Lexical means of artistic style. Literary and artistic style: characteristics, main style features, examples

Art style serves a special sphere of human activity - the sphere of verbal and artistic creativity. Like other styles, the artistic one performs all the most important social functions of the language:

1) informative (reading works of art, we get information about the world, about human society);

2) communicative (the writer communicates with the reader, conveying to him his idea of the phenomena of reality and counting on a response, and unlike a publicist who addresses the masses, the writer addresses the addressee who is able to understand him);

3) affecting (the writer seeks to evoke an emotional response in the reader to his work).

But all these functions in the artistic style are subordinate to its main function -aesthetic , which consists in the fact that reality is recreated in a literary and artistic work through a system of images (characters, natural phenomena, environment, etc.). Each significant writer, poet, playwright has his own, original vision of the world, and to recreate the same phenomenon, different authors use different language tools, specially selected, rethought.V. V. Vinogradov noted: “... The concept of “style” as applied to the language fiction is filled with a different content than, for example, in relation to business or clerical styles, and even publicistic and scientific styles ... The language of fiction is not fully correlated with other styles, it uses them, includes them, but in peculiar combinations and in a transformed form ..."

Fiction, like other types of art, is characterized by a concrete-figurative representation of life, in contrast, for example, to an abstract, logical-conceptual, objective reflection of reality in scientific speech. A work of art is characterized by perception through the senses and the re-creation of reality. The author seeks to convey, first of all, his personal experience, his understanding and understanding of this or that phenomenon. For the artistic style of speech, attention to the particular and the accidental is typical, followed by the typical and the general.The world of fiction is a “recreated” world, the depicted reality is, to a certain extent, the author’s fiction, which means that in the artistic style of speech the most important role plays a subjective moment. The whole surrounding reality is presented through the vision of the author. But in a literary text, we see not only the world of the writer, but also the writer in this world: his preferences, condemnations, admiration, etc. This is connected with emotionality, expressiveness, metaphor, and the richness of the artistic style. As a means of communication, artistic speech has its own language - a system of figurative forms, expressed by linguistic and extralinguistic means. Artistic speech, along with non-artistic speech, make up two levels of the national language. The basis of the artistic style of speech is the literary Russian language. The word in this functional style performs a nominative-figurative function.

The lexical composition and functioning of words in the artistic style of speech have their own characteristics. The words that form the basis and create the imagery of this style, first of all, include the figurative means of the literary language, as well as words that realize their meaning in the context. These are words with a wide range of uses. Highly specialized words are used to a small extent, only to create artistic authenticity in describing certain aspects of life. For example, L. N. Tolstoy in the novel "War and Peace" used special military vocabulary when describing battle scenes. We will find a significant number of words from the hunting lexicon in the “Notes of a Hunter” by I. S. Turgenev, in the stories of M. M. Prishvin, V. A. Astafiev. In the "Queen of Spades" by A. S. Pushkin there are many words related to the card game, etc.

In the artistic style, the polysemy of the word is very widely used, which opens up additional meanings and semantic shades in it, as well as synonymy at all language levels, which makes it possible to emphasize the subtlest shades of meanings. This is explained by the fact that the author strives to use all the richness of the language, to create his own unique language and style, to a bright, expressive, figurative text. The emotionality and expressiveness of the image come to the fore in the artistic text. Many words that in scientific speech act as clearly defined abstract concepts, in newspaper and journalistic speech as socially generalized concepts, in artistic speech act as concrete sensory representations. Thus, the styles functionally complement each other. For example, the adjective "lead" in scientific speech it realizes its direct meaning (lead ore, lead bullet), and in artistic speech it forms an expressive metaphor (lead clouds, lead night, lead waves). Therefore, in artistic speech important role play phrases that create a kind of figurative representation.

The syntactic structure of artistic speech reflects the flow of figurative-emotional impressions of the author, so here you can find the whole variety of syntactic structures. Each author subordinates linguistic means to the fulfillment of his ideological and aesthetic tasks. In artistic speech, deviations from structural norms are also possible, due to artistic actualization, that is, the author's allocation of some thought, idea, feature that is important for the meaning of the work. They can be expressed in violation of phonetic, lexical, morphological and other norms. Especially often this technique is used to create a comic effect or a bright, expressive artistic image.

In terms of diversity, richness and expressive possibilities of language means, the artistic style stands above other styles, is the most complete expression of the literary language. A feature of the artistic style, its most important feature is imagery, metaphor, which is achieved by using a large number of stylistic figures and tropes.

trails - these are words and expressions used in a figurative sense in order to enhance the figurativeness of the language, the artistic expressiveness of speech. The main types of trails are as follows

Metaphor a trope, a word or expression used in figurative meaning, which is based on an unnamed comparison of an object with some other on the basis of their common feature: And my tired soul is embraced by darkness and cold. (M. Yu. Lermontov)

Metonymy - a kind of trail, a phrase in which one word is replaced by another, denoting an object (phenomenon) that is in one or another (spatial, temporal, etc.) connection with the object, which is indicated by the replaced word: The hiss of frothy goblets and punch blue flames. (A. S. Pushkin). The replacement word is used in a figurative sense. Metonymy should be distinguished from metaphor, with which it is often confused, while metonymy is based on the replacement of the word “by contiguity” (part instead of the whole or vice versa, representative instead of class, etc.), while metaphor is based on the replacement “by similarity ".

Synecdoche – one of the types of metonymy, which is the transfer of the meaning of one object to another on the basis of the quantitative relationship between them: And it was heard until dawn how the Frenchman rejoiced. (M. Yu. Lermontov).

Epithet - a word or a whole expression, which, due to its structure and special function in the text, acquires some new meaning or semantic connotation, helps the word (expression) to acquire color, richness. The epithet is expressed mainly by the adjective, but also by the adverb (hotly love), noun (fun noise), numeral (second Life).

