlement costs are opposed to each other, and the difference between their values determines the deviation.

Estimated write-off (estimated depreciation) of 480.750 € is shown as an expense in production accounting (Circuit II). At the same time, this amount is taken into account in the Estimated Costs column of the BOP Adjustment section. The balance sheet write-off in the amount of EUR 503,900 is transferred to the left side of the "Recognized as expenses" column from the Profit and Loss Statement (Form No. 2) of the "BOP Adjustment" section. The balance write-off is opposed to the calculated one. Deviation is determined.

Similarly, in contour II, the calculation interest on the capital (production capital) necessary for the enterprise in the amount of 9% of 4,850,300 euros = 436.527 euros is taken into account as costs and is credited to the right side of the column "Recognized as costs" of the section "Adjustment in BOP. Accounted for in contour I interest Borrowing costs of EUR 27,490 are transferred to the left side of the "Recognized as expenses" column from the Profit and Loss Statement (Form No. 2) section "Adjustment in BOP" Interest costs on borrowed capital are contrasted with the accrued interest and the discrepancy is calculated.

In the same way, the deviation between the calculated production risks in the amount of 20,000 euros and the write-offs of claims according to financial accounting in the amount of 17,320 euros is determined.

Additional costs, such as a business salary of €124,800, which are not countered by any costs, are also included in the Costs column (Circuit II) and on the right hand side of the Estimated Costs column of the BOP Adjustment section. Estimated entrepreneurial salary is not taken into account in the Profit and Loss Statement.

Literature:

Mirja Mumm, Kosten- und Leistungsrechnung, Leipzig 2008, ISBN 978-3-7908-1959-5.
Gunther Friedl, Christian Hofmann, Burkhard Pedell: Kostenrechnung. Eine entscheidungsorientierte Einfuhrung. Munchen 2010, ISBN 978-3-8006-3595-5.
Andreas Schmidt, Kostenrechnung: Grundlagen der Vollkosten-, Deckungsbeitrags- und Planungskostenrechnung sowie des Kostenmanagements. Stuttgart 2008, ISBN 978-3-17-020417-1.
Liane Buchholz, Ralf Gerhards: Internes Rechnungswesen: Kosten- und Leistungsrechnung, Betriebsstatistik und Planungsrechnung. Heidelberg 2009, ISBN 3790823422, 9783790823424.

TAVER Efim Iosifovich, Director of the Consulting and Training Center All-Russian organization quality, candidate of technical sciences, senior researcher, professor of ASMS, full member of the agro-industrial complex.

The head of any enterprise engaged in the production of products, whether he wants to or not, does it consciously or spontaneously, is always forced to manage his enterprise as as a whole, as a system. And the management that is carried out within the framework of this system cannot be non-systemic, regardless of the presence or absence of certain documents, which in some standards are considered as indispensable attributes of a systematic management. Consistency is not in documents, consistency is in actions, in processes, in management decisions. Another thing is that the perfection of the system, the level of consistency can be different.

The established practice of implementing the requirements of international management standards, for example, ISO 9000 or 14000 series, usually consists in the fact that, in addition to the management system, which is actually already operating in the organization, one way or another reflected in various documents, recorded in the existing, often undocumented relations between employees themselves, other, de facto and documented separate management systems appear. This leads to the fact that many typical management processes are fragmented. For example, document management is distinguished in relation to quality management and in relation to security management. environment. But documents must be developed, stored, replicated, updated, canceled depending on their purpose - drawing, plan, technology, contract, etc., especially since often the same document is related to both quality and quantity , and to environmental protection, and to prices, and to terms, etc. This leads to understandable negative consequences.

Integrity, unity, systemic management top management always considers one of its most important goals. Therefore, it does not understand why, for all the importance of quality or environmental protection, logistics or information, projects or risks, their management systems should be developed and operated separately.

Creating and maintaining a balanced unified management system is very challenging task, even if top management has a good idea of the strategic and tactical goals of the organization, reasonably sets planning and financial priorities and has the necessary resources. But even more the complexity of this task increases when it is proposed to develop simultaneously or in a random sequence. several management systems, and then ensure their parallel functioning.

Obviously, to solve this problem, i.e. to maintain the balance of a unified management system, it is necessary to build on the analysis and evaluation the totality goals and performance results enterprises, as well all factors on which they depend, without neglecting any of them. Of course, any leader tries to do this, but due to different reasons this is not always possible.

