Geography of Great Britain: relief, climate, minerals, flora and fauna. Geographic location of Great Britain

The report about the UK grade 3 will tell you about this conservative, interesting country with a rich history.

A brief note about the UK

The UK consists of several countries - Wales, England, Scotland and Northern Ireland.

Brief description of Great Britain

Your report on Great Britain should begin with the fact that the Kingdom is located in northwestern Europe, in the British Isles. True, there are still administratively independent units - the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man.

The capital of Great Britain— London, the city attracts many tourists from all over the country.

Great Britain Square- 244.1 thousand km 2.

The highest point is Mount Ben Nevis, 1343 m. It is located in Scotland.

UK population- 65,110,000 million people.

Major cities in the UK- Birmingham, Glasgow, Sheffield, Liverpool, Edinburgh, Manchester

What countries borders the UK? Since the country is located on the islands, the only state with which the UK borders is.

UK climate

Great Britain a brief description is not possible without a description of climatic features. The climate of the state is mild, temperate oceanic and humid. Northern Ireland has a wetter climate, while Scotland is much colder and drier. Basically, the weather is formed by the oceanic warm current of the Gulf Stream.

The coldest month is January with temperature fluctuations from +3 C to +7 C. The warmest month is July with temperatures from +11 C to +17 C. 600-750 mm of precipitation falls here annually. A significant part of them falls in the form of rain, the rest is fog. In the northeast, the coldest areas, but the areas of London, Westland and the southeast are considered the warmest areas of the state.

Relief of Great Britain

The territory of the United Kingdom is divided into 2 main areas - High and Low Britain. The high (including Northern Ireland), located in the north and west of the country, is underlain by stable ancient bedrock and is mostly highly dissected uplands and much less common lowlands. To the south and east extends Low Britannia, characterized by hilly terrain, low elevations, and a few mountainous regions; at its base lie younger sedimentary rocks. In a south-westerly direction from Newcastle at the mouth of the Tyne River to Exeter at the mouth of the Ex River in south Devon, the border between High and Low Britain runs. This boundary is not everywhere clearly defined, and often the transitions between High and Low Britain are smoothed out.

Lower Paleozoic folded structures lie at the base of the mountains throughout Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales, and Hercynian ones in the south of Wales and in the south of Cornwall. These ancient mountain structures were subjected to intense erosion and destruction for a long time, which led to the leveling of their surface.

As a result, the latest uplifts, which occurred in several stages and were accompanied by discontinuous movements, the mountains were fragmented into a number of massifs and acquired a mosaic structure. Leveled surfaces of different heights are very characteristic. Mountain tops often have a flattened shape. The mountains of Great Britain are relatively easily accessible, and there are numerous roads along low watersheds and wide passes.

Minerals of Great Britain

The UK has significant mineral reserves. She is especially wealthy. coal, the total reserves of which are 189 billion tons. At present, the role of hard coal is no longer so great, its extraction has decreased, the best seams have been worked out, and the use of deep mines has become unprofitable.

New large energy resources were found on the shelf of the North Sea in the 60–70s - oil and natural gas. Oil reserves - 2 billion tons, natural gas - 2 trillion. m3. Their intensive development has changed the overall assessment of the UK's energy supply and put it in a more advantageous position compared to EU partners.

The UK also has significant reserves and iron ore(reliable and probable - 4.6 billion tons).

As for other minerals, there is a large deposit of kaolin in Cornwall, rock salt in Durham and Cheshire, potash salt in Yorkshire, tin in Cornwall and uranium ores in Scotland.

Natural areas of Great Britain

Britain, like most of Europe, is in the temperate climate zone. There are three natural zones on the islands. This is a zone of deciduous forests in the south, a zone of steppes and forest-steppe in the central part and a zone of coniferous forests in the north.

Rivers and lakes of Great Britain

The state is rich in water resources. The largest rivers in Great Britain are the Thames and the Severn. The rest of the rivers are short and calm. They play an important economic role in the country, more than 60 hydroelectric power plants have been built on them. In such rivers as the Thames, the Humber, the Severn, the Mersey, the Forth and the Clyde, large seaports were built.

The largest lakes in Great Britain- Loch Tay, Loch Ness and Loch Lomond.

UK attractions

The main attractions of Great Britain are Tower Bridge, Madame Tussauds Wax Museum, Big Ben, Buckingham Palace, Stonehenge, Stratford-on-Avon (the city where he grew up), Holyroodhouse Palace in Edinburgh, Loch Ness Monster Museum.

We hope that brief information about the UK has helped you. And you can leave your story about Great Britain through the comment form.

The official name is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Located off the northwest coast of continental Europe. The area is 244.8 thousand km2, the population is 59.8 million people. (July 2002). The official language is English. The capital is London (7.2 million people). The public holiday - The Queen's Birthday (1926) - is celebrated on the 2nd Saturday of June. The monetary unit is the pound sterling (equal to 100 pence).

Under British control are 15 overseas territories with a population of approx. 190 thousand people, incl. Gibraltar in Europe, Anguilla, Bermuda, part of the Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, Montserrat, Turks and Caicos Islands, the Falkland Islands in South and Central America, St. Helena Island in Africa, Pitcairn Island in pacific ocean, territories in Antarctica.

The British monarch is the nominal head of the Commonwealth (formerly the British Commonwealth of Nations), which includes most of the former colonies and dominions of Great Britain, a total of 54 states with a population of 1.7 billion people.

Member international organizations: UN (since 1945), IMF and World Bank (since 1947), NATO (since 1949), OECD (since 1961), EU and OBSS (since 1973), G7 (since 1975), EBRD (since 1990) , WTO (since 1995).

Landmarks of Great Britain

Geography of Great Britain

Located between 49°57' and 60°49' north latitude; 1°46′ East and 8°00′ West.

Great Britain is an island state; consists of the island of Great Britain and the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland (they are separated by a narrow North Strait), as well as smaller islands (the most significant of them are Anglesey, White, Orkney, Hebrides, Shetland). Great Britain includes the Isle of Man in the Irish Sea and the Channel Islands, located in the English Channel off the coast of France, enjoying internal autonomy. The British Isles (as Great Britain and Ireland are usually called) are washed by the waters of the Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea. They are separated from mainland Europe only by the narrow straits of the Pas de Calais (in the UK - the Strait of Dover) and the English Channel (English Channel). The UK and France are connected by a tunnel 48 km long, of which 37 km runs under the English Channel. The coastline - 12,429 km - is heavily indented, replete with bays and bays - convenient parking for ships. The largest bays are Bristol, Cardigan, Solway Firth, Firth of Clyde, Moray Firth, Firth of Forth, Wash. Great Britain shares a land border with the Republic of Ireland; its length is 360 km.

Most of the UK is characterized by rugged terrain. Mountainous terrain prevails in the north and west. In the northern part of the island, mountains rise from 840 to 1300 m above sea level (the highest peak is Ben Nevis - 1340 m). The North Scottish Highlands are separated from the South Scottish Highlands by the Mid-Scottish Lowland less than 100 km wide. Mountain ranges cover almost the entire western part of the island, especially Wales and Cornwall. The middle part of northern England is occupied by the Pennines, which separate the Lancashire lowlands in the west from the Yorkshire lowlands in the east. The southern half of Great Britain consists of plains separated by hills and uplands.

The UK has significant mineral reserves. Among them - oil, natural gas, coal, limestone, salt, clay, chalk, gypsum, copper, silica. Offshore oil reserves are estimated at 1,430 million tons; most of them are located in the North Sea, east and northeast of Scotland and east of Shetland and Orkney; the largest offshore fields are Fortis and Brent, on the mainland - Witchfarm in Dorset. Natural gas reserves reach 1710 billion m3, the main deposits are located in the North Sea off the east coast of England. The main coal deposits (substantially depleted) are Yorkshire - Derby - Nottinghamshire Basin in the East Middland, Northumberland - Durham Basin in the northeast of England.

The soil cover of Great Britain is quite diverse. Brown forest, podzolic soils predominate. Carbonate, alluvial, acidic soils, peatlands are widespread.

The climate of Great Britain is temperate, humid, oceanic. Thanks to the North Atlantic Current and warm winds blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean, the UK tends to experience mild winters. But these same winds explain overcast weather, frequent rains and fogs. The average temperature in January is 3-7°С, in July 11-17°С, the amount of annual precipitation is 550-800 mm in the southeast, 3000 mm in the mountainous western and northern regions. Most precipitation falls from October to January, less - in February-March.

The UK has a large number of rivers and lakes. The longest river - the Severn (328 km) - originates in the mountains of Wales and flows into the Bristol Bay (west coast). The Lancashire lowlands are crossed by the Mersey, which flows into Liverpool Bay. The main river of the east coast - the Thames (336 km) - flows through the most densely populated areas of southeast England. The Mid-Scottish Lowlands are also rich in rivers. The longest of them is the Clyde (157 km), originating in the South Scottish Highlands and flowing into the Firth of Clyde (west coast), and the Forth, flowing into the Firth of Forth (east coast). There are many lakes in the north of the country. The largest is Loch Nih in Northern Ireland - 396 km2. The deepest is Loch Morir in the North Scottish Highlands (310 m).