Hyperbola - a trope based on explicit and deliberate exaggeration, in order to enhance expressiveness and emphasize the thought said: Ivan Nikiforovich, on the contrary, has trousers in such wide folds that if they were inflated, the whole yard with barns and buildings could be placed in them (N.V. Gogol).

Litotes - a figurative expression that downplays the size, strength, meaning of the described: Your Pomeranian, lovely Pomeranian, is no more than a thimble ... (A. S. Griboedov). A litote is also called an inverse hyperbola.

Comparison - a trope in which there is an assimilation of one object or phenomenon to another according to some common feature for them. The purpose of the comparison is to reveal in the object of comparison new properties that are important for the subject of the statement: Anchar, like a formidable sentry, stands alone in the whole universe (A. S. Pushkin).

personification – trope, which is based on the transfer of the properties of animate objects to inanimate ones:Silent sadness will be consoled, and joy will reflect friskyly (A. S. Pushkin).

paraphrase – trope, in which the direct name of an object, person, phenomenon is replaced by a descriptive turnover, which indicates the signs of an object, person, phenomenon that is not directly named: the king of beasts (lion), people in white coats (doctors), etc.

Allegory (allegory) - conditional representation of abstract ideas (concepts) through a specific artistic image or dialogue.

Irony - a trope in which the true meaning is hidden or contradicts (opposed) to the explicit meaning: Where can we, fools, drink tea. Irony creates the feeling that the subject matter is not what it seems.

Sarcasm - one of the types of satirical exposure, the highest degree of irony, based not only on the increased contrast of the implied and expressed, but also on the deliberate exposure of the implied: Only the Universe and human stupidity are infinite. Although I have doubts about the first one (A. Einstein). If the patient really wants to live, the doctors are powerless (F. G. Ranevskaya).

Stylistic figures – these are special stylistic turns that go beyond the necessary norms for creating artistic expressiveness. It should be emphasized that stylistic figures make speech information redundant, but this redundancy is necessary for the expressiveness of speech, and therefore for a stronger impact on the addressee.Stylistic figures include:

Rhetorical address – giving the author's intonation solemnity, irony, etc..: And you, arrogant descendants ... (M. Yu. Lermontov)

Rhetorical question - it's special construction of speech, in which the statement is expressed in the form of a question. The rhetorical question does not require an answer, but only enhances the emotionality of the statement:And over the fatherland of enlightened freedom will the longed-for dawn finally rise? (A. S. Pushkin).

Anaphora - a stylistic figure consisting in the repetition of related sounds, words or groups of words at the beginning of each parallel row, that is, in the repetition of the initial parts of two or more relatively independent segments of speech (half-lines, verses, stanzas or prose passages):

The winds did not blow in vain,
Not in vain was a thunderstorm (S. A. Yesenin).

Epiphora - a stylistic figure consisting in the repetition of the same words at the end of adjacent segments of speech. Epiphora is often used in poetic speech in the form of identical or similar stanza endings:

Dear friend, and in this quiet house
The fever hits me
Can't find me a place in a quiet house
Near a peaceful fire (A. A. Blok).

Antithesis - rhetorical opposition, a stylistic figure of contrast in artistic or oratory speech, which consists in a sharp opposition of concepts, positions, images, states, interconnected by a common structure or internal meaning: Who was nobody, he will become everything!

Oxymoron - a stylistic figure or a stylistic error, which is a combination of words with the opposite meaning (that is, a combination of incongruous). An oxymoron is characterized by the intentional use of contradiction to create a stylistic effect:

gradation – grouping homogeneous members sentences in a certain order: according to the principle of increasing or decreasing emotional and semantic significance: I don’t regret, I don’t call, I don’t cry ... (S. A. Yesenin)

Default – deliberate interruption of speech, based on the guess of the reader, who must mentally complete the phrase:But listen: if I owe you ... I own a dagger, I was born near the Caucasus ... (A. S. Pushkin).

Polyunion (polysyndeton) - a stylistic figure consisting in a deliberate increase in the number of unions in a sentence, usually to connect homogeneous members. Slowing down speech with pauses, polyunion emphasizes the role of each of the words, creating a unity of enumeration and enhancing the expressiveness of speech: And for him they resurrected again: both the deity, and inspiration, and life, and tears, and love (A. S. Pushkin).

Asyndeton (asyndeton)- stylistic figure: construction of speech, in which conjunctions connecting words are omitted. Asyndeton gives the statement swiftness, dynamism, helps to convey a quick change of pictures, impressions, actions: Swede, Russian, cuts, stabs, cuts, drumming, clicks, rattle ... (A. S. Pushkin).

Parallelism - a stylistic figure, which is an arrangement of speech elements that are identical or similar in grammatical and semantic structure in adjacent parts of the text. Parallel elements can be sentences, their parts, phrases, words:

The stars are shining in the blue sky
In the blue sea the waves are whipping;
A cloud is moving across the sky
A barrel floats on the sea (A. S. Pushkin).

Chiasmus - a stylistic figure, consisting in a cruciform change in the sequence of elements in two parallel rows of words: Know how to love art in yourself, and not yourself in art (K. S. Stanislavsky).

Inversion - a stylistic figure, consisting in violation of the usual (direct) word order: Yes, we were very friendly (L. N. Tolstoy).

In the creation of artistic images in a literary work, not only figurative and expressive means are involved, but also any units of the language, selected and organized in such a way that they acquire the ability to activate the reader's imagination, evoke certain associations. Due to the special use of linguistic means, the described, denoted phenomenon loses the features of the general, is concretized, turns into a single, particular - the only idea of which is imprinted in the mind of the writer and recreated by him in a literary text.Let's compare two texts:

Oak, a genus of trees in the beech family. About 450 species. It grows in the temperate and tropical zones of the Northern Hemisphere and South America. The wood is strong and durable, with a beautiful pattern on the cut. Forest breed. Pedunculate oak (height up to 50 meters, lives from 500 to 1000 years) forms forests in Europe; rock oak - in the foothills of the Caucasus and Crimea; Mongolian oak grows on Far East. Cork oak is cultivated in the subtropics. The bark of the English oak is used for medicinal purposes (contains astringents). Many species are decorative (Encyclopedic Dictionary).

