Biographies 

What animals need a habitat. Animals and their habitat. Other uses

The methods of movement depend on the density of the environment; it also determines the structural features of animals. The temperature of the environment to a certain extent influences the temperature of the animal’s body; this influence can lead to overheating or hypothermia. The preservation of water content in the animal’s body depends on the humidity of the environment. The illumination and transparency of the environment, as well as its sound conductivity, are associated with the methods of orientation of animals in the surrounding world. According to all of the listed characteristics, the aquatic, terrestrial-air and soil environments differ significantly from each other.

How are animals adapted to the characteristics of the environments where they live?

Aquatic environment (Fig.). Due to the high density of water, a large resistance force acts on the body moving in it. Facilitates the movement of aquatic animals, reducing environmental resistance, streamlined body shape and mucus, secreting their integument. The blade-like limbs of many species of aquatic animals are also adapted for movement in water.

In animals mixed in the water column, the density of the body due to the accumulation of fat, the presence of a bubble filled with gases, is close to the density of water. The force of attraction acting on them is balanced by the buoyancy force: water is a kind of pillow that “props” the bodies of these animals.

So, for support internal organs they don't need powerful support system: Usually the skeleton makes up a small proportion of the animal's body weight or is absent altogether.

In an aquatic environment, as a rule, there is no danger of water loss by the animal’s body. Therefore, in many aquatic animals the body covers are thin (jellyfish, worms, unicellular organisms). Gas exchange in them occurs through the entire surface of the body. In aquatic animals with dense integuments, the respiratory organs are responsible for gas exchange. In fish, these are gills, the gas exchange surface of which is constantly washed by the flow of water. It supplies oxygen and removes carbon dioxide released. Aquatic mammals(dolphins, whales) breathe with the help of their lungs, and for each portion of oxygen they have to rise to the surface.

Ground-air environment. The very name of this environment indicates its heterogeneity. Among its inhabitants there are those who are adapted only to land movement - they crawl, run, jump, climb, leaning on earth's surface or on plants (Fig.). Other animals can move and fly in the air.

Therefore, the organs of movement of the inhabitants of the ground-air environment are diverse. So, it moves on the ground thanks to the work of the muscles of the body; a panther, a horse, a monkey use all four limbs for this, a spider uses eight, and a dove and an eagle use only two hind ones. The dove and eagle have forelimbs - wings - adapted for flight.

Water is a vital component of an animal’s body. For residents of the land-air environment, it is a problem of its retention in the body. Dense body coverings help them protect themselves from drying out: chitinous covering in insects, scales in lizards, shells in terrestrial mollusks, dense skin in mammals. The respiratory organs of terrestrial animals are “hidden” inside the body - this prevents the evaporation of water through their thin surfaces.

Terrestrial animals of temperate latitudes are forced to adapt to significant temperature fluctuations in their habitat. Animals escape from the heat in burrows and in the shade of trees. Mammals cool their bodies by evaporating water through the oral epithelium (dogs) or by sweating (humans). With the approach of cold weather, the fur of animals thickens, they accumulate reserves of fat under the skin. With the onset of winter, some of them, such as marmots and hedgehogs, hibernate, which helps them survive the winter lack of food. To escape winter hunger, some birds (cranes, starlings) fly to warmer climes.

Soil as a habitat. Temperature fluctuations in the soil are small; there is enough organic matter(plant roots, other organisms), the spaces between its particles are filled with moisture and air. However, the oxygen content in it is much less than in the ground-air environment, carbon dioxide is much higher. The soil is very dense and it is difficult to move in it. Therefore, this environment is dominated by unicellular and small multicellular animals, in which gas exchange occurs through the entire surface of the body. There are few species of animals that breathe through lungs in the soil (moles, field mice).

In moles, the limbs are adapted for digging passages and buds, and the earthworm simply “eats” the passages in the soil.

Wherever an animal lives, its life is impossible without other organisms, because animals are heterotrophs and they need a source of organic substances. Among the animals there are herbivores (steppe tortoise, cockchafer, cow), predators (tiger, owl, pike), and padloids (some insects, jackals, vultures). Animals release carbon dioxide into the environment and use plants and other photosynthetic autotrophs in the process of nutrition.

The main form of interaction between organisms in an ecosystem is the formation of food chains (Fig.). They begin with plants and some bacteria, which are producers of organic substances from inorganic ones. The next links in the chains are represented by consumers of organic substances - animals. The final link is decomposer organisms (fungi, heterotrophic bacteria), which break down organic substances into inorganic ones that enter the environment. These substances are again used by autotrophic organisms. So, animals in the ecosystem are a link in the cycle of substances, and with them energy.

In most ecosystems, animals also perform some other functions. Yes, they pollinate angiosperms, participate in the distribution of their fruits and seeds.

SHARE:

Animals are spread over almost the entire surface of the Earth. Due to their mobility, ability to evolutionarily adapt to colder conditions of existence, due to their lack of direct dependence on sunlight, the animals took more environments habitats than plants. However, it should be remembered that animals depend on plants, since plants serve as a source of food for them (for herbivores, and predators eat herbivores).

Here in the context of animal habitats we will understand animal living environment.

In total, four animal habitats can be distinguished. These are 1) ground-air, 2) water, 3) soil and 4) other living organisms. When talking about the ground-air environment of life, it is sometimes divided into ground and, separately, air. However, even flying animals sooner or later land on the ground. In addition, while moving on the ground, the animal is also in the air. Therefore, the ground and air environments are combined into one ground-air environment.