Below are the main results of activities and the factors on which they depend, as a basis for creating and maintaining effective functioning unified management system.

The results of production activities, proposed as the main ones, are highlighted, focusing on their relationship with quality, proceeding from the fact that today quality is the main, determining result that needs conscious management.

It is entirely possible to point to other outcomes or to structure the influencing factors in a different way. The point is not the classification. The bottom line is the need to consider them jointly and take them into account when trying to change the management practice that has developed at the enterprise, including on the basis of the latest approaches and innovations. Only this makes it possible to coordinate and balanced management, only this allows you to get closer to optimizing the results.

Main results of production activity

A) Technical results.

The quality of products supplied to the market (consumer, customer, client - buyer), is the most important result production activity. But quality does not exist by itself, it is embodied in the product and depends on its quantity.

Here, the product means any result of production activity:

material production(raw materials, materials, substances, products, structures, etc.),

energy(thermal, electrical),

intellectual products ( information contained in the documentation)

services(transport, communications, consumer services, financial, consulting, etc.),

work ( construction, installation, etc.)

complex technical systems, for example, a thermal power plant or a chemical plant.

Output should be as much as the market needs, taking into account factors that affect the volatility of demand. At the same time, products must be manufactured and delivered within those calendar terms and at the frequency that satisfies the consumer.

So to Quantity, quality and timing of release products - interrelated results of production activities, which can be called technical results. They show how well the organization meets the needs and expectations of consumers.

B) Financial results.

Manufacture of products in the right quantity, proper quality and within an acceptable time frame is an undoubted evidence of the effectiveness of management. But it is important what financial results. Let's choose from them:

Expenses for the production of products, including the payment of taxes and other fees, for the reimbursement of current costs (wages, purchases, rent, etc.), the costs of developing and improving production, for solving the social needs of personnel and the surrounding society. Costs are directly determined by the design and actual level of product quality.

Income (revenue) from the sale (sale) of products, which should not only reimburse costs, but provide an opportunity to make a profit and pay dividends (for joint-stock companies). Sales volume depends on demand, demand - on quality, price and marketing.

Price , which an organization can establish for its products. The price depends not only on costs, but also on quality. . Monopoly sale of products with unique quality, which is in high demand, allows you to significantly increase the price.

The financial results of the organization are evaluated not only in terms of costs and income. For example, indicators such as labor productivity, profit or size dividends per share. But these figures are secondary to expenses and income, which are more clearly related to quality.

C) Social outcomes.

Interested in good financial results staff organizations, since the level of wages and social benefits depend on them; owners organizations, including shareholders, and society represented by the state, as tax revenues and opportunities for charity increase.

But there are other results that characterize the relationship of the organization with its own staff and society and which show how aware she is of her social responsibility and how fully it fulfills its obligations to them.

To these results, which we will call social, relate:

magnitude wages staff,

condition conditions and labor protection,

deductions for social needs

impact on environment,

amount of various deductions to local and national budgets.

The costs associated with obtaining these results are determined by the financial results of the organization, which also directly or indirectly depend on the quality of products.

So, the object of a unified and balanced management should be technical, financial and social performance results (Fig. 1).

When looking at this scheme, it is obvious that it is correct to set goals, develop programs and, in general, make any decisions regarding even one result, for example, quality, only taking into account their consequences for other results.

Factors on which the results of production activities depend (factors of influence).

In order to manage something, it is necessary to influence the factors on which this “something” depends. For example, in order to control the fuel consumption of a vehicle, a variety of factors should be influenced, from the completeness of fuel combustion to the organization of traffic.

Factors on which the technical, financial and social results of production activities depend (hereinafter we will call them influence factors) can be structured as follows.

a) Processes, components and providing production activities for the production of products.

These include processes that we will conditionally call basic - marketing, product design, procurement of resources for product manufacturing, product manufacturing, product supply, product maintenance during operation.

Then - auxiliary or serving processes : installation, adjustment and repair of equipment, transport, communications, power supply, work with personnel, etc.

The processes that ensure the release of products also include management processes, for example, planning, organization, etc.