There was an oak at the edge of the road. Probably ten times older than the birches that make up the forest, it was ten times thicker and twice as tall as each birch. It was a huge, double-girth oak, with boughs broken off long ago, apparently, and with broken bark, overgrown with old sores. With his huge clumsy, asymmetrically spread arms and fingers, he stood between the smiling birches like an old, angry and suspicious freak. Only he alone did not want to submit to the charm of spring and did not want to see either spring or the sun (L. N. Tolstoy "War and Peace").

Both texts describe the oak, but if the first one deals with a whole class of homogeneous objects (trees, the general, essential features of which are presented in the scientific description), then the second one speaks of one, specific tree. When reading the text, an idea arises of an oak, personifying old age immersed in itself, opposed to birch trees “smiling” in spring and the sun. Concretizing the phenomena, the writer resorts to the method of personification: at the oak huge hands and fingers, he looks old, angry, contemptuous freak. In the first text, as is typical of the scientific style, the word oak expresses a general concept, in the second it conveys the idea of a particular person (author) about a particular tree (the word becomes an image).

From the point of view of the speech organization of texts, the artistic style turns out to be opposed to all other functional styles, since the fulfillment of the aesthetic function, the tasks of creating an artistic image allow the writer to use the means of not only the literary language, but also the common language (dialectisms, jargon, vernacular). It should be emphasized that the use of non-literary elements of the language in works of art must meet the requirements of expediency, moderation, and aesthetic value.The writers' free recourse to linguistic means of various stylistic coloring and various functional and stylistic correlations can create the impression of "variation in style" of artistic speech. However, this impression is superficial, since the attraction of stylistically colored means, as well as elements of other styles, is subordinated in artistic speech to the performance of an aesthetic function : they are used to create artistic images, to realize the ideological and artistic intention of the writer.Thus, the artistic style, like all others, is formed on the basis of the interaction of extralinguistic and linguistic factors. Extralinguistic factors include: the sphere of verbal creativity itself, the peculiarities of the writer's worldview, his communicative attitude; to linguistic ones: the possibility of using various units of the language, which undergo various transformations in artistic speech and become a means of creating an artistic image, embodying the author's intention.

The literary and artistic style serves the artistic and aesthetic sphere of human activity. Artistic style is a functional style of speech that is used in fiction. The text in this style affects the imagination and feelings of the reader, conveys the thoughts and feelings of the author, uses all the richness of vocabulary, possibilities different styles, characterized by figurativeness, emotionality, concreteness of speech. The emotionality of the artistic style differs significantly from the emotionality of the colloquial and journalistic styles. The emotionality of artistic speech performs an aesthetic function. Artistic style involves a preliminary selection of language means; all language means are used to create images. A distinctive feature of the artistic style of speech is the use of special figures of speech, the so-called artistic tropes, which give color to the narrative, the power of depicting reality. The function of the message is connected with the function of aesthetic impact, the presence of imagery, the totality of the most diverse means of language, both general language and individual author's, but the basis of this style is general literary language means. Characteristic features: the presence of homogeneous members of the proposal, complex sentences; epithets, comparisons, rich vocabulary.

Substyles and genres:

1) prosaic (epic): fairy tale, story, story, novel, essay, short story, essay, feuilleton;

2) dramatic: tragedy, drama, comedy, farce, tragicomedy;

3) poetic (lyric): song, ode, ballad, poem, elegy, poem: sonnet, triolet, quatrain.

Style-forming features:

1) figurative reflection of reality;

2) artistic-figurative concretization of the author's intention (a system of artistic images);

3) emotionality;

4) expressiveness, appraisal;

6) speech characteristics of characters (speech portraits).

General linguistic features of the literary and artistic style:

1) a combination of language means of all other functional styles;

2) the subordination of the use of language means in the system of images and the intention of the author, figurative thought;

3) the performance of the aesthetic function by language means.

Language means of artistic style:

1. Lexical means:

1) rejection of template words and expressions;

2) the widespread use of words in a figurative sense;

3) intentional clash of different styles of vocabulary;

4) the use of vocabulary with a two-dimensional stylistic coloring;

5) the presence of emotionally colored words.

2. Phraseological means- colloquial and literary character.

3. Word-forming means:

1) the use of various means and models of word formation;

4. Morphological means:

1) the use of word forms in which the category of concreteness is manifested;

2) frequency of verbs;

3) passivity of indefinite personal forms of verbs, forms of the 3rd person;

4) insignificant use of neuter nouns compared to masculine and feminine nouns;

5) plural forms of abstract and material nouns;

6) wide use of adjectives and adverbs.

5. Syntactic means:

1) the use of the entire arsenal of syntactic means available in the language;

2) wide use of stylistic figures.

8. The main features of the conversational style.

Features of conversational style

Conversational style - a style of speech that has the following features:

used in conversations with familiar people in a relaxed atmosphere;

the task is to exchange impressions (communication);

the statement is usually laid-back, lively, free in the choice of words and expressions, it usually reveals the author's attitude to the subject of speech and the interlocutor;

characteristic language means include: colloquial words and expressions, emotionally-evaluative means, in particular with suffixes - points-, -enk-. - ik-, - k-, - ovate-. - evat-, perfective verbs with a prefix for - with the meaning of the beginning of the action, treatment;

incentive, interrogative, exclamatory sentences.

opposed to book styles in general;

the function of communication is inherent;

forms a system that has its own characteristics in phonetics, phraseology, vocabulary, syntax. For example: phraseology - running away with the help of vodka and drugs is not fashionable now. Vocabulary - buzz, in an embrace with a computer, climb into the Internet.