There are animals that live in two environments at once. For example, many amphibians (frogs) live both in water and on land, a number of rodents live in the soil and on the surface of the earth.

Ground-air habitat

The land-air environment contains the most animal species. The land turned out to be, in a sense, the most convenient environment for their life. Although in evolution, animals (and plants) arose in water and only later came to the surface.

Most worms, insects, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals live on land. Many species of animals are capable of flight, so they spend part of their lives exclusively in the air.

Animals of the land-air environment are usually characterized by high mobility and good vision.

The land-air environment is characterized by a wide variety of living conditions ( rainforests and forests temperate climate, meadows and steppes, deserts, tundras and much more). Therefore, animals in this living environment are characterized by great diversity; they can differ greatly from each other.

Aquatic habitat

The aquatic habitat differs from the air habitat in its greater density. Here animals can afford to have very massive bodies (whales, sharks), as the water supports them and makes their bodies lighter. However, it is more difficult to move in a dense environment, which is why aquatic animals most often have a streamlined body shape.

IN depths of the sea Almost no sunlight penetrates, so deep-sea animals may have poorly developed visual organs.

Aquatic animals are divided into plankton, nekton and benthos. Plankton floats passively in the water column (for example, unicellular organisms), nekton- these are actively swimming animals (fish, whales, etc.), benthos lives on the bottom (corals, sponges, etc.).

Soil habitat

Soil as a habitat is characterized by very high density and lack of sunlight. Here animals do not need organs of vision. Therefore, they are either not developed (worms) or reduced (moles). On the other hand, temperature changes in the soil are not as significant as on the surface. The soil is home to many worms, insect larvae, and ants. There is also soil inhabitants and among mammals: moles, mole rats, burrowing animals.

Living organisms as habitat

Parasites usually live in other living organisms. So among the parasites there are many worms (roundworms, bovine tapeworm, etc.). The advantage of parasitism is an excess of food and protection from negative influences external environment. However, parasitism often leads to a simplification of the structure of the body and the loss of a number of organs. The most common problem for parasites is entering the host's body. Therefore, they have very high fertility.


Basic habitat animals

  • – these are water, ground-air and soil. Each of them is inhabited by different animals.

Ground-air.

  • It was mastered by spiders, insects, reptiles, birds, animals (Fig. 7, A). Here you can find animals running quickly through open spaces (steppes, meadows, deserts); those living in the forest and climbing the branches of trees and bushes; living under the forest canopy.

Ground-air.

  • In terms of environmental conditions, the ground-air environment is the most diverse. Therefore, animals that have mastered it have a complex structure and behavior.


Aquatic habitat.

  • The living conditions of animals in it are very different from the conditions of the ground-air environment. The density of water is almost 1000 times greater than the density of air. In water there are stronger pressure drops, less oxygen, more active absorption of sunlight than in air.

Aquatic habitat.

  • They live in aquatic environments fish, whales, dolphins, crayfish, mollusks, insects etc. (Fig. 7, B ). Some animals “float” in the water column (plankton) , others swim fast (nekton) , some stay near the bottom (benthos) or at the very surface of the reservoir.

Soil environment a habitat.

Bodies of living organisms

Habitats.

  • Some animals have mastered not one, but two environments at once. Thus, frogs live in both ground-air and aquatic environments, ground squirrels and field mice live in ground-air and soil.

Animal Habitats

  • Animals in any habitat do not live everywhere, but occupy the most favorable areas for them. They are called places animal habitats (Fig. 8).


Animal Habitats

  • Nightingales found only in damp, dark areas of the forest near ponds and forest edges. Pike in rivers they prefer places with slow flow(pools and pools) overgrown near the shores. Predatory jumping beetles found only in dry sandy areas or along the sides of dirt roads.

Animal Habitats

  • Large, mobile animals have large and spacious habitats. For example, dolphins(see also live in the seas and oceans. Nimble tits live in mixed forests, groves and oak forests. Small animals have small areas in their habitats. So, aphids live on green leaves or young shoots of plants.

Animal Habitats

  • Often the same habitat is inhabited by different types animals. Habitats occupying vast areas, such as seas, forests, steppes, are inhabited by greatest number animal species.

Animal Habitats

  • Animals are well adapted to life in certain habitats. In steppe animals long legs, promoting fast running and big jumps. Animals that climb trees have sharp claws or suction cups, while aquatic animals have fins and swimming membranes between their toes. Many animals have protective painting or the shape of the body, successfully hiding them from enemies.

Animal habitats.

Animal relationships in nature

Predation

  • The relationship between animals, when some of them hunt, kill others and feed on them, is called predation.
  • Predators are a falcon chasing a dove; a beetle attacking a caterpillar; pike catching roach (Fig. 9). The animals hunted by predators are their prey.

Predation.

  • Predators have adaptations for hunting: the hunting web of a spider, the powerful teeth of wolves or tigers, and the sharp claws of owls.

Devices for protection.

  • Victims have their own adaptations to hide or run away from a predator, to protect themselves from it. These are the fast legs of an antelope, and the big ears of a hare, and protective coloration chameleon, and hedgehog needles.


Competitive relations .

  • Animals that inhabit the same habitat or eat similar food enter into competitive relations .