The flora of Great Britain is diverse, 9% of the territory is covered with forests. Broad-leaved forests predominate - oak, beech, birch. There are many coniferous forests in Scotland - spruce, larch. Heathlands are widespread. In the south of the country there are evergreen Mediterranean plant species. Plants vegetate all year round.

In the UK there are approx. 30 thousand species of animals. Among them are foxes, hares, red squirrels, otters, black rats, mink, reptiles and amphibians. Of the 200 bird species, the most common are sparrows, finches, starlings, crows, kingfishers, robins, and tits. In rivers, lakes and coastal sea waters there are numerous species of fish - cod, haddock, whiting, herring, salmon, trout.

UK population

Between 1981 and 2001 the population of the UK grew by only 6%, largely due to immigrants from developing countries and their children born in the UK. At the same time, emigration continued. According to official forecasts, by 2025 the country's population will reach 65 million people. The average population density is one of the highest in the world - 242 people. per 1 km2.

Birth rate 1.3‰, mortality 10.3‰, infant mortality 5.5 people. per 1000 births (2002). Average life expectancy - 78.0 years, incl. men 75.2, women 80.8 years. In 2000, there were 838,000 more women than men in the country.

One of the most important problems of the country is the aging of the population. In 2002, persons aged 65 and over made up 15.8% of the population. The 2001 census showed that for the first time the number of people over 60 exceeded the number of children under the age of 15.

Still in con. 19th century The UK has reached a high degree of urbanization. In 1999 the urban population was 89%.

In cities with a population of St. 100 thousand people almost half of the country's population lives. The largest cities in terms of the number of inhabitants: London, Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield, Glasgow, Edinburgh, Liverpool, Bristol, Coventry, Cardiff, Belfast, Nottingham. Great Britain is a multinational country. The vast majority of the population are indigenous people: English (81.5%), Scots (9.6%), Irish (2.4%), Welsh (1.9%). 1960-80s characterized by a large influx of immigrants from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Caribbean countries, and the 1990s. - from African states (Kenya, Uganda, Malawi). People from these countries in 2001 accounted for 7.1% of the population.

Along with English ca. 26% of the population of Wales speak Welsh, 80 thousand people. in Scotland - Gaelic. The people of the Channel Islands - Guernsey and Jersey - use French.

Religiously, Great Britain is predominantly a Protestant country. The Anglican Church, which enjoys the status of a state church in England, has approx. 34 million followers. A similar position in Scotland is occupied by the Presbyterian Church - 800 thousand people. There are also other Protestant groups: Methodists - 760 thousand, Baptists. Approx. 6 million Catholics. Numerous groups of Hindus, Buddhists, followers of Judaism also live. The Muslim community is growing rapidly, in 2002 there were 1.5 million adherents of Islam.

History of Great Britain

The UK is a country with a rich history. In the 1st millennium BC. The territory of modern Great Britain was inhabited by the Celts. All R. 1 in. AD The British Isles experienced the invasion of the Romans, and after their departure in the 5th-6th centuries. were conquered by the Anglo-Saxons. By the 5th-11th centuries. include the first beginnings of statehood. The conquest of England by William, Duke of Normandy in 1066 led to the fall of the Anglo-Saxon dynasties and the beginning of the rule of the Norman dynasty (11th-12th centuries). During this period, the process of feudalization, political unification and centralization of state power was completed.

The first noticeable reforms to strengthen royal power were carried out by Henry II of Anjou, the first of the Plantagenet dynasty (12-14 centuries). In 1215, King John Landless signed the Magna Carta - Magna Carta - a document that for the first time set out the basic principles of governing England and limited the power of the king in favor of chivalry, free peasantry and cities. The reign of the Plantagenets was also marked by the first convocation of Parliament, the accession of Wales. The Hundred Years War of 1337-1453 with France led to the loss of territories conquered in this country in the 12th century.

Further expansion of the rights of Parliament occurred under Henry IV - the first of the Lancaster dynasty. The development of commodity-money relations and the struggle of the peasants (the uprising of W. Tyler in 1381 and others) led to the 15th century. to the almost complete elimination of the personal dependence of the peasants. During the War of the Scarlet and White Roses - the war between the Lancasters and Yorks (1455-87), the old feudal nobility was practically destroyed. A new middle and petty nobility, connected with the development of capitalism, the gentry, gradually began to come to power. The Yorks won the war, but they managed to stay on the throne only approx. 20 years. They were replaced by the kings of the Tudor dynasty (15th-17th centuries). Henry VII (1457-1509) laid the foundations of absolutism - the unlimited power of the monarch. During the reign of the next monarch of this dynasty, Henry VIII (1491-1547), the reformation of the church was carried out: the king broke with the Roman Catholic Church and proclaimed himself the head of the Anglican (Protestant) church. Under the reign of his son Edward VI (1537-53), Protestantism was declared the official religion in England. In 1536 the Act of Union of England and Wales was signed. In the 16th century the process of primitive accumulation of capital unfolded, the basis of which was the dispossession of the peasantry (fencing).

The last of the Tudor line was Elizabeth I (1533-1603). Without her own heirs, in 1603 she handed over the throne to the King of Scotland, James I Stuart, the son of Mary Stuart, who became the first king of England and Scotland. During the era of the Stuart dynasty (17-18 centuries), a war broke out between parliament and the monarch (1642-51). It ended with the execution in 1649 of King Charles I. In 1653-58 Oliver Cromwell ruled the country as Lord Protector. The English bourgeois revolution ensured the establishment of capitalism. In 1660 the monarchy was restored. In con. 17th century political parties took shape - the Tories and the Whigs (in the middle of the 19th century they were transformed into the conservative and liberal parties, respectively). In 1707, Scotland was annexed to the English crown - the Act of Union of England and Scotland was signed.

In the 18th century The Stuarts were replaced by the Hanoverian dynasty. The long war with France for commercial and colonial hegemony ended with the victory of Great Britain. Vast possessions in India and North America were captured. As a result of the War of Independence in North America (1775-83), 13 North American colonies separated from the mother country and formed an independent state - the United States. In 1801 the Act of Union of England and Ireland was signed. Great Britain is the organizer of a coalition against revolutionary and then Napoleonic France. In 1805, the English fleet defeated the Franco-Spanish fleet at Trafalgar, which ensured the long-term dominance of Great Britain at sea. In this battle, the commander of the English fleet, Admiral G. Nelson, one of the outstanding naval commanders of that time, was mortally wounded. In 1815, the Anglo-Dutch troops under the command of A. Wellington, together with the Prussian troops, defeated the army of Napoleon I at Waterloo.

In con. 18-1st floor. 19th century the industrial revolution took place. In the 1830s the factory system of production was established. Great Britain becomes the most powerful industrial country in the world, its "workshop". In the 1830s-50s. the first mass movement of the proletariat, Chartism, unfolded. In 1868, the British Congress of Trade Unions was created. At 19 - beg. 20th century Great Britain was the largest colonial power in the world. She colonized Australia and New Zealand, conquered vast territories in Asia and Africa, completed the capture of India, Egypt, waged wars against China, Afghanistan, suppressed the national liberation movement in India (1857-59), uprisings in Ireland (1848, 1867 and etc.). The strengthening of the liberation movement in the colonies forced Great Britain to create dominions (the first was Canada, 1867). Colonial conquests are closely associated with the name of Queen Victoria (1819-1901), the last of the monarchs of the Hanoverian dynasty, who occupied the throne for 64 years. Since 1901, the Windsor dynasty has been in power (until 1917 it was called the Saxe-Coburg dynasty).

Already to the beginning 20th century Great Britain, which made the industrial revolution before others, lost its monopoly. In 1900, it was in 2nd place in terms of industrial production after the United States, and in subsequent decades, in terms of GDP, it shared 2nd or 3rd place with Germany. The dominant position of the pound sterling in the international monetary system and the country's position as a world carrier were undermined.

Great Britain played an active role in the creation of the Entente - the union of Great Britain, France and Russia (1904-07) and in the preparation of the 1st World War, as a result of which it received a significant part of the former German possessions in Africa and most of the territories taken from Turkey ( Ottoman Empire). During the liberation war of the Irish people (1919-21), the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921 was concluded granting Ireland (with the exception of Northern Ireland, which remained part of Great Britain) the status of a dominion.