Spoken language is a functional variety of the literary language. It performs the functions of communication and influence. Colloquial speech serves such a sphere of communication, which is characterized by the informality of relations between the participants and the ease of communication. It is used in everyday situations, family situations, at informal meetings, meetings, informal anniversaries, celebrations, friendly feasts, meetings, during confidential conversations between colleagues, a boss with a subordinate, etc.

Topics colloquial speech determined by communication needs. They can vary from narrow everyday to professional, industrial, moral and ethical, philosophical, etc.

An important feature of colloquial speech is its unpreparedness, spontaneity (Latin spontaneus - spontaneous). The speaker creates, creates his speech immediately "clean". As the researchers note, linguistic conversational features are often not realized, not fixed by consciousness. Therefore, often when native speakers are presented with their own colloquial statements for normative assessment, they evaluate them as erroneous.

The following characteristic feature of colloquial speech: - the direct nature of the speech act, that is, it is realized only with the direct participation of the speakers, regardless of the form in which it is realized - in dialogical or monologue. The activity of the participants is confirmed by utterances, replicas, interjections, and simply sounds made.

On the structure and content of colloquial speech, the choice of verbal and non-verbal means of communication big influence have extralinguistic (extralinguistic) factors: the personality of the addresser (the speaker) and the addressee (the listener), the degree of their acquaintance and proximity, background knowledge (the general stock of knowledge of the speakers), the speech situation (the context of the utterance). For example, to the question "Well, how?" depending on the specific circumstances, the answers can be very different: "Five", "Met", "I got it", "Lost", "Unanimously". Sometimes, instead of a verbal answer, it is enough to make a gesture with your hand, give your face the right expression - and the interlocutor understands what the partner wanted to say. Thus, the extralinguistic situation becomes an integral part of communication. Without knowledge of this situation, the meaning of the statement may be incomprehensible. Gestures and facial expressions also play an important role in colloquial speech.

Spoken speech is uncodified speech, the norms and rules of its functioning are not fixed in various dictionaries and grammars. She is not so strict in observing the norms of the literary language. It actively uses forms that qualify in dictionaries as colloquial. "Litter razg. does not discredit them," writes the well-known linguist M.P. Panov. "The litter warns: do not call the person with whom you are in strictly official relations a darling, do not offer him to shove him somewhere, do not tell him that he is lanky and at times grumpy. In official papers, do not use the words look, relish, go home, penny. Isn't it sound advice?"

In this regard, colloquial speech is opposed to codified book speech. Conversational speech, like book speech, has oral and written forms. For example, a geologist is writing an article for a special journal about mineral deposits in Siberia. He uses book speech in writing. The scientist makes a presentation on this topic at an international conference. His speech is bookish, but the form is oral. After the conference, he writes a letter to a work colleague about his impressions. The text of the letter - colloquial speech, written form.

At home, in the family circle, the geologist tells how he spoke at the conference, which old friends he met, what they talked about, what gifts he brought. His speech is colloquial, its form is oral.

Active study of colloquial speech began in the 60s. XX century. They began to analyze tape and manual recordings of natural natural speech. Scientists have identified specific linguistic features of colloquial speech in phonetics, morphology, syntax, word formation, and vocabulary. For example, in the field of vocabulary for colloquial speech, a system of own methods of nomination (naming) is characteristic: different kinds contractions (evening - evening newspaper, motor - motor boat, to enter - to an educational institution); ambiguous phrases (Is there anything to write about? - a pencil, a pen, Give me something to hide - a blanket, a blanket, a sheet); one-word derivatives with a transparent internal form (opener - can opener, rattle - motorcycle), etc. Spoken words are highly expressive (porridge, okroshka - about confusion, jelly, slur - about a sluggish, spineless person).

Instruction

This style can otherwise be called the style of fiction. It is used in verbal and artistic creativity. Its main goal is to influence the feelings and thoughts of readers and listeners with the help of images created by the author.

Artistic style (like any other) involves the selection of linguistic means. But in it, in contrast to the official business and scientific styles, all the richness of vocabulary, special figurativeness and emotionality of speech are widely used. In addition, he uses the possibilities of different styles: colloquial, journalistic, scientific and official business.

The artistic style is distinguished by a special attention to the casual and the private, behind which are visible typical features and images of time. As an example, one may recall " Dead Souls”, where N.V. Gogol portrayed landowners, each of whom is the personification of certain human qualities, but all of them together are the "face" of Russia in the 19th century.

One more hallmark artistic style is a subjective moment, the presence of the author's fiction or "re-creation" of reality. The world of a literary work is the world of a writer, where reality is presented through his vision. In a literary text, the author expresses his preferences, rejections, condemnation and admiration. Therefore, the artistic style is characterized by expressiveness, emotionality, metaphor and versatility.

To prove the artistic style, read the text and analyze the language used in it. Pay attention to their diversity. Literary works use a large number of tropes (epithets, metaphors, similes, hyperbole, personifications, paraphrases and allegories) and stylistic figures (anaphoras, antitheses, oxymorons, rhetorical questions and appeals, etc.). For example: “a man with a marigold” (litote), “a horse runs - the earth trembles” (allegory), “streams ran from the mountains” (personification).

In the artistic style, the ambiguity of words is clearly manifested. Writers often discover additional meanings and meanings in them. For example, the adjective "lead" in scientific or journalistic style will be used in its direct meaning "lead bullet" and "lead ore", in the artistic, most likely, it will act as a metaphor for "lead twilight" or "lead clouds".

When parsing the text, be sure to pay attention to its function. If the conversational style serves for communication or communication, the official business and scientific style are informative, and the artistic style is intended for emotional impact. Its main function is aesthetic, to which all linguistic means used in a literary work are subject.