  • In a state of competition are, for example, animals - stoats And ferrets feeding mice And voles(Fig. 10); from birds - flycatchers And tits, competing with each other for suitable nesting sites. Each of the pair of competing species is at a disadvantage.



  • So, Cancer hermit specially transplants it onto its shell sea ​​anemone . It protects the hermit crab with its burning tentacles from the attack of enemies, and the hermit crab, moving, allows the sedentary sea anemone to change hunting grounds and catch more prey.

Tenancy

  • Among animals there are also relationships that are beneficial for one species of animal and harmless for another. Such relationships are called tenancy .
  • For example, in a hole groundhog various insects , toads , lizards(Fig. 12). They bring neither harm nor benefit to the groundhog, and the groundhog provides them with its shelter.


The place and role of animals in natural communities Oh.

  • Animals depend on each other and come into contact not only with each other, but also with plants and other living organisms: bacteria, fungi.
  • Living organisms living together form biological communities, or biocenoses.

Biocenosis.

  • Biocenosis is a collection of animals, plants, fungi and bacteria that jointly inhabit a piece of land or a body of water. These are, for example, plants and animals, fungi and bacteria living in the same pond, swamp, forest or meadow. Smaller biocenoses are part of larger ones.

Biocenosis.

  • The main form of relationships between organisms in a natural community is food , or trophic , communications . In any natural community, the initial food link that creates a reserve of energy in it is green plants, which, in the light, create organic substances from carbon dioxide, water and mineral salts dissolved in it.

Power circuits .

  • Herbivores eat plants. They, in turn, are eaten by animal predators. This is how complex food connections arise in natural communities - they are built power circuit .

  • In any biocenosis there are three groups of organisms: producers - producers organic substances (green plants), their consumers - consumers (herbivorous, carnivorous and omnivorous animals) (Fig. 13) and, in addition,

Decomposers.

  • other living organisms that feed on corpses and waste (dead parts of plants, bodies of dead animals and their excrement) are destroyers , or decomposers (Fig. 14).

Decomposers.

  • These include birds and scavenger animals, burying beetles and earthworms feeding on rotten leaves. These animals are to a greater extent bacteria and fungi bring the decomposition of organic substances to mineral ones, thereby increasing soil fertility and returning mineral substances taken by plants to nature.



Ecological niche.

  • The position of a species and its role in the biocenosis, determined by its connections with other species and its relationship to factors of living and inanimate nature (light, humidity, temperature, etc.), is called ecological niche .

Ecological niche.

  • Ecosystem (biogeocenosis) – a set of different organisms inhabiting a certain territory and living in specific conditions environment: temperature, pressure, humidity, salinity. In an ecosystem, living organisms and components of inanimate nature are united by the cycle of substances and the flow of energy.

  • Thus, organisms interact not only with each other, but also with the abiotic (non-living) habitat (soil, atmosphere, hydrosphere) and form ecosystems, or biogeocenoses.

1. What habitats do animals occupy? Give examples.

2. How does the concept of “habitat” differ from the concept of “habitat”? Explain with specific examples.

Over the course of hundreds of thousands of years of existence, man has actively influenced the environment around him. wildlife. Already ancient man, having mastered fire, emerged victorious in the competition with other species that inhabited natural caves and destroyed many large Pleistocene mammals. But there was, starting from the time of the “Neolithic Revolution” - the creation of a productive economy, agriculture, crop production and livestock - there was another global impact: the destruction of natural ecosystems and their replacement by agricultural land, and then by cities with their suburban areas. Such ecosystems are often more productive than natural ones, and their biodiversity can be quite high. However, when we talk about human-created biodiversity, we mean those biological forms that were purposefully created by humans through breeding, selection, and now genetic engineering.

For example, the variety of cultivated animals, among which hundreds of breeds are used cattle, fur-bearing animals, horses, fish, birds and at least 2 thousand breeds of dogs. The initiator of the study of the genetic variability of domestic animals was the Russian geneticist A. S. Serebrovsky, who in 1928 created a special scientific direction - genogeography, which deals with mapping the genetic variability of species. He himself worked on the genetics of chickens, of which dozens of breeds were known in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. His successor was Academician D.K. Belyaev, who studied the genetic variability of domestic animals, especially in the Asian part of Russia, and organized the world's first reserve for domestic animals in Altai.

Thus, man is not only responsible for the extinction of many species on our planet, but also created tens of thousands of forms of plants, animals, and microorganisms that would never have appeared without his participation.

Back in the 20s of the last century, A. S. Serebrovsky called for seeing the same natural wealth of the country in the diversity of genomes of domestic animals as in the reserves of oil, gold, coal and others natural resources. A modern highly productive economy without the use of cultivated plants and animals, without effective technologies for their breeding is no longer possible.

50.Biodiversity management and conservation.

The key to protecting and managing rare and endangered species is understanding their relationships with the environment and the status of their populations. This kind of information is usually called natural history or sometimes simply species ecology. With knowledge of the natural history of rare species, managers can make more effective measures to protect them and identify factors that put them at risk of extinction.

Listed below are groups of ecological questions that must be answered in order to undertake effective conservation efforts at the population level. For most species, only some of these questions can be answered without specific research. Therefore, management decisions often have to be made before this information is collected. Obviously, the specific type of information collected depends on the characteristics of the species.