The more perfect the technology of the processes, the more productive they are, the less material, energy and labor intensive they are, the better they are organized, the better the results, including quality, and the lower the costs.

b) Staff, necessary for the implementation of processes. Knowledge, experience, qualifications, conscientiousness, and therefore high-quality, highly efficient work of personnel, including managers organizing this work, determine the success of the processes and, thus, the achievement of all planned results.

in) Resources , material and intellectual, own and those that are purchased and are spent in the development and manufacture of products - raw materials, energy, materials, semi-finished products, equipment, services, consultations, information, software products, etc. ( working capital) . The higher the quality of resources, the higher the quality of products. On the other hand, the cost of resources is a significant part of the costs.

d) Industrial infrastructure, necessary for the manufacture and supply of products - premises, technological equipment, tools, measuring instruments, office equipment, etc. ( fixed assets).

e) Finance necessary to achieve the planned requirements for products, processes, people, resources and infrastructure.

f) Management (including management of management processes!),

Note that effective management one of a number of factors required for a successful product launch, as important as infrastructure or personnel. However, it is a specific factor. It is management that connects processes with personnel, resources, infrastructure and finance.

Only by influencing those listed above in p.p. a) - f) factors of influence, it is possible to establish the necessary and coordinated requirements for the results of activities, and then ensure their implementation.

Thus, activity management is the management processes, personnel, resources, infrastructure, finance(Fig. 2). Note that in process management there is management of management processes, for example, planning management. Therefore, we can talk about management management.

Fig.2. Internal factors of influence on which performance results depend.

The scheme in fig. 2 emphasizes that the leading factor is processes, because people, resources and infrastructure affect the results of production activities only through processes.

Financing determines the actual state of all factors of influence, and the objects of management are all factors, including management itself.

External factors affecting the results of production activities.

The factors of influence listed above operate within the organization. However, in addition to internal, there are external factors which also have a significant impact on performance.

These factors are various mandatory requirements established by national, regional and municipal authorities that regulate and in a certain way limit the activities of organizations.

These requirements include:

payment of taxes and various payments and fees, for example, customs and excise;

conducting economic activities, primarily in the procurement and supply; based on business law

ensuring the rights of personnel;

labor protection of personnel,

environmental protection,

compliance with the requirements of sanitation and hygiene at work,

ensuring the safe performance of certain works and processes and the safe operation of certain types of equipment,

accounting and economical use of certain types of natural resources,

confirmation of compliance of products with mandatory requirements,

licensing of certain types of activities.

These external regulatory factors directly affect the requirements for personnel and processes, resources and infrastructure, management and finances.

They are established by laws and a variety of by-laws and are controlled by whole system state supervisory authorities, from the tax inspectorate and sanitary and epidemiological supervision to the trade inspectorate and customs services.

Organizations are forced to rule by their response actions in order, on the one hand, to ensure the implementation of relevant laws and regulations, and, on the other hand, to minimize the costs of this.

Conscientious fulfillment of mandatory requirements creates certain guarantees in achieving an appropriate level of product quality, contributes to obtaining good social results and, importantly, protects organizations from unreasonable claims from the state and society.

Conclusion

1. Creation and maintenance unified the organization's management system should be constant goal her guides

2. A unified management system should be based on a coordinated and balanced management of its results through the management of the factors on which they depend, taking into account external regulatory requirements (Fig. 3).

Rice. 3. Management of production activities

3. It is more expedient to implement the requirements of international standards through modification unified management system.

This allows:

take into account the requirements of any newly emerging standards or new customer requirements for the management system, without developing new additional systems.

link in the same document the requirements of different standards for the same process or object,

significantly reduce the number of newly developed documents.

4. To proceed with the modification of the unified management system, it is necessary to have its description. It allows you to assess its compliance with the requirements of certain standards and determine for which requirements such compliance is absent or incomplete. Usually there is no complete description of the system, although it is documented in various ways, but it exists to a large extent in the heads of management and employees, and is based on established attitudes and stereotypes of behavior. The question arises - how to identify and describe the management system. It is advisable to do this in relation to management influence factors, i.e. quality management, as well as the management of quantity, timing, costs, etc., is carried out through the management of processes, personnel, resources, finances (Fig. 4).

5. In order to reduce costs and not cause slowdown and sabotage of work due to too strong psychological rejection by the staff of "landslide" innovations, it is advisable to carry out the modification not immediately, but in stages, depending on the relevance for the company of introducing a particular standard.

Rice. 4. Structure of the description of the management system

Literature: V.G. Eliferov. The triumph of the letter of the standard over common sense? Quality management methods, No. 6, 2005.

Each production process ends with its result. The result of the production process in mechanical engineering is the product, which can be in the form of a part, an assembly unit, a complex and a kit.