Determine in what form the text is implemented. Artistic style is used in drama, prose and poetry. They are respectively divided into genres (tragedy, comedy, drama; novel, story, short story, miniature; poem, fable, poem, etc.).

note

The basis of the artistic style is the literary language. But often it uses colloquial and professional vocabulary, dialectisms and vernacular. This is due to the desire of writers to create a special unique author's style and give the text a vivid imagery.

Useful advice

Style can be determined only by the totality of all features (functions, set of language tools, form of implementation).

Sources:

Artistic style: language and features
how to prove that the text

Tip 2: Distinctive features of the official-business style of the text

The language used in different areas of activity differs, in addition, it can be very different from spoken language. For such areas public life as science, office work, jurisprudence, politics and facilities mass media there are subtypes of the Russian language that have their own characteristics, both lexical and morphological, syntactic and textual. It has its own stylistic features and official business text.

Why you need a formal business style when writing

The official business style of the text is one of the functional subtypes of the Russian language, which is used only in one specific case - when conducting business correspondence in the sphere of social and legal relations. It is implemented in lawmaking, managerial and economic activities. In writing, its document and can, in fact, be both a letter and an order, and normative act.

Business documents can be presented to the court as evidence at any time, since they, due to their specifics, have legal force.

Such a document has legal significance, its originator acts, as a rule, not as a private person, but is an authorized representative of the organization. Therefore, any official business text is subject to increased requirements to eliminate ambiguity and ambiguity of interpretation. Also, the text should be accurate communicatively and adequately reflect the thoughts that the author expresses.

The main features of the official business style

The main feature of official business communication is the standardization of phraseological units used, it is with its help that communicative accuracy is ensured, which gives legal force to any document. These standard phrases make it possible to exclude ambiguity of interpretation, therefore, in such documents, repeated repetition of the same words, names and terms is quite acceptable.

An official business document must have details - output data, and specific requirements are also imposed on their location on the page.

The text written in this style is emphatically logical and unemotional. It should be extremely informative, so thoughts have strict wording, and the presentation of the situation itself should be restrained, using stylistically neutral words and expressions. The use of any phrases that carry an emotional load, expressions used in common speech, and even more so slang, is excluded.

To eliminate ambiguity in a business document, personal demonstrative pronouns (“he”, “she”, “they”) are not used, since in a context with two nouns of the same gender, ambiguity of interpretation or contradiction may appear. As a consequence of the obligatory condition of logic and argumentation, when writing a business text, complex sentences are used with a large number of conjunctions that convey the logic of relations. For example, infrequently used ordinary life constructions, including unions of the type: “due to the fact that”, “for what”.

Mandatory wardrobe items for a Parisian.

Many of the fair sex, who strive to look stylish and sophisticated every day, have a set of basic, must-have items in their wardrobe. What kind of items can be found in the closet of a Parisian?

1. Ballerinas. Contrary to popular belief, high heels are not always preferred. In everyday life they wear comfortable ballet flats with thin soles.

2.Bag with long strap. A handbag thrown over one shoulder is a habit of a large number of residents of the fashionable capital.

3.The scarf is large. A variety of voluminous scarves are preferred by residents of many countries. However, most Parisians believe that this is an indispensable and absolutely necessary accessory in the cold season.

4. Fitted jacket, raincoat or jacket. A truly French style is to wear fitted jackets. They are decorated with thin straps or worn wide open.

5.Large sunglasses. In combination with hair pulled up in a tight ponytail, bun or updo, these glasses look especially stylish and elegant.

6. Black clothes. The black color for the inhabitants of Paris is not the color of mourning. For them, he is the personification of style and grace. Therefore, to create a Parisian look, you must have black T-shirts, T-shirts, sweaters and other items of clothing in your wardrobe.

Which is unacceptable for the Parisian style.

There are things that a lady with truly French views on fashion will never allow herself to buy, much less wear. In one of the first places on the list of bad manners were too long bright false nails. Many representatives of France prefer naturalness and neutrality in everything. Including in .

A miniskirt in combination with a deep neckline is also not in the style of a resident of the fashion capital. The true one is unlikely to allow herself to look too frank and too sexy.

Bright hair color, multi-colored highlighting, flashy accessories, all kinds of bouffants and a huge amount of hair styling products. In most cases, a lady living in Paris will bypass this entire list and will only be surprised that it occurred to someone to experiment with their appearance in such a way.

The main criterion that distinguishes a true Parisian is harmony in everything: in clothes, style, look, hairstyle, accessories. She does not seek to repeat someone's image and is of the opinion that each person is unique.

Actually scientific style of speech

Most research monographs and solid scientific articles belong to the actual scientific style. The peculiarity of this genre is that such texts, as a rule, are written by professional scientists for the same specialists. This academic style is very common in scientific papers devoted to one issue, as well as in small essays, where the author gives the results scientific research.

Texts written in the proper scientific style are distinguished by the accuracy of presentation, verified logical constructions, an abundance of generalizing terms and abstract concepts. A standard academic text composed in this genre has a strict structural composition, which includes a title, introductory and main parts, conclusions and a conclusion.

Scientific and informative genre of scientific style

secondary form scientific style speech is considered a scientific and informative genre. It is usually compiled on the basis of some basic, reference text. In this case, original monographs or articles are often taken as a basis. An example of texts made in the scientific and informative genre can be theses, or.

A scientific-informative text is a creatively revised presentation of the primary material, which completely coincides with it in meaning. However, it does not contain all, but only basic information, only the most essential information about the subject. Writing works in this genre requires the ability to work with scientific literature, evaluate sources and transmit their content in a compressed form without distortion.

Other genres of scientific style of speech

In one large group linguists often combine texts of scientific-reference, educational-scientific and popular-science genres of scientific style. These sub-styles are characterized by the focus of information not so much on specialists, but on those who are far from the specifics of the subject placed at the center of the publication. Importance at the same time, they have not only the results of scientific research, but also a form.