Environment. What type of habitat are the species found in and how large is the range of each? How variable is the environment in time and space? How often does this area experience disasters? How human activities affect habitats

Violations. Where is the species found in its habitat? Does it move between habitats or migrate to other geographic areas; does it move throughout the day or throughout the year? How well does the species colonize new habitats? How do human activities affect the distribution of a species?

Morphology. How do the shape, size, color and other features of the integument of individuals allow the species to exist in its habitat?

Physiology. How much food, water, minerals, etc. does an individual need to survive, grow, and reproduce? How effectively does the individual use these resources? How sensitive is the species to climatic changes: heat, cold, wind, precipitation?

Demography. What is the current population size and what was it in the past? Is the number of individuals stable, increasing, decreasing?

Behavior. How does behavior allow an individual to survive in its environment? How do individuals in a population mate and produce offspring? How do individuals of this species interact with each other, cooperatively and competitively?

Genetics. How genetically controlled is the morphological and physiological variability of individuals?

Basic information, necessary to take conservation measures s or determining their status, can be obtained from the following sources.

    Unpublished literature data.

A significant amount of information in the field of conservation biology is found in unpublished reports from scientists, government agencies, and conservation organizations. This so-called “gray literature”

To identify the status of a particular rare species, an inventory of its abundance in nature is carried out and its changes over time are monitored. A regularly conducted census of a population can determine changes occurring in a population over time. Monitoring is effective in detecting population responses to changes in the environment. For example, through monitoring it was shown that the decrease in the number of orchid species was associated with intensive grazing of their habitats by livestock. Monitoring particularly sensitive species, such as butterflies used as indicator species, provides insight into the long-term stability of ecological communities.

Field studies. Define protective status a species and its relationship with the biological and physical environment is possible only in the field.

There are several approaches to monitoring species. An inventory is a simple count of the number of individuals in a population. By repeating the inventory after certain periods of time, it is possible to determine whether the population is stable or whether its numbers are increasing or decreasing. Inventory- inexpensive and direct method. It can answer the following questions: How many individuals make up the population today? Has the population remained stable throughout the census period?

Demographic studies consist of observing selected individuals in a population to determine their rates of growth, reproduction and survival. Such a study should include individuals of all ages and sizes. You can observe the entire population or its representative part. In a complete population study, all individuals are counted, their sex and, if possible, age are determined, sizes are measured, and all specimens are tagged for future identification. The places where they were found are plotted on the map.

Population Viability Analysis (PVA)– a section of demographic analysis aimed at understanding how a given species is able to survive in the environment. ACA identifies a species' needs and resources present in its environment to identify vulnerabilities in its natural history.

PCA is useful for understanding the consequences of habitat fragmentation or degradation of a rare species. Attempts to put the results of population viability analysis into practice have already begun. One of the most striking examples of PCA that combines genetic and demographic analysis is the study of the mangabey, an endangered primate that lives in floodplain forests in nature reserve along the river Tana in eastern Kenya. A management plan that will include increasing the area of ​​protected forests, planting plants that serve as a source of food for mangabeys, and creating corridors to facilitate their movement between forest fragments can increase the likelihood of the mangabey’s survival.

Metapopulation

Over time, populations of a species may disappear locally, and new populations may form on nearby suitable sites. Many species that live in short-lived habitats, such as the grassy cover of frequently flooded river valleys or recently burned forests, are best characterized by metapopulations (“populations of populations”), consisting of a changing mosaic of transient populations that are somewhat linked by migration. Population studies usually focus on one or more populations, but sometimes the entire metapopulation needs to be studied.

The endemic Furbisha's Myeloid (Pedicularis furbishiae) is found along the river. Maine in an area subject to periodic flooding. Floods often destroy some plant populations, but at the same time they create new riparian habitats suitable for the establishment of new populations. Studying a single population would provide an incomplete picture of the species, as one particular population is short-lived. And the metapopulation in in this case the most appropriate unit of study and the river basin is the appropriate unit of management.

Long-term monitoring of species and ecosystems. Long-term monitoring of processes in ecosystems (temperature, precipitation, humidity, soil acidity, water quality, flow speed, soil erosion, etc.), communities (species composition, vegetation cover, amount of biomass at each trophic level, etc.) and population size (the number of individuals of a particular species) is necessary because otherwise it is impossible to distinguish annual natural fluctuations from year to year from long-term trends. For example, the populations of many amphibians, insects, and annual plants fluctuate greatly from year to year. Therefore, long-term data is required to determine whether a species is actually declining or whether the current year is simply experiencing a natural cyclical decline in population size.

Monitoring allows project managers to determine whether the goals of these projects are achievable or whether management plans require improvement. Some changes in nature may lag behind their underlying causes for many years, so understanding them requires identifying the entire chain of events in ecosystems. For example, acid rain and other air pollution can weaken and kill trees within decades, leading to increased soil loss in surface water and, accordingly, the transformation aquatic environment unsuitable for the larvae of some rare insect species. In this case, the cause (air pollution) occurred decades before its effect (the disappearance of insects) occurred.

Formation of new populations

Many experts have begun to develop approaches to saving species. Several impressive methods have been developed for creating new wild and semi-wild populations of rare and endangered species and increasing the size of existing ones.

To create new populations of animals and plants they use three basic approaches. Program reintroduction provides for the release of captive-born or wild-caught individuals into an area of ​​their historical range where the species is no longer found. The main goal of the reintroduction program is to create a new population in its natural habitat.