In accordance with GOST 2.101-68*:

a detail is a product (product) made of a material that is homogeneous in name and brand, without the use of assembly operations, for example: a roller from one piece of metal, a cast body; bimetallic sheet plate; printed circuit board; handwheel made of plastic (without fittings); a piece of cable or wire of a given length. The parts include the same products subjected to coatings (protective or decorative), regardless of the type, thickness and purpose of the coating, or made using local welding, soldering, gluing, stitching, etc., for example: a screw subjected to chrome plating; a tube soldered or welded from one piece of sheet material; a box glued from one piece of cardboard;
an assembly unit is a product, the components of which are to be interconnected at the manufacturing plant by assembly operations (screwing, articulation, riveting, welding, soldering, crimping, flaring, gluing, stitching, laying, etc.), for example: a car, machine tool, telephone set, micromodule, reducer, welded case, plastic handwheel with metal fittings;
a complex is two or more specified products that are not connected at the manufacturing plant by assembly operations, but are intended to perform interrelated operational functions. Each of these specified products included in the complex serves to perform one or more basic functions established for the entire complex, for example: automatic workshop; automatic plant, automatic telephone exchange, drilling rig; a product consisting of a meteorological rocket, a launcher and controls; ship. The complex, in addition to products that perform the main functions, may include parts, assembly units and kits designed to perform auxiliary functions, for example: parts and assembly units intended for installation of the complex at its place of operation; a set of spare parts, styling products, containers, etc.;
kit - two or more products that are not connected at the manufacturing plant by assembly operations and represent a set of products that have a general operational purpose of an auxiliary nature, for example: a set of spare parts, a set of tools and accessories, a set of measuring equipment, a set of packaging containers, etc. Kits also include an assembly unit or part supplied together with a set of other assembly units and (or) parts designed to perform auxiliary functions in the operation of this assembly unit or part, for example: an oscilloscope complete with a packing box, spare parts, mounting tool, replacement parts.

The structure of each product can consist of those shown in Fig. 3.5 elements. Products depending on the presence or absence of constituent parts divided into:

a) non-specified (details) - having no components;
b) specified (assembly units, complexes, kits) - consisting of two or more components.

Products, depending on their purpose, are divided into products of the main and auxiliary production. The first should include products intended for delivery (realization). The second - should include products intended only for their own

Rice. 3.5.

the needs of the enterprise (association) that manufactures them. Products intended for delivery (sale) and at the same time used for their own needs by the enterprise that manufactures them should be classified as products of the main production.

The characteristics of products are the following qualitative and quantitative parameters:

the complexity of the design, which depends on the number of parts and assembly units included in the product; this number can vary from a few pieces (simple products) to several tens of thousands of pieces (complex products);
mass and geometric dimensions, and the mass of the product is related to the dimensions and can range from thousandths of a gram to tens and even thousands of tons. Geometric dimensions - ranging from fractions of a millimeter to several hundred meters (for example: sea vessels). According to this criterion, all products are divided into three groups: small, medium and large. Each branch of industry can be described by means of a group of products characteristic only for it. Usually, at machine-building plants, several products are simultaneously manufactured, different in design and size. The list of all types of products manufactured by the plant is called the nomenclature;
types, brands and standard sizes of materials used. Them total number measured in hundreds of thousands, and therefore they are also classified;
the complexity of parts, assembly units and the product as a whole. It varies from fractions of standard minutes to thousands of standard hours. According to this criterion, low-labor-intensive (non-labor-intensive) and labor-intensive products are determined;
the class of accuracy of processing parts and the accuracy of assembling assembly units and products. According to this criterion, products are divided into high-precision, precise and low-precision;
the share of standard, normalized and unified parts and assembly units. The dependence is known: the higher the proportion of typical (standard) operations, the lower the cost of the product;
scale of production. It can vary from units to tens of millions per year.

In practice, other characteristics of products can be used.

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Principles of profit distribution.

The object of distribution is the balance sheet profit of the enterprise. Its distribution is understood as the direction of profit to the budget and according to the items of use in the enterprise. Legislatively, the distribution of profits is regulated in the part that goes to the budgets of different levels in the form of taxes and other obligatory payments. Determining the directions of spending the profit remaining at the disposal of the enterprise, the structure of the articles of its use is within the competence of the enterprise.