In the educational and scientific genre, textbooks and lecture texts are most often written. The scientific reference genre, characterized by extreme clarity and conciseness, is typical for reference publications, scientific dictionaries, encyclopedias and catalogues. Texts compiled in the popular science genre are less tied to special terminology. They are often used in books intended for a mass audience, as well as in television and radio programs covering scientific topics.

Introduction

1. Literary and artistic style

2. Figurativeness as a unit of figurativeness and expressiveness

3. Vocabulary with objective meaning as the basis of figurativeness

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

Depending on the scope of the language, the content of the utterance, the situation and goals of communication, several functional and stylistic varieties, or styles, are distinguished, characterized by a certain system of selection and organization of language means in them.

Functional style is a historically established and socially conscious variety of the literary language (its subsystem), functioning in a certain area of human activity and communication, created by the peculiarities of the use of language means in this area and their specific organization.

The classification of styles is based on extralinguistic factors: the scope of the language, the topics determined by it and the goals of communication. The spheres of application of the language correlate with the types of human activity corresponding to the forms of social consciousness (science, law, politics, art). Traditional and socially significant areas of activity are: scientific, business (administrative-legal), socio-political, artistic. Accordingly, they also distinguish styles of official speech (bookish): scientific, official business, journalistic, literary and artistic (artistic). They are opposed to the style of informal speech - colloquial and everyday.

The literary and artistic style of speech stands apart in this classification, since the question of the legality of its allocation into a separate functional style has not yet been resolved, since it has enough blurred borders and can use the language features of all other styles. The specificity of this style is also the presence in it of various figurative and expressive means to convey a special property - figurativeness.

1. Literary and artistic style

As we noted above, the issue of the language of fiction and its place in the system of functional styles is solved ambiguously: some researchers (V.V. Vinogradov, R.A. Budagov, A.I. Efimov, M.N. Kozhina, A. N. Vasilyeva, B.N. Golovin) include a special artistic style in the system of functional styles, others (L.Yu. Maksimov, K.A. Panfilov, M.M. Shansky, D.N. Shmelev, V.D. Bondaletov) consider that there is no reason for this. The following are given as arguments against singling out the style of fiction: 1) the language of fiction is not included in the concept of literary language; 2) it is multi-styled, not closed, does not have specific signs that would be inherent in the language of fiction as a whole; 3) the language of fiction has a special, aesthetic function, which is expressed in a very specific use of linguistic means.

It seems to us that the opinion of M.N. Kozhina that “bringing artistic speech beyond the limits of functional styles impoverishes our understanding of the functions of the language. If we deduce artistic speech from among the functional styles, but consider that the literary language exists in a variety of functions, and this cannot be denied, then it turns out that the aesthetic function is not one of the functions of the language. The use of language in the aesthetic sphere is one of the highest achievements of the literary language, and because of this, neither the literary language ceases to be such, getting into a work of art, nor the language of fiction ceases to be a manifestation of the literary language.

The main goal of the literary and artistic style is the development of the world according to the laws of beauty, the satisfaction of the aesthetic needs of both the author of a work of art and the reader, the aesthetic impact on the reader with the help of artistic images.

It is used in literary works of various kinds and genres: stories, novellas, novels, poems, poems, tragedies, comedies, etc.

The language of fiction, despite the stylistic heterogeneity, despite the fact that the author's individuality is clearly manifested in it, still differs in a number of ways. specific features, allowing to distinguish artistic speech from any other style.

The features of the language of fiction as a whole are determined by several factors. It is characterized by broad metaphor, figurativeness of language units of almost all levels, the use of synonyms of all types, ambiguity, different stylistic layers of vocabulary. In the artistic style (compared to other functional styles) there are laws of perception of the word. The meaning of a word is largely determined by the author's goal setting, genre and compositional features of the work of art, of which this word is an element: firstly, in the context of a given literary work, it can acquire artistic ambiguity that is not recorded in dictionaries, and secondly, it retains its connection with the ideological and aesthetic system of this work and is assessed by us as beautiful or ugly, sublime or base, tragic or comic:

The use of linguistic means in fiction is ultimately subordinated to the author's intention, the content of the work, the creation of the image and the impact through it on the addressee. Writers in their works proceed primarily from the fact that they correctly convey thoughts, feelings, truthfully reveal spiritual world hero, realistically recreate the language and image. Not only the normative facts of the language, but also deviations from general literary norms are subject to the author's intention, the desire for artistic truth.

The breadth of coverage of the means of the national language by artistic speech is so great that it allows us to assert the idea of the fundamental potential possibility of including all existing linguistic means (albeit, connected in a certain way) in the style of fiction.

These facts indicate that the style of fiction has a number of features that allow it to take its own special place in the system of functional styles of the Russian language.

2. Figurativeness as a unit of figurativeness and expressiveness

Figurativeness and expressiveness are integral properties of the artistic and literary style, therefore, from this we can conclude that figurativeness is a necessary element of this style. However, this concept is still much broader, most often in linguistic science the question of imagery of a word as a unit of language and speech, or, in other words, lexical imagery, is considered.

In this regard, figurativeness is considered as one of the connotative characteristics of a word, as the ability of a word to contain and reproduce in itself speech communication the concrete-sensory appearance (image) of an object, fixed in the minds of native speakers, is a kind of visual or auditory representation.

In the work of N.A. Lukyanova "On the semantics and types of expressive lexical units" contains a number of judgments about lexical imagery, which we fully share. Here are some of them (in our formulation):

1. Imagery is a semantic component that actualizes sensory associations (representations) associated with a certain word, and through it with a specific object, a phenomenon called a given word.