Number increase program involves release into an existing population to increase its size and gene pool. To do this, animals are either caught in the wild or raised in captivity. One particular example is a program whereby newly hatched sea turtles are kept in captivity until they emerge from their most vulnerable state. young and then released back into nature. Introduction program involves the transfer of plants and animals to areas outside their historical ranges in the hope that they will establish new populations. This approach is justified when the environment in the historical range of a species has been destroyed to such an extent that the species can no longer live there, or when the cause of its extinction has not yet been eliminated, making reintroduction impossible. The planned introduction of a species to a new location requires careful research to ensure that the new ecosystem and populations of local endangered species are not harmed. In addition, it is necessary to ensure that released animals do not acquire a disease in captivity that could spread and affect wild populations.

Formation of new plant populations

Approaches to creating new populations of rare and endangered plant species are fundamentally different from those for terrestrial vertebrates. Animals can settle in new places and actively search for micro-areas with the most suitable conditions for them. And plant seeds fall into new areas with the help of wind, animals and water. Populations of rare and endangered plant species usually fail to be established from seed in most seemingly suitable locations. To increase the chances of success, botanists often germinate seeds under controlled conditions and grow young plants in protected areas. Only after the plants have passed the fragile seedling stage are they released into the wild. In other cases, plants are dug up from wild populations. Typically these are populations that are threatened with extirpation, or those for which removal of a small portion of plants would not cause obvious harm to the population. The plants are then moved to an unoccupied but certainly suitable location. Although such methods of transfer (transplantation) provide high confidence that the species will survive in a new location, they still cannot imitate natural processes, so sometimes populations do not bear fruit and do not produce seedlings for the next generation.

Ex situ conservation strategies

The best strategy for the long-term protection of biological diversity is the conservation of natural communities and populations in wildlife, i.e. saving in situ. Only in the wild are species able to continue within their natural communities the process of evolutionary adaptation to a changing environment. However, for many rare species, in situ conservation does not protect them from increasing anthropogenic disturbance. If the population is too small to survive, or if all surviving individuals are outside the protected area, then in situ conservation may not be effective.

In such circumstances, the only way to prevent the extinction of a species is to maintain the species in artificial conditions under human supervision. This strategy is called ex situ. There are already a number of animals that have become extinct in the wild but have survived in captivity, such as David's deer.

Ex situ and in situ conservation strategies are complementary. Individuals from ex situ populations may be periodically released into the wild. To increase the effectiveness of in situ conservation efforts, individuals from ex situ established populations are released into wild populations. Studying captive populations provides insight into the basic biology of a species and allows for the development of new strategies for the conservation of in situ populations. Ex situ breeding populations eliminate the need to capture animals from the wild for zoos or research.

Zoos

Zoos, along with the universities, government wildlife departments and conservation organizations that oversee them, now house over 700,000 animals representing 3,000 species of mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians.

The main goal of most large zoos today is to create captive populations of rare and endangered animals. Just not most of rare mammal species kept in zoos around the world are now represented in stable populations with numbers sufficient to maintain genetic diversity. To remedy this situation, zoos and their environmental organizations have made significant efforts to create additional conditions for keeping them. Scientific societies are organized, technologies necessary for the formation of breeding populations of rare and endangered species are developed, for example snow leopard and orangutan, as well as to develop new methods and programs for returning species to nature

Some of these societies are highly specialized, e.g. International Fund Crane Project in Wisconsin, which is trying to establish captive-breeding populations of all crane species.

Ex situ conservation efforts are increasingly aimed at saving endangered invertebrate species, including butterflies, beetles, dragonflies, spiders and mollusks. This is very important because there are many more species of invertebrates than vertebrates, but many of them have a limited distribution and are declining in numbers. Other important objects of ex situ conservation efforts are rare breeds of domestic animals from which humans obtain animal protein, dairy products, leather, wool, and use them in agriculture, as transport and for entertainment.

A large number of innovative programs are being developed to increase the reproduction rate of captive species. Some of these are borrowed from human and veterinary medicine, while others are completely new techniques specifically developed for specific species.

These technologies include: cross-feeding, where a female from a common species raises the young of a rare species; artificial insemination, in cases where animals do not want to mate or live in different places; artificial incubation of eggs under ideal conditions; embryo transfer, that is, the implantation of fertilized eggs of a rare species into a surrogate female of a common species. One new approach is freezing the eggs, sperm, embryos and tissues of endangered species - so-called “frozen zoos”. It is hoped that in the future it will be possible to restore these species using new technologies such as cell cloning. . Some animals, especially marine mammals, are so large and so demanding of specialized environmental conditions that measures for their maintenance and care are prohibitively expensive. Many invertebrates have unusually complex life cycle, in which, as they grow, their diet changes and sometimes the requirements for environmental conditions subtly change. Many of these species cannot be restored with our current level of knowledge. Finally, despite the best efforts of scientists, some species are simply difficult to breed. Two notable examples are the giant panda and the Sumatran rhinoceros. They have very low reproduction rates in the wild, and in captivity, despite significant search efforts effective methods for their reproduction, they practically do not reproduce.