The principles of profit distribution can be formulated as follows:

profit received by the enterprise as a result of production, economic and financial activities, distributed between the state and the enterprise as an economic entity;

profit for the state goes to the respective budgets in the form of taxes and fees, the rates of which cannot be arbitrarily changed. The composition and rates of taxes, the procedure for their calculation and contributions to the budget are established by law;

the amount of the enterprise's profit remaining at its disposal after paying taxes should not reduce its interest in increasing the volume of production and improving the results of production, economic and financial activities;

the profit remaining at the disposal of the enterprise is primarily directed to accumulation, which ensures its further development, and only in the rest - to consumption.

At each enterprise, four profit indicators are formed, which differ significantly in size, economic content and functional purpose. The basis of all calculations is balance sheet profit is the main financial indicator of the production and economic activity of the enterprise. For tax purposes, a special indicator is calculated - gross profit, and on its basis - taxable income, and tax-free income. The part of the balance sheet profit remaining at the disposal of the enterprise after making taxes and other payments to the budget is called clean profit. It characterizes the final financial result of the enterprise. Profit formation looks like this (table 1)

		Cost price (-)



Profit from sales	Profit from other sales		Non-operating income (expenses)


balance sheet profit		Profit Adjustment (-)


Taxable income	Tax-free income		Income tax (-)


	Net profit

Profit at the enterprise depends not only on the sale of products, but also on other activities that either increase or decrease it. Therefore, in theory and practice, the so-called "balance sheet profit".

Balance sheet profit (loss ) represents the amount of profit (loss) from the sale of products, financial activities and income from other non-sales operations, reduced by the amount of expenses on these operations. It consists of profit from the sale of products (revenue from the sale of products without indirect taxes minus the costs (expenses) for the production and sale of products) plus non-operating income (income on securities, from equity participation in the activities of other enterprises, from renting property, etc. .) minus non-operating expenses (costs for production that did not produce products, for the maintenance of mothballed production facilities, losses from debt cancellation).

The main constituent elements of the balance sheet profit are:

Profit from the sale of marketable products is determined by deducting from the total proceeds from the sale of products in current prices (excluding VAT and excises) the costs of production and sale of marketable products included in the cost of production.

Profit (or loss) from the sale of other non-commercial products and services is determined similarly, separately for all types of activities, i.e. profit (or loss) of ancillary agriculture, auto farms, logging and other farms that are on the balance sheet of the main enterprise.

Profit (or loss) from the sale of fixed assets and other property is calculated as the difference between the proceeds from the sale of this property (net of VAT, excises) and residual value on the balance sheet, adjusted by a coefficient corresponding to the inflation index. The main element of the balance sheet profit is profit from the sale of products, performance of work or provision of services. Profit from the sale of property is a financial result that is not related to the main activities of the enterprise. It reflects the profit (loss) on other sales, which includes the sale to the side of various types of property listed on the balance sheet of the enterprise.

Profit (or loss) from non-operating income and expenses determined as the difference between the total amount received and paid:

Use of the profits of the enterprise

The profit is distributed between the state, the owners of the enterprise and the enterprise itself. The proportions of this distribution have a significant impact on the efficiency of the enterprise, both positively and negatively.

The relationship between enterprises and the state regarding profits is based on the taxation of profits.

It is essential in Russian legislation that income tax is not levied on the profit that reflects the results of financial and economic activities and is shown in the financial statements. The initial basis for calculating taxable income is gross profit as an algebraic sum of profit from the sale of products (works, services), profit (loss) from the sale of property and income from the balance of income and expenses from non-sales operations. Further, gross profit is adjusted for the amount of valuables received free of charge, the amount of overspending on limited cost items, the difference between the amount of sales proceeds calculated at market and actual prices (when selling products at prices below cost), the amount of shortages written off as losses, amount differences, etc. Thus, taxable profit differs markedly from the actual financial result of economic activity. With such adjustments, it is not uncommon for the calculated income tax to exceed the balance sheet profit. Therefore, working capital together with profit serve as a source of payment of such tax.

It would be rational if the amount of tax payments from profit did not exceed a third of the balance sheet profit. Otherwise, incentives to improve the efficiency of the enterprise and make a profit are lost.

The remaining two-thirds could be distributed between the owners (shareholders and founders) and the enterprise itself.

This distribution depends on many factors. During the period of technical re-equipment and modernization of production, the development of new types of products and new technologies, the enterprise is in dire need of financial resources, and the owners should provide them first of all. However, this does not mean that they should give up their expectations and not receive a return on invested capital.