2. Imagery can be motivated and unmotivated.

3. The linguistic (semantic) basis of motivated figurative expressive words is:

a) figurative associations that arise when comparing two ideas about real objects, phenomena - metaphorical figurativeness (boil - "to be in a state of strong indignation, anger"; dry - "to worry a lot, take care of someone, something");

b) sound associations - (burn, grunt);

c) imagery internal form as a result of word-formation motivation (play, star, shrink).

4. The linguistic basis of unmotivated figurativeness is created due to a number of factors: obscuration of the inner form of the word, individual figurative representations, etc.

Thus, we can say that figurativeness is one of the most important structural and semantic properties of a word, which affects its semantics, valence, emotional and expressive status. The processes of formation of verbal imagery are most directly and organically associated with the processes of metaphorization, that is, they serve as figurative and expressive means.

Figurativeness is “figurativeness and expressiveness”, that is, the functions of a language unit in speech with the features of its structural organization and a certain environment, which reflects exactly the plan of expression.

The category of figurativeness, being a mandatory structural characteristic of each language unit, covers all levels of reflection of the surrounding world. It is precisely because of this constant ability to potentially generate figurative dominants that it became possible to talk about such qualities of speech as figurativeness and expressiveness.

They, in turn, are characterized precisely by the ability to create (or actualize linguistic figurative dominants) sensory images, their special representation and saturation with associations in the mind. The true function of figurativeness is revealed only when referring to a real objective action - speech. Consequently, the reason for such qualities of speech as figurativeness and expressiveness lies in the language system and can be found at any of its levels, and this reason is figurativeness - a special inseparable structural characteristic language unit, whereas the objectivity of the reflection of the representation and the activity of its construction can be studied only at the level of the functional implementation of the language unit. In particular, it can be vocabulary with a subject-specific meaning, as the main means of representation.

Art style in general, it differs from other functional styles in that if they are usually characterized by any one common stylistic coloring, then in the artistic one there is a diverse range of stylistic colors of the language means used. Artistic speech refers to the use of not only strictly literary, but also non-literary means of the language - vernacular, jargon, dialects, etc. In artistic speech, there is a wide and deep metaphor, figurativeness of units of different language levels, rich possibilities of synonymy, ambiguity, various style layers of vocabulary. All means, including neutral ones, are called upon to serve here as an expression of the system of images, the poetic thought of the artist. In a work of art, with a special creative use of the means of the national language, the aesthetic function of the artistic style is expressed. The language of fiction also has a communicative function. The aesthetic and communicative function of artistic style is associated with a special way of expressing thoughts, which distinguishes this style from others.

Noting that in artistic speech the language acts in an aesthetic function, it means the use of the figurative capabilities of the language - the sound organization of speech, expressive and visual means, expressive and stylistic coloring of the word. The most expressive and emotionally colored language units of all levels of the language system are widely used. Here, not only means of verbal figurativeness and figurative usage grammatical forms, but also means with a stylistic coloring of solemnity or colloquialism, familiarity. Conversational means are widely used by writers for speech characteristics characters. At the same time, the means of conveying the diverse shades of intonation of live speech are also used, in particular, various types of expression of desire, motivation, command, request.

Particularly rich possibilities of expression are to attract various means syntax. This is expressed in the use of all possible types of sentences, including one-part sentences that differ in various stylistic colors; in an appeal to inversions and other stylistic possibilities of word order, to the use of someone else's speech, especially improperly direct. Anaphora, epiphora, the use of periods and other means of poetic syntax - all this constitutes an active stylistic fund of artistic speech.

A feature of the artistic style is the "image of the author" (narrator) that appears in it - not as a direct reflection of the writer's personality, but as its original reincarnation. The choice of words, syntactic constructions, intonation pattern of a phrase serves to create a speech “image of the author” (or “image of the narrator”), which determines the whole tone of the narration, the originality of the style of a work of art.

The artistic style is often opposed to the scientific one. This opposition is based on different types of thinking - scientific (with the help of concepts) and artistic (with the help of images). different forms knowledge and reflection of reality find their expression in the use of various linguistic means. Artistic speech dynamism is characteristic, which is manifested, in particular, in a high rate of "verbal" speech. The frequency of verbs here is almost twice as high as in the scientific one (with a corresponding decrease in the number of nouns).

So, the peculiarity of the language of artistic style is:

Unity of communicative and aesthetic function;

Multistyle;

Wide use of figurative and expressive means (tropes);

The manifestation of the creative individuality of the author.

trail a speech technique is called, consisting in such a substitution of a utterance (word or phrase) by another, in which the substitute utterance, being used in the meaning of the substituted one, denotes the latter and retains a semantic connection with it.

Expressions "hard soul", "peace on the road, not at the pier, not at the lodging for the night, not at a temporary station or rest" contain paths.

Reading these expressions, we understand that "hard soul" means, firstly, a person with a soul, and not just a soul, and secondly, bread is stale, therefore a stale soul is a soul that, like stale bread, has lost the ability to feel and empathize with other people.

The figurative meaning contains the connection of the word that is used with the word in place of or in the sense of which it is used, and this connection each time represents a specific intersection of the meanings of two or more words, which creates a special image the subject of thought indicated by the trope.

Tropes are often seen as embellishments of speech that one could do without. The trope can be a means of artistic representation and decoration of speech, as, for example, in F. Sollogub: “In metaphorical outfit speech poetic dressed.

But the trope is not only a means of artistic meaning. In prose speech, the trope is the most important tool for defining and expressing meaning.

The trope is related to the definition, but, unlike the definition, it is able to express the shade of thought and create a semantic capacity of speech.

Many words of the language that we are used to using without much thought about their meaning have formed as tropes. We are speaking « electricity”, “the train has come”, “damp autumn”. In In all these expressions, the words are used in a figurative sense, although we often do not imagine how one could replace them with words in their own sense, because such words may not exist in the language.

The trails are divided into worn out general language (like "electric current", "railroad") and speech (like "damp autumn", "hard soul"), on the one hand, and copyright(how "the world is not at the pier", "the line of understanding of things") - with another.