In the 1930s Great Britain pursued a policy of "appeasement" Nazi Germany. The Munich Agreement signed on behalf of Great Britain by Prime Minister N. Chamberlain with A. Hitler and B. Mussolini (September 29-30, 1938) contributed to the outbreak of World War II, which Great Britain entered on September 3, 1939. In May-June 1940 to Great Britain English, parts of the French and Belgian troops, blockaded by the German army in the area of ​​the French city of Dunkirk, were evacuated. On May 10, 1940, W. Churchill headed the government. After the German attack on the USSR, in the face of the immediate threat of the invasion of fascist troops in Great Britain and the continuous bombardment of British cities from the air, it entered into a military alliance with the USSR. Together with the USSR and the USA, Great Britain became one of the main participants in the anti-Hitler coalition. In 1942-43, the British 8th Army under the command of Field Marshal Montgomery defeated the Italo-German troops near El Alamein in North Africa. In July-August 1943, Anglo-American troops landed on the island of Sicily. In June-July 1944, British troops, together with American troops, landed in Normandy, which marked the opening of a second front. W. Churchill participated in the conferences of the three heads of powers - winners in World War II: Yalta (February 1945) and Potsdam (July-August 1945); at the end of the Potsdam Conference, he was replaced by the head of the Labor Party, K. Attlee, who won the election. These conferences determined the basic principles of the post-war order of the world.

State structure and political system of Great Britain

Great Britain is a constitutional monarchy. Unlike most countries in the world, in the UK there is no Constitution, which would be a single document, it consists of various parliamentary acts - statutes, court decisions and constitutional customs. The constitution may be amended by an act of parliament or by general agreement to change constitutional custom.

The head of state is Queen Elizabeth II (born April 21, 1926), who ascended the throne in February 1952. In the last century, there has been a tendency to transfer power directly to the government, but the queen continues to take part in the implementation of a number of important functions of state power. She retained the right to convene and dissolve parliament, appoint the prime minister: the queen invites the leader of the political party that makes up the majority in the House of Commons to form a government. The Queen approves laws passed by Parliament. By law, she is the supreme commander and, on the proposal of the government, appoints the highest military commanders. As head of the judiciary appoints judges, and as head of the Church of England, bishops. In the field of international relations, the queen, as head of state, has the right to declare war and conclude peace, sign international treaties and agreements.

The UK includes 4 historical and geographical regions (historical provinces) - England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland (Ulster) - part of Ireland - 6 northeastern counties (according to the Treaty of 1921 included in the UK as an autonomy). Administratively, Great Britain is divided into counties, districts and cities. The UK includes independent administrative units - the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands, as well as 15 dependent territories. Local authorities are responsible for housing, education, social security, police and fire service. They are financed by funds received from the collection of municipal taxes, local taxes and subsidies from the central government.

The highest body of legislative power is the parliament. It consists of the House of Lords and the House of Commons. Parliament is engaged in legislative activity. Bills (bills) go through 3 readings. As a general rule, bills must be passed by both houses. Before laws can take effect, they must receive royal assent. In practice, this is a pure formality. In the absence of a written Constitution as a single document and under the provision of "parliamentary sovereignty", the parliament can cancel acts of constitutional significance. Parliamentary committees play an important role in drafting laws. The leading role in the activities of Parliament belongs to the House of Commons. It is elected for a term of not more than 5 years and has 659 members - 1 representative from each of the 659 constituencies. Parliament is elected by majority system of relative majority by direct and secret ballot on the basis of universal suffrage.

All citizens of Great Britain, as well as other Commonwealth countries and the Republic of Ireland, who have reached the age of 18 and have been permanently resident in the UK since 1945 have the right to vote. general elections The Conservative Party won 8 times, the Labor Party won 8 times. As a result of the general parliamentary elections in June 2001, the majority in the House of Commons, as in the previous elections in 1997, was won by the Labor Party - 412 seats (40.7% of the votes received). The Conservatives - 166 seats (31.7%), the Liberal Democrats - 52 (18.3%), the Scottish National Party - 5 (1.8%), Cymru Plaid - 4 (0.75%), the Ulster Unionist party - 6 (0.8%), Democratic Unionist Party - 5 (0.7%), Sinn Fein - 4 (0.7%), others - 4 (0.8%).

The upper chamber - the House of Lords - consists of hereditary and life peers (who received the title for services to the country), archbishops and senior bishops of the Church of England, Lords of the Supreme Court of Appeal. Acts of Parliament of 1911 and 1949 significantly limited the rights of the House of Lords. Its main function is to consider and amend the drafts submitted by the House of Commons. Since 1949, the House of Lords retained only the right of suspensive veto - a short-term postponement of bills adopted by the House of Commons. Bills of a fiscal nature, relating to taxation and public expenditure, are passed by the House of Lords as presented by the House of Commons. In 1999, the House of Lords Act was passed, under which the number of hereditary peers was reduced from over 750 to 92. It is intended to completely abolish the institution of hereditary peers. In 2001, a White Paper was published providing that the majority of life peers would be appointed by an independent cross-party commission and on the advice of political parties in proportion to the size of factions in the House of Commons. The 120 members of the House of Lords will be elected.

The head of the executive branch is the monarch. The head of government is the prime minister. The government is formed by the leader of the party that won the majority or the largest number of seats in parliament in the elections (since 1997 - Labor MP Tony Blair). The government consists of cabinet members (c. 20), non-cabinet ministers and junior ministers (usually parliamentary deputy ministers). Most ministers are members of the House of Commons. At the disposal of the Prime Minister is the apparatus of civil servants.

The party system includes the following parties: The Conservative Party - organizationally took shape in 1867, has approx. 300 thousand members, leader - Ian Duncan Smith. After the 2nd World War, she was in power in 1951-64, 1970-74, 1979-97. The Labor Party was formed in 1890, unites collective (trade unions and cooperative societies) and individual members, has 260,000 members, and is led by Tony Blair. After the 2nd World War, he was in power in 1945-51, 1964-70, 1974-79. It has been the ruling party since 1997. The Liberal Democratic Party was formed in 1988 by the merger of the Liberal and Social Democratic parties, has approx. 82 thousand members, leader - Charles Kennedy. National parties are also represented in Parliament: Plaid Camry (founded in Wales in 1925, leader I. Vic Jones); Scottish National Party (founded in 1937, leader John Swinney); Ulster Unionist Party (founded in the early 20th century, leader David Trimble); Democratic Unionist Party (founded in 1971, leader Ian Paisley); The Social Democratic and Labor Party of Northern Ireland (founded in 1970, leader Mark Derken), Sinn Fein - the political wing of the Irish Republican Army (IRA, formed at the end of the 1st World War, leader Jerry Adams), the party refused to take its seats in the House of Commons.

The interaction between government and business is carried out primarily through the unions of entrepreneurs. In 2001, there were 192 business organizations in the country. The most influential of them is the Confederation of British Industry (CBI). Expresses the interests of approx. 200 thousand firms - from the largest TNCs to small companies. They employ 7.5 million people. The PCU includes most business unions and business associations. The most important task of the PBC is to promote the creation of an economic climate favorable for the activities of British business, increasing its competitiveness. Committees and experts of the KBP develop recommendations for the government, participate in the preparation of budget bills, and in the formation of foreign economic policy. Other major business organizations include the Association of British Chambers of Commerce. It provides services to more than 135,000 companies, assists in staff training, promotion of British firms' products on the foreign market, and access to information necessary for business. Institute of Directors, numbering approx. 53 thousand members, advises directors of companies on issues such as corporate governance, insolvency and bankruptcies, training. The Institute of Directors represents the interests of its members before the authorities in the UK and the EU. The Small Business Federation represents the interests of 160,000 small businesses and self-employed owners and provides them with information on taxation, employment, security, and insurance.

A feature of the British labor movement has always been a high percentage of unionized employees. Trade unions have gained quite a strong position both in relations with employers and in the socio-political life of the country as a whole. In 1979 there were 362 trade unions in the country, covering 54-55 percent of all wage laborers. With the help of tough anti-union laws, the conservatives managed to achieve a significant restriction of the rights and scope of the activities of trade unions. As a result, the number of trade unions decreased - 206 in 2001, the number of members of trade unions decreased - from 13.1 million in 1979 to 7.3 million in 2001, or 27% of the number of employees. The largest trade union association, the British Congress of Trade Unions (TUC), was founded in 1868. It includes 74 trade unions and 6.7 million members. At the annual congresses of the TUC, the most important issues socio-economic development of the country. The BKT has traditionally supported and financed the Labor Party. After coming to power, the Laborites announced their intention to somewhat soften the legislation regulating the activities of trade unions. A feature of the British trade union movement is the existence of a widely ramified network of shop stewards (shop stewards) who are elected directly at their place of work. Main function- daily protection of workers and employees in relations with the administration, settlement of labor conflicts.

In fiscal year 2002/03, military spending was £24.2 billion. Art., in the financial year 2003/04 - 25.4 billion. In 2002 they were equal to 2.32% of GDP. In 2001, the strength of the Armed Forces was: fleet 42.9 thousand, land army 114.0 thousand, air force 54.0 thousand, regular reserves 234.7 thousand, volunteers 47.3 thousand. 111 were employed in the Armed Forces, 7 thousand civilians. Great Britain is a nuclear power. In 2002, 4 submarines equipped with 48 Trident-P ballistic missiles were in service. The UK maintains a nuclear arsenal of approximately 185 warheads. Its role in building up the potential of NATO's rapid reaction forces is great. Great Britain is in favor of strengthening the European pillar of this organization. British military contingents are stationed in Cyprus, East Timor, Sierra Leone, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Bosnia and Kosovo.