Aquariums

In the conservation of aquatic species, ichthyologists, marine biologists, and coral reef researchers working in demonstration aquariums are increasingly collaborating with colleagues from research institutions, government fisheries departments, and conservation organizations to develop conservation programs for rich natural aquatic communities and critically important species. Currently, aquariums contain approximately 600 thousand fish, mainly caught in the wild. The main efforts today are aimed at developing technologies for breeding and keeping rare fish species in aquariums in order to later release them into the wild, or to reduce the need to catch wild species. Many of the fish farming technologies used were originally developed by fisheries biologists for large-scale breeding operations for cod, perch, salmon and other commercial species. Other technologies were discovered in commercial aquariums as the tropical fish trade expanded. Breeding programs for endangered marine fish are still in their infancy, but active research is now underway in this area. As aquaculture increasingly supplies fish, shellfish and shrimp to humans, breeding programs are being developed to create the genetic reserve needed to improve these species and protect them from disease and unforeseen threats.

The role of aquariums in the conservation of endangered cetaceans is especially important. Aquarium staff often respond to requests from the public to help whales that have become stranded or disoriented in shallow water. Potentially, aquarium staff can apply knowledge gained from working with common captive species, such as the bottlenose dolphin, to develop programs to help endangered species.

Botanical gardens and arboretums

The world's 1,600 botanical gardens contain some of the world's largest collections of living plants, providing a major resource for plant conservation efforts. Today, there are 4 million plants growing in botanical gardens around the world, representing 80 thousand species, that is, approximately 30% of the world's flora. The list is expanded by species grown in nurseries, gardens, amateur gardens and other similar conditions (although they are often represented by single specimens). In the world's largest botanical garden, the Royal Botanic Garden (England), 25 thousand plant species are cultivated - this is about 10% of all species in the world, of which 2,700 are endangered.

Botanical gardens are increasingly focused on growing rare and endangered plant species, with many specializing in certain types of plants. Harvard University's Arnold Arboretum grows hundreds of species of temperate trees.

At the international level, the Botanical Gardens Conservation Secretariat BGCS of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) organizes and coordinates the efforts of the world's botanical gardens. The program's priority is to develop a worldwide database system to coordinate collection activities and identify important species that are underrepresented or missing from living collections. There is a problem in the distribution of botanical gardens since most of them are found in temperate zones while most of the world's plant species are found in the tropics. Although there are several large gardens in Singapore, Sri Lanka, Java and Colombia, the creation of tropical zone new botanical gardens should be a priority for international community in nature conservation. Accordingly, training should be organized for local taxonomists who will work in them.

Seed banks

Where all reserves for preserving a species in situ have been exhausted, one has to think about the possibility of preserving at least its gene pool in the form of seeds and germ cells in special storage facilities - banks. In relation to agricultural species of animals and plants, this idea has already found practical implementation in the USA and the Russian Federation. The seed bank does not solve the problem of preserving the gene pool of all plants, since many species reproduce only vegetatively.

To date, methods have been developed for the conservation of plant genomes through deep freezing of tissues located at growth points, embryonic structures, germ and somatic cells.

Wherein highest value For the preservation of the genome, the preservation of the meristem appears to be important, since it is they that make it possible to completely restore and propagate a given genotype.

For 60 species of ornamental plants, the preservation and propagation of the meristem has become common practice mass reproduction and improvement of planting material. This process is complex:

    Preparation of cell culture

    Development of embryos (germinal structures)

    Gradual cell freezing

    Recultivation of cells after freezing.

Already in the 60s, banks of microorganisms were created - not for the purpose of preserving the gene pool as such, but for experimental purposes and for the safe storage of pathogens of particularly dangerous infections. Apparently, in relation to prokaryotes, the creation of a genetic bank is already a very real task in our time. It is more difficult with the animal genetic bank.

In the 60s, the first sperm banks for cattle and roosters appeared. Significant species differences in the sensitivity of germ cells of different animal species to freezing, storage and thawing do not allow us to hope for the development simple methods storing genes of endangered species.

Frozen bull sperm can be stored for decades, while horse and sheep sperm can be stored for several hours. In addition, it turned out that unfertilized animal eggs are especially poorly tolerated by freezing.

A scheme has been developed for the preservation and reconstruction of animals from preserved germ and somatic cells, zygotes, and embryos.

There are 14 banks in the world - repositories of seed samples of cultivated plants and their closest relatives. One of the collections was created at the secretariat of the International Council on Plant Genetic Resources. So far, 2 banks of frozen cells of endangered animal species have been created: at the Texas Medical Center and at the San Diego Zoo.

51. Biodiversity as a natural resource. Main directions of anthropogenic impact on biodiversity. Economic goals of biodiversity conservation. Economic and financial mechanisms for biodiversity conservation.

Biodiversity as a natural resource

According to the National Strategy for the Conservation of Biodiversity of Russia: the conservation of biodiversity should be resolved within the framework of the socio-economic and natural subsystem. Ignoring one of the subsystems leads to a general crisis of both society and nature.

The development of socio-economic relations due to predatory use of natural resources has led to a crisis of the entire system as a whole.

Overcoming the modern environmental crisis is possible only on the basis of the understanding that the normal development of natural subsystems, including protected areas, is a necessary condition for the sustainable existence of the socioecosystem and, consequently, the people themselves.

The reduction of biodiversity occupies a special place among the main global environmental problems of our time. There is a massive destruction of natural ecosystems and the disappearance of species of living organisms. Natural ecosystems have been completely altered or destroyed on a fifth of the world's land masses. Since 1600, the extinction of 484 animal species and 654 plant species has been recorded; today, more than 9 thousand animal species and almost 7 thousand plant species are included in the IUCN Red List (2000). In reality, several times more species have disappeared and are at risk of extinction, since most of the species diversity has not yet been described. The possible consequences of the destruction of biota in their catastrophic nature for humanity may exceed the effects of all other processes of the global environmental crisis.