In modern conditions, as a result of the privatization of national property in Russia, a class of owners has emerged that is fundamentally different from the middle class in economically developed and other developing countries. For the most part, these are members of the labor collective, who received shares in their enterprise free of charge or for a small fee. Due to the lack of their own savings, they are not able to invest in their enterprise, which is necessary for it to get out of the financial and production crisis. According to the laws of a market economy, no one except the owners is obliged to provide cash for financial recovery. There are two ways out of this situation:

1. Declaring an enterprise bankrupt and repaying debts through the sale of property;

2. Coverage of losses and debts at the expense of the owners.

In the first case, there may not be enough property to cover debts, or it will consist of hard-to-sell or illiquid assets. Then declaring the enterprise bankrupt will not please any of the interested parties: neither creditors, nor employees of the enterprise, nor the owners, nor the state. Apparently, therefore, the practice of declaring an enterprise bankrupt in Russia has not yet become widespread. In the second case, the owners must either voluntarily give up their property and transfer the shares to their enterprise for their subsequent sale for money, or contribute funds to cover losses and debts.

At the enterprise, profit after taxes and dividends is subject to distribution. From this profit, some taxes are also paid to local budgets and economic sanctions are collected.

The distribution of this part of the profit reflects the process of formation of funds and reserves of the enterprise to finance production and social development.

In a market economy, the state does not interfere in the process of distributing profits remaining at the disposal of the enterprise after paying taxes.

The distribution of profit remaining at the disposal of the enterprise is regulated by the internal documents of the enterprise, as a rule, in the accounting policy. Some aspects of the distribution process are fixed in the charter of the enterprise.

The distribution of profits for social needs includes the costs of operating social facilities that are on the balance sheet of the enterprise, financing the construction of industrial facilities, holding recreational cultural events, etc.

In practice, it is possible to use various methods of profit planning, which can be classified into three groups:

1) Traditional methods.

2) Methods of marginal analysis.

3) Economic and mathematical methods.

An important role in ensuring financial stability is played by the amount of reserve capital. In a market economy, deductions to reserve capital are of prime importance. The presence and growth of reserve capital ensures an increase in shareholding, characterizes the enterprise's readiness for risk, which is associated with all business activities, provides the possibility of paying dividends on preferred shares even in the absence of a current year's profit, covering unforeseen expenses and losses without the risk of loss of financial stability.

48.Enterprise Profit Optimization

The main goal of planning the distribution of profits remaining at the disposal of a trading enterprise is to optimize the proportions between its capitalized and consumed parts, taking into account the implementation of its development strategy and ensuring the growth of its market value. Within the framework of these basic proportions, the planning process ensures the formation of various trust funds.

The distribution of the amount of balance sheet profit is carried out according to the following stages:

At the first stage, the planned amount of tax and other obligatory payments made at the expense of this source is deducted from the balance sheet profit, and the amount of profit remaining at the disposal of the enterprise is determined.

At the second stage, it is planned to distribute the profit remaining at the disposal of the enterprise to its capitalized and consumed parts. If the owners of the enterprise adhere to the residual principle of generating their income, then the priority task is to fully satisfy the need for their own financial resources generated from profits.

At the third stage, as part of the capitalized part of the profit, funds are allocated to the reserve, insurance and other obligatory special-purpose funds that ensure production development and are provided for by the company's charter. The rest of the capitalized profit is distributed in specific areas of its use.

At the fourth stage, the part of the profit planned for consumption is distributed to the fund for paying income to property owners and the fund for stimulating the personnel of the enterprise (at the same time, obligations under the collective agreement and individual labor contracts must be ensured). A certain part of this profit can be planned in other forms of its consumption (for example, for charitable purposes).

To assess the efficiency of profit distribution, the coefficient of its capitalization is used. It is calculated using the following formula:

Kkp \u003d KP * 100 / ChP,

where Ккп - coefficient of capitalization of the profit of a trade enterprise;

KP - the amount of capitalized profit (profit that ensures the future production development of the enterprise);

PE - the total amount of net profit (profit remaining at the disposal of the enterprise).

The higher this indicator, the more opportunities for the enterprise to carry out its strategic development on the principles of self-financing, the higher the rate of increase in its market value.