If we pay attention not only to the connection between the meanings of the replaced and the replacing words, but also to the way this connection is obtained, then we will see the difference between the above expressions. Indeed, a closed and unfriendly person is like stale bread, the line of understanding things like a line of thought.

Metaphor- a trope based on similarity, the sign of which characterizes the subject of thought: “And again the star dives in the light ripple of the Neva waves” / F.I. Tyutchev /.

Metaphor is the most significant and commonly used trope, since the relation of similarity reveals a wide range of juxtapositions and images of objects that are not bound by binding relationships, so the area of metaphorization is almost limitless and metaphors can be seen in almost any type of text, from poetry to a document.

Metonymy- tropes based on adjacency relation. This is a word or expression that is used in a figurative sense on the basis of an external or internal connection between two objects or phenomena. This connection could be:

Between content and containing: ... began to drink cup per cup- a gray-haired mother in a cotton dress and her son(Dobychin); Drunk shop and eaten diner Isaac(Genis); ... was on "you" with almost everything university (Kuprin);

Between an action and the instrument of that action: He doomed their villages and fields for a violent raid swords and fires (P.);

Between the object and the material from which the object is made: No. She silver- on the gold ate(Gr.);

Between the locality and the inhabitants of this locality: And all Moscow sleeps peacefully, / Forgetting the excitement of fear(P.); Nice sighs with relief after hard and sweet winter labors... And Nice dancing(Kuprin);

Between a place and people in that place: Everything field gasped(P.); With every flight forest started shooting in the air(Simonov).

Synecdoche- a trope based on the relations of genus and species, part and whole, singular and plural.

For example, a part-whole relationship:

To inaccessible masses

I look for whole hours, -

What dew and coolness

From there they are pouring noise towards us!

Suddenly brighten up fiery

Their immaculate snows:

According to them passes imperceptibly

heavenly angels leg...

F. I. Tyutchev.

Antonomasia- trope based on the relationship of the name and the named quality or feature: use own name in the sense of a quality or a collective image: “... a genius always remains for his people a living source of liberation, joy and love. It is the hearth on which, breaking through, the flame of the national spirit flared up. He is the leader who gives his people direct access to freedom and to divine contents, - Prometheus, giving him heavenly fire, atlas, carrying on his shoulders the spiritual sky of his people, Hercules, performing his deeds on his behalf” (I.A. Ilyin).

The names of the mythological characters Prometheus, Atlanta, Hercules personify the spiritual content of a person's personal feat.

Hyperbola- a trope consisting in a clearly implausible exaggeration of a quality or feature. For example: “My Creator! deafened louder than any trumpets ”(A.S. Griboyedov).

Litotes- a trope opposite to hyperbole and consisting in an excessive understatement of a sign or quality. “Your Spitz, lovely Spitz, is no more than a thimble” (A.S. Griboedov).

Metalepsis- a complex trope, which is formed from another trope, that is, it consists in a double transfer of meaning. For example: “An unprecedented autumn built a high dome, There was an order for the clouds not to darken this dome. And people marveled: the September deadlines are passing, And where did the cold, wet days go? (A. A. Akhmatova).

Rhetorical figure- a reproducible technique of verbal formulation of thought, through which the rhetor shows the audience his attitude to its content and significance.

There are two main types of rhetorical figures: selection shapes and figures of dialogism. Their difference is as follows: selection shapes- these are constructive schemes for presenting content, by means of which certain aspects of thought are compared or emphasized; figures of dialogism are an imitation of dialogic relations in monologue speech, that is, the inclusion in the speaker's speech of elements that are presented as an explicit or implied exchange of remarks between the rhetor, the audience or a third person.

Selection shapes can be built by adding, significant omission, full or partial repetition, modification, rearrangement or distribution of words, phrases or parts of a structure.

Additions and repetitions

An epithet is a word that defines an object or action and emphasizes in them some characteristic property, quality. The stylistic function of the epithet lies in its artistic expressiveness: Ships at the cheerful country(A. Blok).

The epithet can be obligatory and optional. An epithet is obligatory, which expresses an essential property or attribute of an object and the elimination of which is impossible without losing the main meaning. Optional is an epithet that expresses an incidental quality or feature and can be eliminated without losing the main content.

Pleonasm- excessive repeated use of a word or synonym, by means of which the shade of the meaning of the word or the author's attitude to the designated object is clarified or emphasized. For example: “... we even better understand our own face when it is depicted invariably and successfully, at least in a good, skillful photograph, not to mention a beautiful watercolor or a talented canvas ...” (K. N. Leontiev). The pleonasm "one's own" reinforces and emphasizes the meaning of the word being defined, while the pleonastic epithet "good, skillful photography" clarifies the meaning of the main epithet.

Synonymy- a figure that consists in expanding, clarifying and strengthening the meaning of a word by adding a number of its synonyms. For example: “It seems that a person met on Nevsky Prospekt is less selfish than on Morskaya, Gorokhovaya, Liteynaya, Meshchanskaya and other streets, where greed, and self-interest, and need are expressed in walking and flying in carriages and droshkys” (N. V. Gogol).

The words "greed", "greed", "necessity" are synonymous, each of which, however, has a special connotation and its own degree of intensity of meaning.

Accumulation (thickening)- a figure, which consists in listing words denoting objects, actions, signs, properties, etc. in such a way that a single representation of the multiplicity or rapid change of events is formed.

Let's go! Already the pillars of the outpost

Turn white; here on Tverskaya

The wagon rushes through the potholes.

Flickering past the booth, women,

Boys, benches, lanterns,

Palaces, gardens, monasteries,

Bukharians, sleighs, vegetable gardens,

Merchants, shacks, men,

Boulevards, towers, Cossacks,

Pharmacies, fashion stores,

Balconies, lions on the gates