Further reduction in biodiversity can lead to destabilization of the biota, loss of the integrity of the biosphere and its ability to maintain the most important environmental characteristics. Russia plays a key role in preserving global diversity, having on its territory the bulk of the diversity of ecosystems and species of living organisms in the largest region of the planet - Northern Eurasia.

Human activity is accelerating extinction biological species, the rate of which is currently 100–1000 times higher than natural species losses. There is a global depletion of biota and, in connection with this, a systematic decrease in the Earth’s ability to support living systems on it. Thus, disruption of biodiversity is a loss of life-sustaining potential. Biodiversity has actually come to be viewed as an important complex system-forming natural resource for human survival and for its economic activity.

This type of resource is closely related to other natural resources - depending on their classification: biological, genetic, water, forest, soil, mineral, etc.

Main directions of anthropogenic impact on biodiversity.

Anthropogenic impact is divided into direct And indirect.

Direct destruction of animal and plant populations as a result of: excessive production volumes, low fishing standards; illegal fishing; irrational and indiscriminate control of weeds and pests of agricultural and forestry, including the use of pesticides; death of animals on engineering structures; destruction by the population of animals and plants considered dangerous, harmful or nuisance; illegal collection and collection of living organisms.

Destruction of natural ecosystems as a result of: their transformation into agricultural land, including plowing of steppes; forest management using irrational methods leading to a reduction in biodiversity; various types of construction; mining; draining swamps; water and wind soil erosion; hydraulic construction, creation of reservoirs, destruction of small rivers.

Indirect

Three directions of such influences can be distinguished:

Physical, i.e. changes in the physical characteristics of the environment: climate and weather changes; change physical properties soil or ground; regulation of river flow, withdrawal of water from reservoirs; seismic exploration and blasting; action of electromagnetic fields; noise impact; thermal pollution.

Chemical, that is, pollution of water, air, soil: by industrial enterprises; transport, including emergency oil spills; domestic and municipal wastewater; energy enterprises, including nuclear power plants; mining companies; agricultural enterprises (herbicides, pesticides, chemical fertilizers); pesticides in the fight against forest pests and diseases; military facilities; as a result of launch space rockets; as a result of the global transport of pollution, including acid rain.

Biological, expressed in violations of the structure of natural biocenoses: intentional and unintentional introduction, as well as self-dispersal of alien species; spread of animal and plant diseases; penetration of genetically modified organisms into open agricultural systems and natural ecosystems, eutrophication of water bodies, destruction of animal food resources.

Usually, different kinds human activities (agriculture, construction, mining, transport, industry, recreation, fishing, etc.) have both direct and indirect impacts. Moreover, the latter can act in several directions. Therefore, anthropogenic impacts are often complex and may be accompanied by synergistic and cumulative effects.

Economic goals of biodiversity conservation

In accordance with the Convention on Biological Diversity (adopted in Rio 92), 3 goals are set in the field of biodiversity:

    conservation of biological diversity;

    sustainable use of its components;

    fair and equitable sharing of benefits (associated with the use of genetic resources, including through adequate access to genetic resources and through adequate transfer of related technologies, taking into account all rights to such resources and technologies, and through adequate financing).

Economic and financial mechanisms for biodiversity conservation.

    Economic mechanisms for biodiversity conservation. Economic mechanisms include a system of measures:

    Regulating existing market relations through payments (taxes, fines) and incentives (for example, tax benefits, non-cash subsidies).

    Creating new markets:

    Controlled recreational activities (including tourism, ecological trails etc.), accommodation (zoos, aquariums, oceanariums, etc.);

    Stimulating the breeding of commercially valuable species on specialized farms and in captivity;

    Corporatization of environmental objects with valuable or rare species, issuing environmental bonds, creating an insurance system for rare species, using compensation (benefits) to private or collective land users for damage caused to households by rare predators;

    Encouraging controlled commercial activities in protected areas (national parks, nature reserves, protected areas of nature reserves);

    Stimulating the conservation of non-commercial biological species (for example, the use of compensation (benefits) to private or collective land users, individual citizens for their protection of rare species on their territories).

    part of the funds (from rent/profit/revenue of private and public companies, institutions, bodies) received from the use of non-renewable natural resources (oil, gas, other mineral resources) direct to the conservation of valuable species;

    part of the funds received from the commercial use (profits of companies) of renewable natural resources and from fines for poaching activities should be used to preserve rare species;

    funds received from the sale of commercially valuable species as a result of their licensed removal from natural environment, fully focus on the protection of rare species.