In domestic politics, the key to understanding many of the features of the modern socio-political structure of British society is given by such features of its development as evolution, "traditionalism" and the comparative stability of political institutions. For centuries, British political culture was characterized by moderation and the organic interweaving of new elements in existing structures, the combination and merging of traditional and modern values, the gradual mastery of the skills and abilities of the ruling elite "coordination of interests" within the framework of democratic institutions. The stability of British society has always rested on a consensus about its fundamental goals and how to achieve them. Characteristic developed civil society in this country - law-abiding citizens. The importance of a tolerant political culture is especially important in the absence of a written constitution.

Since 1924, the Conservative and Labor parties have alternated in power. From the beginning 1970s Significant support began to receive "third" parties, primarily the Liberal Democratic (until 1988 - Liberal) and the Scottish Nationalists.

In 1979 the neo-conservatives led by M. Thatcher came to power. Among the value orientations of neoconservatism, a special place belonged to individualism, or anti-collectivism. Authoritarian tendencies in public administration intensified; the role of the executive power in the institutions of representation of interests has increased. At the same time, the most important direction of Tory policy was the transformation of the system of state social services, or the "welfare state": there was a partial denationalization of the health care system; the Conservatives implemented a number of measures aimed at implementing the principle of freedom of choice in schooling and encouraging various types of private insurance.

The Labor Party, which won elections in 1997 and 2001, is implementing a program of reforms designed to significantly update the country's political system. First of all, they started to implement the constitutional reform. One of the most important directions of this reform is the devolution (decentralization) of power. For many centuries, Great Britain was a unitary state, all major issues were resolved in London. However, in recent years the situation has changed. In 1998, the Assembly of Northern Ireland is elected, and in 1999 - the National Assembly of Wales and the Scottish Parliament. They are transferred a number of important functions of a socio-economic nature. At the same time, regional autonomy in England itself was developing. Only foreign policy, security issues and tax collection remained in the competence of the central authorities. Decentralization of the country's governance is taking place at a time when regional authorities are increasingly involved in the political system of the EU.

Other directions of the reform were the rejection of the hereditary principle of the formation of the House of Lords and the unambiguously majoritarian nature of the country's electoral system. The Bill of Rights, which makes the legal acts adopted by the world community a part of British law, the Freedom of Information Act, has been passed through Parliament. The constitutional reform is carried out within the framework of the concept of the "third way" as the concept of the internal development of Great Britain. If the first path is neoliberalism based on the principles of individualism and its British version - Thatcherism, and the second path is traditional socialism and social democracy oriented towards statehood, then the third path is the movement towards a just social order based on universal human values. The government seeks to develop various forms of participation of the population and its individual groups in solving social, economic and political issues of the development of society.

At the center of the domestic political life of the country are also the issues of modernizing the systems of healthcare, education, public transport. British dissatisfaction with the state of these areas of the economy led to a significant defeat of the Labor Party in the local elections in May 2003. The problems associated with Britain's accession to the euro area are widely discussed. The Labor leadership is in favor of the country's entry into the EMU in the event of a positive outcome of the referendum on this issue. Dissatisfaction in the country was caused by the government's decision on the participation of Great Britain in the war in Iraq. A special place in the internal political life of the country is occupied by a peaceful settlement in Ulster. Despite attempts by London to resolve intercommunal differences in Northern Ireland, bloody clashes between extremist-minded representatives of the Catholic and Protestant populations could not be avoided. The political autonomy of Northern Ireland, established by the 1998 peace agreement, ceased to exist in October 2002 mainly due to the IRA's unwillingness to disarm.

In foreign policy at the beginning. 21st century Great Britain, undoubtedly, is included into the five of the leading developed countries along with the USA, France, Germany and Japan. Moreover, as one of the victorious countries in the 2nd World War, it has some advantages over the last two. Great Britain is a nuclear power and a permanent member of the UN Security Council. From the beginning 1970s she, along with France and Germany, plays a leading role in the EU, although her political influence in this organization is less, and at the same time retains, albeit in a truncated form, " special relationship» from the USA. Great Britain still claims to be a mediator in relations between the Old and New Worlds. Great Britain has the most extensive "economic empire" abroad after the United States, and leads the Commonwealth.

At the same time, over the past decades, there has been a weakening of the UK's position in the world economy and politics, in the system of international relations. In the 1950-70s. The British colonial empire finally collapsed. Great Britain had to abandon the old doctrine, according to which it is able to successfully combine 3 roles: leader Western Europe, head of the Commonwealth and a privileged partner of the United States. Britain's accession to the EU in 1973 was a turning point in the process of shifting to Western Europe the center of gravity of the whole complex of positions of this country abroad. Great Britain began to act as an integral part of the Western European center. At the same time, it continues to take a special position on many fundamental issues of EU development. The originality of the position of Great Britain reflects the specifics of the national political culture, legal thinking, traditions of foreign policy strategy, which for centuries have maintained a certain distance between the "island state" and continental Europe. In addition, the stake on European integration is combined with the continued special relations between Great Britain and the United States, which are largely determined by the common language, closeness of traditions and culture.

The Labor government that came to power in May 1997 emphasizes the key role of nation-states in modern Europe and rejects federalist ideals of integration. In all areas of EU policy, it places the principle of subsidiarity at the forefront and upholds the principle of a clear distinction between the three pillars of the EU. Recognizing the need for greater flexibility within the EU, Labor advocates maintaining the principle of unanimity and approving joint actions within the framework of cooperation. The government emphasizes the key role of NATO in ensuring the defense of Western Europe. The UK has contributed a large contingent of troops to the European Rapid Reaction Force.

In the 2nd floor. 1990s - early 2000s Anglo-American ties were significantly strengthened. Common approaches and coinciding interests prevailed in international affairs and in the field of security. This manifested itself during the Kosovo conflict and especially during the war in Iraq in March-April 2003, when London most consistently supported Washington's position. After the terrorist attack on September 11, 2001 in New York, the main activity of the government in the field of foreign policy and security policy was switched to the fight against terrorism and support for this fight by the Commonwealth countries.

In relations with the Russian Federation, the Blair government adhered to the line of constructive interaction. Using its special relationship with the US and its membership in the EU, the UK sought to play the role of some kind of link between the West and Russia. Relations between the two countries have been marred by Britain's stance on the UN's role in managing the Iraqi crisis.

Great Britain has diplomatic relations with the Russian Federation; installed from the USSR on February 2, 1924.

UK Economy

The UK is one of the largest economically developed countries in the world. In 2000, the GDP was £859.1 billion. (in prices and PPP 1995), 5th in the world after the USA, Japan, Germany and France. UK share of world GDP 3.0% (2002). In the same year, its GDP per capita was £14,000. The share of the country in international trade in recent years is 4.5 - 5%. According to this indicator, it takes 4-5th place. The UK is in 2nd place after the USA in terms of accumulated foreign direct investments, in 3rd place - after the USA and Japan - in terms of the number of companies in the list of the 500 largest TNCs in the world and the market capitalization of shares. In terms of financial transactions, London is second only to New York. The capital of Great Britain ranks first in the world in terms of the number of foreign banks operating here. London is home to the world's third largest stock exchange (after Tokyo and New York) in terms of operations. Unlike the stock markets of other European countries, which are mainly nationally oriented, securities of St. 500 TNCs - more than half of the world trade in foreign shares. London is the largest foreign exchange market, the City carries out approx. 1/3 of foreign exchange transactions in the world. London's closest competitors - New York, Tokyo and Singapore - collectively have the same share.

Through London passes the largest volume of insurance operations and international reinsurance operations. The lion's share of the world exchange market of metals, oil and other strategic goods is concentrated in the capital of Great Britain. For a long time, the British currency - the pound sterling - dominated the world monetary system; using the leading role of the pound in international settlements, Great Britain covered the balance of payments deficit with the national currency. Then, for a number of decades, the pound shared with the dollar the position of one of the two key currencies of the world. Having lost the position of the country that operated as a key reserve currency, Great Britain for a long time claimed a special place in international monetary and credit relations. This was partly reflected in London's reluctance to enter the con. 1990s enter the eurozone and abandon the pound in favor of the euro.

Until con. 1980s The UK economy developed more slowly than its main competitors. In the 1990s the situation has improved. In 2002, the country's economy continued to rise, which began in 1993. In the 1990s - early. 2000s employment grew; by 2002, unemployment had fallen to 5.2% of the economically active population (the most low rate since 1980). Despite the recovery in the economy and the reduction in unemployment, inflation remained low. In 2002, the consumer price index increased by only 2.1% - inflation was at its lowest level since 1976. At the turn of the century, due to the general deterioration in the world economic situation, the intensity of the rise decreased: in 2002, GDP growth was only 1.6%.