The volume of profit formation of a commercial enterprise largely depends on the amount of its tax payments. Due to whatever source and at whatever stage of the economic activity of the enterprise they are not carried out, in the end, they reduce the amount of profit remaining at its disposal. Therefore, each trade enterprise should actively use the legal opportunities to minimize tax payments in order to ensure an increase in the size of net profit, and, accordingly, the pace of its economic development.

49.Types of enterprise profit

The company distinguishes between several types of profit:

1. Realization (gross) profit (Preal) is the profit received as a result of production and sale of products, works of an industrial nature, it represents the difference between products sold (RP) and its cost (S).

Preal \u003d RP - S \u003d ∑ (C - C) * Q

where: C - the price of a unit of production (services, works);

C - the cost of a unit of production;

Q - the number of products (services, works);

S - the cost of all sold products, works and services.

2. Profit from other sales (operating) (Ppr) is formed as a result of the sale by the enterprise of unnecessary fixed assets, excess material values, as well as other operations. It is also determined by the difference between the revenue and costs associated with these operations.

3. Non-operating profit (Pv) is the profit generated as a result of operations with securities, currency and other activities not directly related to the production and sale of products and services, namely profit (losses) from the operation of residential buildings, clubs; received (paid) fines, penalties; profit from operations of previous years; proceeds from previously written off bad debts and others.

4. Balance sheet profit is the total amount of income generated by the enterprise minus management and commercial expenses. Mandatory payments in the form of taxes and deductions (N) are made from it.

Pb \u003d Preal + Ppr + Pv

5. The profit remaining at the disposal of the enterprise is net profit (Pch)

Pch \u003d Pb - N

Thus, profit is a general indicator for the activity of the enterprise, which reflects both the growth in production volume and the improvement in product quality and cost reduction.

50. Profit-Based Performance Indicators of an Enterprise

ROI

Method of calculation

Return on Investments (ROI) is calculated as the ratio of net profit to investments made in the company (division). At the same time, investments mean not only invested funds (both own and borrowed), but also assets transferred to the division (equipment, technologies, trademarks). The ROI value is calculated using the formula: ROI = (Net income / (Equity + Long-term liabilities) x 100%.

residual income

Residual income (Residual Income, RI) in accordance with SMA 4D is considered as an analogue of the net income indicator, but at the same time takes into account the company's cost of capital.

Method of calculation

Residual income is calculated using the following formula:

RI = Operating Profit - Investment x Rate of Return.

The value of the rate of return can be taken equal to the average profitability of the company or the weighted average cost of its capital.

Economic value added

Economic value added (EVA) can be seen as a modified approach to determining residual income.

Method of calculation

Economic value added can be calculated in several ways:

EVA = NOPAT - WACC x C,

where NOPAT (Net Operating Profit After Taxes) - net operating profit after taxes before interest payments; WACC (Weighted Average Cost of Capital) - weighted average cost of capital; C - invested capital.

EVA = IC x (ROIC - WACC),

where IC is the invested capital. At the same time, the cost of invested capital should also include the value of assets transferred to the division (company), which for one reason or another were not recognized in the financial statements (for example, exclusive technologies, patents, know-how); ROIC (Return on Invested Capital) is the return on invested capital, calculated as the ratio of net operating income before taxes to the capital invested in the core business of the company.

Market price

For investors and shareholders, the market value of the company (market value, MV) is an indicator that determines the amount of their potential income. Since the future dividends and returns expected by the owners are based on the true value of the enterprise or its ability to generate cash flows, the change in market value can be considered one of the most important indicators of the company's performance by shareholders.

Method of calculation

When determining the value of a company, as a rule, two main approaches are used:

Market value is defined as the product of a company's shares times their fair market price, at which stock market participants are willing to purchase those shares.

The value of a company is calculated based on the cash flows that, according to experts, it is able to generate over a long period of time.

1The volume of output in all cases refers to the volume of output of goods and services.

2 // Advisor to the director. Enterprise pricing strategy. 1996, No. 4, S. 47.

Aspects of the results of production activities. Production accounting. Value streams

Tasks of production accounting

Cost accounting system

The content of the concepts of income and payments, income and expenses, income and expenses, output and costs.

Payments and receipts

Costs and income

Expenses and income

Production and costs

Separation of payments and costs

Separation of costs and expenses

Separation of costs and expenses

Expenses

Costs

Separation of income and output

Income

Working out

Accounting for associated costs

Accounting methods

Literature:

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