In reforming the tax system At the macro level, the following aspects should be highlighted:

    reforming the taxation system (taxation on natural resources involved in production, and not on the result of production)

    an increase in the share of taxes on environmental exploitation and environmental polluting activities (as an important reason for the extinction of rare species) in the total amount of taxes.

    greening the tax system - creating a unified tax system covering the entire natural product vertical (chain) - from the primary natural substance to the final product obtained on its basis.

    review and abolition of subsidies that harm the environment and rare species (in energy, industry, transport and agriculture)

For the sustainable use of commercial species with a general focus on minimizing their removal, the main measures include:

    obtaining the maximum amount of biological resources from crops by: increasing the productivity of existing crops; introduction of new species into culture; + genetic engineering;

    replacing natural materials with synthetic ones

The basis for establishing an effective system of economic mechanisms for species protection should be:

    accounting and assessment of available biological resources

    assessment of the contribution of species' biological resources to the national economy

    assessing the economic productivity of various ecosystems

    development of a structure of economic responsibility for the protection of rare species in the region

    ensuring the implementation of economic incentives for the conservation of rare species;

    involving the local population in obtaining economic incentives from the conservation of rare species

    conducting an economic assessment of rare species of animals and plants listed in the Red Book

    inclusion of an economic section in the environmental and economic cadastre of protected areas and development of a methodology for filling it out

Mechanisms for preventing the appearance of rare species and their removal from the Red Data Books should be aimed at limiting, neutralizing and/or eliminating these limiting factors.

For example, the establishment of quotas for the removal of biological species, the withdrawal (buyout) of ecocritical land plots by the local government; introduction of incentives - cheaper licenses for the trade of common species, remuneration to nature reserves, local administration; exchanges of some lands (with rare species) for others; permission from the authorities for the seizure and sale of individual (sick, weak, etc.)

    Financial mechanisms for biodiversity conservation

The objectives of financing biodiversity conservation are:

    promote investment in the study and conservation of species

    access to technology to significantly expand existing options to address biodiversity loss

    allocate funds for activities to develop an environmental culture among the population

Possible sources of financing and economic incentives for the protection of biological species can be used:

    budget financing at all levels (federal, constituent entities of the Federation and local);

    eco-funds

    tax reform, receipt of rental income by the state as the owner of natural resources.

    Russia is a resource power and one can expect a revival of economic processes from the greening of taxation; income from privatization taking into account economic assessment

    biodiversity objects as part of the cost of privatized objects (requirement of environmental investments in privatized objects);

    funds from environmental insurance;

    income from the sale of licenses and other similar services;

    foreign charitable grants from public, private, corporate foundations; funds from Russian sponsors –

    legal entities

    funds of individuals; new and additional sources financial resources

    , including:

    part of the rent (profit) of environmental exploitation companies from mineral extraction, i.e. non-renewable natural resources;

    part of the profit from the sale of anthropogenically renewable natural resources (this is mainly the food industry, agricultural farms, timber harvesting; the agricultural sector in Russia today in this aspect, with rare exceptions, is insolvent);

    part of the profits of companies that “exploit” natural resources, sometimes even without consuming them (from travel agencies);

    fines for poaching;

    voluntary donations from individuals and legal entities of the business sector (with appropriate legislative incentives, for example, exemption of such contributions from federal and/or local taxes);

    profits from investments made by protected areas;

    entrance fee to protected areas - zoos, aquariums, national parks, photo hunting, remote (recreational) observation of rare species and their concentrations;

    Deductions from proceeds from exhibitions of exhibits, drawings, photographs and other artistic works depicting rare species;

    Fees for licenses to harvest, collect and hunt related to rare species;

AND OTHER. THERE IS A FUCKING FUCK TO AT LEAST REMEMBER THIS

    To obtain funds for biodiversity conservation, you can take the following steps: increase the role of economic mechanisms mainly through the introduction of rent payments for the use of natural resources and, without increasing legal and individuals, reduce, for example, the social tax of enterprises;

    part of the profit from the sale of non-renewable resources should be directed to the conservation/restoration of conditionally renewable natural resources and biodiversity, and part of the profit from commercially used natural resources (better natural wealth) – for saving/restoring;

    develop and implement a system of environmental offsets for Russian external debts and debts of the constituent entities of the Federation;

    prepare Russia's participation in trading unrealized greenhouse gas emission quotas, with a view to using part of the funds received for environmental protection activities.

    attract sources provided on a non-commercial basis.

Like all living things, animals are found between the lower atmosphere and the deepest ocean depths. They have mastered not only comfortable forests, steppes and warm bodies of water, but also dry hot and cold icy deserts, highlands And urban landscapes. And wherever animals live, they are always in contact with each other, with other organisms and with their inanimate environment. Thus, each organism has a specific habitat. There are four main habitats for organisms on our planet: water, ground-air, soil And organisms of living things.

Habitat — part of space that surrounds an organism and with which it directly interacts.

Animals obtain the nutrients and energy they need from the environment. There they secrete the products of their own metabolism. Each habitat is characterized determined by a set of conditions: temperature, humidity, illumination, a corresponding set of interacting organisms.

Many species of animals live in bodies of water: seas, rivers, lakes and even temporary puddles. Moreover, if aquatic plants can live only in the surface layers of water (red algae are found only to a depth of 268 m), then animals are found even at the maximum depths of the World Ocean.

On drier animals are common on all continents: from hot tropics until covered with ice Antarctica And Arctic. Animals are found in different high altitude zones mountain ranges. The world of animal inhabitants is also very diverse soil. There are many among them unicellular species, worms, insects, moles, shrews, mice. They all take part in soil formation processes, increasing soil fertility and providing soil nutrition to plants.

Each area is characterized by certain types of animals that are best adapted to its climatic conditions. Their totality is called fauna (from Lat. Fauna - goddess of forests and fields, patroness of animals). There is, for example, the fauna of the Carpathians, the fauna of Ukraine, etc.

Animals inhabit all main habitats: ground-air, water, soil, organisms of living beings.