Noticeable changes are taking place in the sectoral structure of the British economy. The importance of the service sector is growing. In 2001, its share in GDP was 71.4%, in employment 75.5%. The share of the manufacturing industry is decreasing: in 2001 it accounted for 17.5% of GDP and 14.5% of the total number of employees. In the mining industry, the importance of the coal industry has significantly decreased and the importance of the oil and gas industry has increased. Construction was developing at a pace below the average for the economy as a whole: in 2001 its contribution to GDP was 5.4%. In the 1990s the role of transport and communications increased markedly: in 2001 their share reached 8% of GDP. The share of agriculture and fisheries in GDP fell sharply - from 2.9% in 1973 to 0.9% in 2001.

In the structure of the manufacturing industry, the paper and printing industries (13.9%), food and tobacco (13.8%), mechanical engineering (35.5%), in which the electrical engineering industry and optical instrument making (12.9%) stand out, have the largest share. ) and the production of vehicles, as well as the chemical industry (10.7%) and metalworking (10.4%). Major shifts are taking place in the industry. The role of new science-intensive industries of chemical (primarily low-tonnage chemistry), electrical engineering and electronics, especially office equipment and computers, as well as communications, aerospace industry (production of civil and military aircraft, helicopters and equipment for space exploration), equipment for offshore oil production is growing. . British pharmaceutical industry is world famous. In terms of the level of development of biotechnology, the UK is second only to the United States. At the same time, the importance of traditional manufacturing industries, which determined the industrial image of the country in the beginning, sharply decreased. 20th century: textile, primarily cotton, steel industry (in 2001 only 12.5 million tons of steel were smelted in the country), civil shipbuilding. The fate of the coal industry is indicative. In 1913, approx. 1.1 million people, and coal production reached 287 million tons. In 2001, the corresponding figures were only 11 thousand people. and 32 million tons. In the 1970s. large deposits of oil and gas have been discovered in the North Sea. In 2001, the production of oil and liquefied gas amounted to 2.4 million barrels per day (about 320 thousand tons). According to this indicator, the UK ranked 10th in the world. The transformation of the UK into a major producer of oil and gas has dramatically changed the energy mix - they account for 72% of energy consumption. The use of natural gas is growing rapidly - 37% of electricity generation. Nuclear power plants produce 22% of electricity. However, 33% of electricity is still generated at coal-fired stations.

Agriculture in the UK is highly mechanized and efficient, covering 63% of the country's food needs. OK. 40% of 386,000 farms are predominantly engaged in animal husbandry - cattle, sheep, pigs, and chickens. In 2001, animal husbandry suffered great damage due to livestock diseases - first spongiform encephalopathy ("mad cow disease"), and then foot and mouth disease. Wheat, barley, and oats are especially common among grain crops. In addition, rapeseed, flaxseed, and potatoes are grown. There are many orchards in the country. Agriculture enjoys great state support and receives subsidies from the EU budget.

The territory of Great Britain is covered by a dense network of roads and railways and is well served by maritime transport through many ports. The dominant role in domestic transportation is occupied by road transport - 85% of passenger traffic and 81% of freight traffic. In 2001, there were 23.9 million cars in personal use. The length of paved roads is 406.4 thousand km. The railway network is being reduced, its length is 16.9 thousand km, of which 4.9 thousand km have been electrified. The government is implementing various organizational measures to modernize this mode of transport. The importance of river transport is declining. The length of waterways is 3.2 thousand km. Air transport is developing rapidly. Since the 1980s air transportation of passengers and cargo has more than tripled. British Airways is a leading international airline. The country has approx. 450 civil airports - the largest of them is Heathrow. From Ser. 1970s the tonnage of the sea fleet has sharply decreased. On horseback In 2001, the British merchant marine fleet consisted of 594 ships, including 140 tankers and 454 bulk carriers, 37 passenger ships. Maritime transport accounts for approx. 95% of the country's foreign trade transportation. In the UK ca. 70 ports of commercial importance. The largest of them: Grimsby and Immingham, Tees and Hartlepool, London, Fort, Southampton, Milford Haven, Salo Voy, Liverpool, Dover, Felixstowe. The pipeline transport network is rapidly expanding; it is connected to gas pipelines coming from the fields of the North Sea; the total length of pipelines is 3.9 thousand km.

Communications is one of the fastest growing sectors of the economy. The country is almost completely telephoned; 97% of families have apartment phones, another 4% prefer mobile phones. Total per horse. In 2001, there were 44.9 million mobile phones in the country. 34.3 million users are connected to the Internet. 38% of firms have their own WEB-site, 48% carry out e-commerce. There is an intensive process of computerization of everyday life of the population, education, business. 11.7 million homes are connected to the Internet, 90% of medium-sized and approx. 1/4 primary schools, half of all companies.

Trade in recent years has been growing faster than the economy as a whole. In 2001, the share of wholesale and retail trade in GDP was 12.2%. There are 107 enterprises in the country wholesale trade, which employ 1.18 million people. The number of retail trade enterprises exceeds 192 thousand. They employ 2.87 million people. (11% of all employed in the country). The turnover of large trading companies with a wide network of shops and supermarkets is growing at the highest rate. The importance of trade, in which orders are made by mail and via the Internet, is increasing.

Financial, information and business services are developing at the highest rates. The financial sector accounts for 5% of GDP and employs more than 1 million people. The UK banking system is one of the most developed in the world. Financial institutions of the country provide a wide range of services - consulting, legal, accounting, management. Deregulation has strengthened the trend towards diversification of financial services provided by banks, universalization of their activities. Thus, commercial banks provide services that were previously provided by commercial banks, invade the insurance industry, and join companies specializing in issuing consumer loans. Actively compete with building societies in the market mortgage loan, have subsidiaries engaged in leasing and factoring operations. In order to attract funds from depositors, banks diversify their services, in fact, turn into financial supermarkets. Recently, the importance of the activities of such non-banking financial institutions as building societies, insurance and financial companies, investment funds. The activities of computer companies providing a variety of services are rapidly expanding. Among them, in the first place - consulting in the field of information technology. Business services include market research, management services, and advertising.

The UK has a developed tourism industry. It employs 2.1 million people. 8% of small companies work in this area. In 2001, 22.8 million foreigners visited V. Its share in world tourism is 3.4%. According to this indicator, it is in 7th place in the world. The largest number of visitors from the USA, France, Germany, the Republic of Ireland, the Netherlands.

Over the past decades, various options for regulating socio-economic policy have been tested in the UK. From con. 1940s it consisted in managing aggregate demand and ensuring full employment, primarily through expanding the role of the state in the socio-economic field. From con. In the 1970s, after the Conservative government came to power, the market began to be seen as the most effective mechanism for organizing economic activity. The UK has pioneered large-scale privatization in the West. Many traditional values ​​and institutions have undergone significant erosion. The model of the socio-economic mechanism and the political structure of society has undergone significant changes. The state proceeded to reform property relations, its “spraying” (implementation of the theory of “democracy of owners”), to the transformation of the system of social services - the introduction of market principles and competition into a “welfare state”, the creation of a “mixed” public-private system of health care, insurance, pension ensuring, spreading the principle of freedom of choice in school education.

The socio-economic policy of the Laborites, who came to power in 1997, on the one hand, is purely pragmatic and continues the course of its predecessors in a number of areas, on the other hand, it reflects the principles of new laborism: a combination of the social values ​​of old laborism with the development of a market economy. On the whole, after the sharp delimitation of the two main parties along almost polar lines - Thatcherism and state socialism - the parties were increasingly rapprochement, but not so much on the social reformist basis that prevailed after World War II, but on the social liberal one. For Labour, it is softer, more regulated liberalism combined with unconventional market-oriented social reformism.

According to Labor leaders, the "old" Labor proclaimed its goal to ensure equality of income, the "new" - equality of opportunity: more and more Britons should join the middle class. The point of social reform is to turn the "welfare state" into a "social investment state": less public funds should be spent on social assistance and more on general and vocational education, advanced training and retraining, especially for young people. In its former meaning, the welfare state is preserved only for those who are unable to provide for themselves. An essential place in the activity of the Laborites is occupied by the creation of incentives for work. An indispensable condition for the effectiveness of this system is the development of medical care and other measures designed to ensure the physical and moral health of the nation. The Laborites for the first time determined the size of the minimum wage, introduced a tax credit for the lowest paid part of the population, and repealed some anti-union laws of the Conservatives.

From con. 1970s the mechanism of economic management has undergone significant changes. First of all, there was its significant decentralization. In con. 1990s Labor delegated a number of economic management functions to regional authorities. Market principles are being actively introduced into the activities of the public sector, privatization of public works and services is being carried out, and the participation of the private sector in solving social problems is expanding.

By 2000, approx. 100 state companies. As a result, its public sector shrank by 2/3. For 1979-2000, the proceeds from the sale of assets of state-owned enterprises amounted to approx. £80bn Art. Having privatized most utilities, the government continues to control their activities. The policy of denationalization has become a way to finance the budget deficit, allowing less borrowing. In addition, privatization was aimed at creating competing private firms in place of state monopolies.

The sale of state property - demunicipalization - has become widespread. In an effort to involve the main categories of the working class and the "new middle strata" in the widely publicized "democracy of owners", the government carried out a sale for private use of municipal housing stock, and at preferential prices sanctioned from the center. An important direction in the introduction of market principles in the activities of the public sector has become contracting. The government and local authorities were instructed to place tenders for cleaning of the territory and premises, construction and repair work, restructuring of houses, and services of specialists. Since 1992, a program called "private financial initiative" has been implemented. The government invites private firms to compete on a competitive basis in projects that were previously carried out by the state itself. In 1997-2000, the cost of projects exceeded £22 billion. The enterprises that remain state-owned (the largest of them are the Post Office and the Civil Aviation Administration) operate as commercial enterprises. The emphasis has been shifted from industry policy to technology policy, from old to new industries; the criteria for granting financial assistance have been tightened. Finally, there has been a move away from direct subsidizing of business in favor of expanding its awareness of innovations in the field of engineering and technology.

An important direction of economic policy was the deregulation of the economy. In the 1980-90s. many administrative and legal restrictions on business activities were lifted; simplified regulatory procedures. Removed control over salary, prices and dividends; the labor market has undergone significant deregulation. This policy covered the banking, credit and currency spheres. In 1979, currency controls were abolished, which held back the movement of capital between Great Britain and other countries. In 1980, the "corset" was abolished - a scheme for additional special deposits at the Bank of England, which provided for the placement of excess bank liquidity in interest-free accounts to limit credit expansion. In October 1986, the London Stock Exchange was reorganized, called the “big bang” in the economic literature: the minimum fixed commissions were abolished, banks and foreign institutions were admitted to the exchange, members of the exchange were allowed to combine the functions of a broker and a jobber (principal). As a result, the UK economy has become one of the most deregulated in the world. According to such an indicator as the “index of economic freedom”, it is in 6th place out of 102 countries, behind only Singapore, New Zealand, the USA, Switzerland and Malaysia. However, deregulation does not mean that the government has given up control of the markets. The country has very strict laws that regulate many aspects of private business, primarily the behavior of economic entities in the market. They are aimed at preventing excessive concentration of economic power in individual companies, preserving and stimulating competition.

Based on the fact that economic growth is constrained by high inflation, the Conservatives have developed a medium-term financial strategy for 3-4 years, and the Labor Party is also implementing it. The goal is to limit the rate of price growth. The strategy consists of two components - monetary and budgetary. In the 1980s its main instrument was monetary regulation; financial policy was assigned a passive role of ensuring its effectiveness. However, with con. 1980s and especially during the current cycle, the government is actively resorting to budgetary measures of regulation.

In monetary policy, the emphasis was initially placed on targeting (i.e., setting targets) for money supply indicators. However, by the beginning 1990s the government found it extremely difficult to control its growth. The pound exchange rate, which was pegged to a stable German mark, was chosen as an instrument to fight inflation. This policy continued until September 1992, when the UK withdrew from the EMS exchange rate mechanism.

Since then, a key element of anti-inflationary policy has been a change in short-term interest rates. In 1993, the Bank of England was given the opportunity to independently set the time for the introduction of new rates, and in May 1997 the Labor Party gave it even greater independence - the Bank has the right to make decisions on changing interest rates. Since the UK is not a member of the euro area, the Bank of England is not included in the European System of Central Banks, continues to be an issuing center, and carries out its own monetary policy.

Under the Banking Act 1987, no lending institution is authorized to accept deposits without an appropriate license from the Bank of England. The Bank of England is not responsible for the consequences of bank failures and does not guarantee depositors full compensation for losses. At the same time, the Deposit Protection Fund was established, formed from the contributions of banks in proportion to the amount of their total deposits. Part of these losses is compensated at the expense of the Fund's resources in case of bank failures. In recent years, the government has seriously reformed and simplified the system of supervision over the activities of financial institutions and the regulation of the securities market. In 1997, the Financial Services Authority was created. He was given the powers of the central bank in the field of supervision over the activities of commercial banks. From now on, the Bank of England is responsible for ensuring the overall stability of the financial system.

The most important task of budget policy is to reduce the absolute and relative size of government spending with a parallel reduction in the deficit of the public sector of the economy, or the state's need for loans. Special attention it is turned to more efficient use of public funds both by the central government - 3/4 of all expenses, and by local authorities - 1/4 of expenses. The priorities are health care, education, and transport. Ministries and departments are invited to strictly adhere to the limit (ceiling) of expenditures set by the government for a three-year period.

Tax policy occupies a special place in the arsenal of means of state regulation of the economy. In order to stimulate economic growth, direct tax rates are being reduced and, at the same time, the tax base by cutting benefits. The most important part of the measures to encourage initiative and entrepreneurship was a significant reduction in the base income tax rate - from 33% in 1979 to 25% in 1995, 24% in 1996 and 22% in 2002. Since April 1999, a special rate of 10% has been applied, at which the first 1 £9k Art. income.

One of the main activities of the state remains the tax incentives for savings of the population as an important source of financing capital investments. Various preferential savings schemes have been developed and introduced, under which investments, primarily by small investors, are fully or partially exempt from taxes.

At the same time, the reduction in direct income tax rates was accompanied by an increase in indirect taxation. The standard value added tax rate was raised and in 2002 was 17.5%. The share of revenues from indirect taxes increased significantly - from 43% in the 1978/79 financial year to 54% in the 1997/98 financial year. The increase in indirect taxes was intended to compensate to some extent for the reduction in direct tax revenues and to promote the redistribution of resources in favor of investment.

A large place in the policy of the state is occupied by tax incentives for private investment. During their reign, the Conservatives reduced the corporate tax rate from 50% to 33%. In July 1997, Labor reduced it to 30%. Particular attention is paid to tax incentives for small businesses - the tax rate for small companies (with an annual profit of up to 300 thousand pounds. St.) was reduced by the Conservatives from 50 to 23%. In 1997, Labor reduced it to 21%, in April 2002 the rate was reduced to 19%. Small companies (with an annual profit of up to £10,000) are exempt from income tax.

To increase the revenue base of the budget, Labor introduced a tax on the windfall profits of public utilities. The reduction in the corporate income tax rate is expected to be financed by eliminating offset tax credits. Such a measure should help increase the rate of return and increase the UK's attractiveness for long-term investment.

As a result of the government's financial policy, the share of its spending in GDP fell from 49.0% to 37.4% in the financial year 1975/76 and rose again to 39.0% in 2000/01. The budget has been in surplus since 1998/99, although it fell substantially in 2001/02, primarily due to lower corporate income tax revenues. Net public debt in relation to GDP in 1996/97 was 43.7%, in 2000/01 - 30.4% - the lowest level among the G7 countries.

The British model of socio-economic development differs markedly from the European continental one. Its structure is largely reminiscent of the American one (the similarity of the institutional environment, investment behavior of companies, forms of corporate governance, the nature of the labor market, etc.). In the economic literature, the Anglo-American model has been called "shareholder capitalism" in contrast to the continental model of "stakeholder capitalism".

The main goal of management activity in the British model is to maximize the income of shareholders. Representatives of labor (trade unions) and the state play a much smaller role in solving the most important issues of the management activities of firms than on the continent. Hence the orientation towards short-term development goals of firms (short-termism). This model has much more than other European countries, spraying stock ownership. Here, its concentration in the hands of the largest owners is significantly lower. Corporate control is exercised to a large extent through the securities market. In the UK, the stock market is more developed, the capitalization of securities is much higher. Financial institutions and non-financial companies play a much smaller role in equity ownership here than on the European continent.

At the same time, the economic mechanism and socio-economic policy of the UK are increasingly transforming and changing in the direction of the requirements of EU membership. EU laws and directives in areas such as agricultural and regional policy, energy, finance and insurance, competition and consumer protection are of growing importance in the regulation of the economy. In June 1997 the UK signed the EU Social Charter. And although it was not included in the first group of eurozone countries, in recent years London has been actively implementing the measures necessary to introduce a single currency. We are talking about reducing the budget deficit and public debt, lowering interest rates and inflation.

AT recent decades the rise in the standard of living of the population occurred due to the growth of nominal and real incomes of the population. The average weekly wage in April 2001 was £356, and for full-time men it was £444. Art. The average hourly wage for men was £11.97, for women it was £9.76. Art. In April 1999, a minimum wage was established by law. Since October 2002 it has been £4.20. Art. for employees aged 22 years and over and 3.60l. Art. - for workers and employees aged 18-22 years. In the spring of 2002, the average working week for full-time employees at their main place of work was 38 hours (40 hours for men and 34 hours for women). The UK has adopted an EU directive regulating working hours. It entered into force in 1998: the maximum working week is 48 hours, the minimum paid vacation is 4 weeks, etc. Old-age pensions are paid to women from 60 years of age, to men from 65 years of age. In April 2002, the basic pension for a single pensioner was £75.50. Art. per week, couples - 120.70 pounds. Art. In the 1990s - early 2000s growth in nominal incomes of the population significantly exceeded the rate of inflation. As a result, real incomes increased: in 1991-2001 their average annual growth was 3.1%.

With the growth of household expenditures (they account for approximately 2/3 of GDP), their structure changes. The fastest growing consumer spending on durable goods, communications, leisure, clothing and footwear. The largest expenditure items for the population are housing (17.7% in 2001), transport (14.1%), and recreation. St. 2/3 of British families own their own home. There are 34.3 million Internet users in the country. 86% of families have current bank accounts, 25% - shares, 15 million families - savings accounts of building societies. In recent years, savings are at a low level: 2001 - 6.2% of disposable income.

With a general increase in the living standards of the population, a significant polarization of income and wealth is observed in the country. The real incomes of the 20% of the richest families are 4 times higher than the incomes of the 20% of the poorest families. In 2000, 1/10 of the population owned 54% of the national wealth. Significantly lower standard of living in comparison with the indigenous population - among national minorities. Among them is the highest percentage of unemployed. Long-standing health problems such as long queues at hospitals and shortages of junior medical staff continue to persist and even worsen. Classes in many schools are still overcrowded, the level of teacher training is insufficient, and the difference in the technical equipment of public and private schools is almost not decreasing.

Great Britain is deeply integrated into the world economy, the importance of foreign economic relations is constantly growing. In 2001, 27% of goods and services produced in the country were exported; exports of goods amounted to 191.6 billion pounds. Art., services - 225.2 billion pounds. Art. Export per capita in the UK is greater than in the US and Japan. In 2001 imports of goods amounted to 225.2 billion pounds. Art., services - 65.7 billion pounds. Art. The UK tends to have a deficit in trade in goods and a surplus in trade in services. In 2001, investment income abroad exceeded UK foreign investment by £9.0bn. Art. The result was a current account deficit of £20.5 billion. Art. Much attention in the country is paid to attracting foreign capital; it is seen as a means of increasing labor productivity. In 2001, the inflow of foreign direct investment in the UK amounted to 43.8 billion pounds. Art. At the same time, direct investment exports amounted to 23.7 billion pounds. Art., which is significantly lower than the previous year, when it reached a record level of 168.6 billion pounds. Art., - a consequence of the high activity of British firms in the international market of mergers and acquisitions. Total per horse. 2001 UK assets abroad were £3,176 billion. Art., including direct investment - 645.2 billion. Foreign assets in this country - 3216 billion pounds. Art., incl. direct investment £347.5 billion Art.

Changes in the structure of the economy were accompanied by significant shifts in the structure of foreign trade. Up to the end. 1950s in the international specialization of the commodity exchange in Great Britain, the intersectoral direction prevailed. Large differences were observed in the structure of exports and imports: exports were dominated by manufactured products, while imports were dominated by raw materials and foodstuffs. From the beginning 1960s intra-industry exchange is developing rapidly. In 1971, finished and semi-finished products accounted for 84% of merchandise exports. In connection with the increase in the export of North Sea oil, this share in 1970-beginning. 80s decreased, but by 2001 it again reached 84%. In the same year, machinery and vehicles accounted for 56% of exports. The export of products of the aerospace, chemical and electronic industries is growing. At the same time, the share of textile exports is decreasing. The involvement in the international circulation of electronic computing equipment is very high: approx. 70% of the products of the electronic industry. For export is St. 70% of the products of the chemical industry, more than half of the products of instrumentation. Among the branches of general engineering with a very high export orientation are tractor building, the production of textile and mining equipment. Great Britain occupies one of the first places in the world in terms of arms exports. From the beginning 1960s importance in the import of food and raw materials is continuously falling. In 1971-2001, the share of foodstuffs decreased from 22 to 8%, and industrial raw materials - from 12 to 2%. At the same time, the share of finished products jumped from 7 to 60% (with semi-finished products - up to 85%).

At the same time, there were changes in the geographical distribution of foreign trade. In the beginning. 20th century Great Britain's foreign trade was focused on its colonial possessions; back in 1950, 40% of this country's exports went to dependent countries, from which approx. 40% of UK imports. To the beginning 21st century the situation has changed dramatically. In 2001, 85% of exports and 81% of imports were already in developed countries. In recent decades, there has been a "Europeanization" of the UK's trade relations: in 2001, 53% of its exports of goods and services (85% of exports of goods and 52% of imports) were accounted for by its EU partners.

UK science and culture

Great is the contribution of Great Britain to the treasury of world science, primarily to the development of the natural and technical sciences. Among the outstanding scientists - physicists, chemists, biologists - I. Newton, R. Boyle, R. Hooke, J. Joule, M. Faraday, J. Maxwell, C. Darwin, Cavendish, E. Rutherford. The works of British philosophers, sociologists, historians, economists - R. Bacon, T. More, Fr. Bacon, T. Hobbes, I. Bentham, W. Petty, A. Smith, D. Ricardo, J. Mill, R. Owen, T. R. Malthus, A. Marshall, J. M. Keynes, B. Russell. St. 70 British scientists have been awarded Nobel Prizes. The UK accounts for approximately 4.5% of the world's spending on science, 8% of all scientific publications. In 2000, R&D spending accounted for 1.8% of GDP, of which 85% went to civilian purposes, 15% to military ones. Sources of financing: business - 49%, state - 29%, foreign funds - 16%. Science in the government is in charge of the Ministry of Trade and Industry, and in it - the Minister of Science.

In the UK, there is compulsory education for children aged 5 (in Northern Ireland - from 4) to 16 years. Approximately 94% of students attend public free schools, 6% study in private paid schools or at home. OK. 70% of school leavers continue their education. Approximately 1/3 of secondary school graduates enter universities and other higher educational institutions. There are 90 universities and 64 other higher education institutions in the country. The oldest universities are Oxford (founded in 1167) and Cambridge (1209). The duration of study for a bachelor's degree is 3 years (in Scotland - 4).

British writers, artists, architects, actors have had a significant impact on the development of world literature and art. Suffice it to name such poets and prose writers as J. Chaucer, W. Shakespeare, J. Swift, D. Defoe, G. Fielding, R. Burns, D. Byron, P. B. Shelley, W. Thackeray, W. Scott , R. Kipling, B. Shaw, A. Trollope, L. Stevenson, J. Galsworthy, G. Wells, A. Conan Doyle, A. Christie. World-famous works of artists W. Hogarth, D. Reynolds, T. Gainsborough, D. Constable, W. Turner, architects A. Jones, C. Wren, J. Wood, composers G. Purcell, E. Elgar, B. Britten , musicians of the Beatles group, the British stage was glorified by the actors D. Garrick, S. Siddon, W. Macready, D. Gielgud, L. Olivier, V. Lee, P. Scofield.

Great Britain (full name - the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) is located in the north-west of Europe. The United Kingdom is a wholly island nation consisting of four national territories: Northern Ireland (with Belfast as its capital), England (with London as its capital), Wales (with Cardiff as its capital) and Scotland (Edinburgh as its capital). The last three national regions are made up of Great Britain. The area of ​​the whole kingdom is more than 242 sq. km.

The territory of this state in the north consists of high mountain landscapes and beautiful valleys. This area was formed during the last ice age, when dense thick glaciers covered the land.

In the south of England there is a wide rolling countryside. There are dozens of clear, cold lakes in northwestern England and the Scottish Highlands. They remained after the melting of glaciers. These lakes are quite long and narrow, and some of them are also very deep. Local myths tell that giant monster named Nessie lives in Loch Ness in Scotland.

The population of the UK today is approaching 64 million.

The British are a nation created by invaders and migrants. Descendants of the Celts, Vikings, Roman military, Saxons and Normans, the British in our time are a fairly close-knit ethnic group. In the second half of the twentieth century, a strong migration of residents of Arab and African countries began to England. Also, among the migrants in the kingdom, a tangible number of Chinese and Japanese appeared.

About 5000 years ago, the central part of the island was covered with dense forests. And today, only 10% of the territory is occupied by forests, and the rest of the area is now occupied by farmlands.

The UK has 12,429 kilometers of coastline ranging from high cliffs to pleasant beaches and stretching swamps. A wide variety of local wildlife lives on the shores of the country, the main representatives of which are sea ​​birds and seals.

In the UK, the system of government is represented by a constitutional monarchy. The current head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, although this position is essentially nominal and does not carry any power. The real administrative power in the state belongs to the bicameral parliament, headed by the prime minister. The upper house of Parliament is called the House of Lords. Until recently, seats in this chamber belonged to peers and were inherited by the highest nobility of this country. The lower house of parliament, the House of Commons, has always been elected by general suffrage.

Option 2

Geographically, Great Britain is a large island northwest of the continental part of Europe. Great Britain is washed by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the Celtic Sea, the Pas de Calais and the English Channel. Great Britain is the largest of the British Isles, the largest island in Europe; ninth largest and third most populous island in the world. The population of the UK is over 60 million people. Politically, the UK belongs to the United Kingdom, which consists of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

The capital of the state and the entire United Kingdom is London. The head of state is nominally the monarch (currently Queen Elizabeth II). Other major cities and industrial centers are Manchester, Liverpool, Cardiff, Bristol, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Birmingham.

The sights and heritage of Great Britain traditionally include the Royal Palace of Westminster in the capital, the oldest prestigious universities of Oxford and Cambridge, the castles of Edinburgh and Belfast, the stone building Stonehenge.

The official languages ​​of Great Britain are English, as well as Welsh (Wales), Scottish (Scotland), Irish (Northern Ireland), Gaelic and Cornish.

Great Britain is the birthplace of such outstanding writers as Arthur Conan Doyle, William Shakespeare, James Barry, Walter Scott, Lewis Carroll, JK Rowling. Scientists Isaac Newton and Charles Darwin, actor and comedian Charlie Chaplin, members of the Beatles musical group were born here.

The national sport is football with a ball. Some of the most successful football teams in the world are located in the UK, namely in Manchester, London, Lierpool. Also, such sports as table tennis, badminton, cricket, tennis, golf are common here.

In the UK, they are engaged in breeding sheep and cows, coal mining, fishing, and the production of first-class cars.

In terms of the number of adherents, Christianity (Anglicanism, Protestantism) occupies the first place among religions here, Islam and Judaism are also common.

2, 3 class. The world.

GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT BRITAIN

1. BRIEF INFORMATION ABOUT THE UK

The full official name of the country is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Territory - 242.5 thousand sq. km. Population - 57,826,000: English (80%), Scots, Irish, Welsh. The capital is London (with suburbs 6.9 million people). The largest cities: Birmingham (993 thousand people), Leeds (712 thousand people), Glasgow (689 thousand people). Administrative-territorial division: England (Area - 130,420 sq. km. Capital - London - 6,680,000), Wales (Area - 20,770 sq. km. Capital - Cardiff - 279,000), Northern Ireland (Area - 14,120 sq. km. .km Capital - Belfast - 284,000), Scotland (Area - 77,170 sq.km. Capital - Edinburgh - 438,000), Greater London, the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands.

National holiday- The Queen's birthday, the date of celebration of which is determined annually by the decision of the government: in 2000 - June 18. Official language- English. The state religion is Anglican in England and Wales (the head of the church is the monarch), Presbyterian in Scotland (headed by the General Assembly, which includes representatives of both priests and laity).

Since 1931, the Commonwealth (Commonwealth) of historically related countries has developed around the United Kingdom, which now includes 54 independent states. Under the direct control of London are 13 "dependent territories" - mostly small islands with a total population of less than 200 thousand people.

The United Kingdom consists of England, Scotland and Wales, located on the island of Great Britain, as well as the province of Northern Ireland, which consists of six districts and is located on the island of Ireland. In addition, the United Kingdom has close political and economic ties with self-governing territories - such as the Isle of Man in the Irish Sea and the Channel Islands, which lie off the northwestern coast of France, in the English Channel. The United Kingdom is an industrialized country with a large population for its size. However, in addition to populous cities, you can also see beautiful rural landscapes here: the heather-covered valleys of the Scots, the dells and mountains of Wales, the hills and green meadows of England and Northern Ireland. Due to the mild humid climate, the lands here are fertile.

The sea has always played an important role in the history of this people. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the British navy was the most powerful in the world. Through its dominance of the sea, Britain built up a vast empire and developed into a great trading power. Today, the United Kingdom is still a highly industrialized country, however, these days it is no longer so big influence on world politics, as before. Although the United Kingdom is a monarchy, the real political power is in the hands of Parliament. In recent years, many people in Scotland and Wales have advocated the creation of independent parliaments. Part of the Irish population demands the accession of Northern Ireland to the Republic of Ireland. This sparked a brutal civil war that began in 1961, but a ceasefire reached in 1994 gives hope for a peaceful solution to the issue.

Geography

The United Kingdom occupies most of the British Isles, which lie some distance off the northwest coast of Europe. The two main islands among the many smaller ones are Great Britain and Ireland. The unstable but mild climate of the British Isles is determined by the currents of the Atlantic Ocean. On the western coasts sea ​​winds bring frequent and abundant rains, while in the east the climate is drier.

The highlands in the north of Scotland are picturesque and wild. Here are the highest mountain peaks of the country and long narrow lakes. In the Atlantic Ocean, not far from the western coast of Scotland, stretches the double chain of the Hebrides. To the south, the highlands descend to the large river Clyde. This hilly area is an excellent agricultural area. Higher hills and moorlands mark Scotland's border with England. Separated from Scotland by the sea, Northern Ireland has deeply indented shores. On its territory is the largest lake in the British Isles - Lough Neagh. The granite ridge of the Pennines stretches across the whole of Northern England. Glittering lakes stretch across the mountainous northwest of the country. Wales is a picturesque land of green valleys and meadows, meandering rivers and rugged cliffs. A significant part of Wales is occupied by the Cambrian Mountains with a huge number of small lakes and waterfalls.

Most of Central England is occupied by rolling plains, while the North Sea coast is a flat lowland. In the densely populated south-eastern regions of the country, lime hills rise above the fertile lands. To the southwest are wide moorlands. The waves of the Atlantic break on the rocky shores of a peninsula in the southwest of England.

The mountains

Ben Nevis is the highest mountain in Great Britain.

Ten highest mountains Great Britain are in Scotland. Highest points in each part of the country

Scotland - Ben Nevis (height 1344 m)

Wales - Snowdon (height 1085 m)

England - Skyfall Pike (in the Cumberland Mountains, height 977 m)

Northern Ireland - Slieve Donard (Murne Mountains, height 852 m)

List of the most significant mountain ranges and hills:

Scotland - Grampian Mountains, Cairogorm, Scottish Highlands, South Scottish Highlands

Wales - Cambrian Mountains, Snowdonia

England - Brecon Beacons, Exmoor, Lake District, Pennines

Northern Ireland - Murne, Antrim Plateau

Economy

The United Kingdom was the first country in the world to make the transition from an agricultural to an industrial economy. This process began in the late 60s of the XVIII century and was called the Industrial Revolution. During the 19th century, industries such as textiles, steelmaking, shipbuilding and engineering developed in England. The fuel was coal, the deposits of which at that time were the main natural resources of the United Kingdom. Until the 1980s, these industries were the leading ones in the country's economy. The United Kingdom is still a highly industrialized country, however, it now specializes in the production of a different kind of product. New industries such as electronics, chemicals and foodstuffs are at the forefront. Most of the population works in the service sector - in the system of management, financing, healthcare, education and tourism. Today, the main natural resources of the United Kingdom are the rich oil and gas fields in the North Sea. Only two percent of the country's inhabitants are employed in agriculture, but it successfully produces agricultural products for both the domestic and foreign markets. Large areas of fertile land in the south and east of England grow crops, fruits and vegetables. Dairy cattle feed on the fat pastures of the West of England, and sheep graze on the highlands of Scotland and Wales. Many of England's ancient forests have long been destroyed, but extensive plantations of coniferous trees today provide raw materials for the construction and paper industries. Fishing boats ply the seas off the coast of the British Isles, the United Kingdom's fishing fleet is one of the five largest in European Union States.

Population

The United Kingdom is a small country, but historically it has been home to many peoples, cultures and religions. The largest group of the population is the British. It is followed by the Welsh, Scots, Irish, Jews. The country is home to numerous descendants of immigrants from the colonies of the former British Empire - India, Pakistan, Bengal, Hong Kong, Africa and the Caribbean. More than four-fifths of the total population of the United Kingdom lives in cities. On weekends and during holidays, all the main roads of the country are crowded with cars: it is the townspeople who go on vacation to the countryside or to the coast. Another favorite leisure activity is gardening and participating in sports as players or spectators. Although the United Kingdom is a modern country of airports, motorways and new suburbs, many old traditions are still honored here. Performers of comic folk dances in medieval costumes give performances on holidays such as May 1. The Welsh Bards Festival brings together poets and musicians from all over the country every year. Stormy festivities with Scottish dances are held in Scotland on New Year's Eve.

The literary and artistic heritage of the United Kingdom is unusually rich. At all times, this country has been the birthplace of many great poets, playwrights, prose writers, artists, architects and musicians. The English language has spread all over the world North America to Australia. It is accepted everywhere in the British Isles, but in the form of numerous local dialects. In addition, Welsh, Scottish and Irish are spoken here.

Story

The United Kingdom was formed in 1801. It included England, Scotland, Wales and all of Ireland. In 1921, Southern Ireland seceded from the union. The union of England, Scotland and Wales is known as "Great Britain". The documented history of Great Britain begins in 55 BC, when the Romans invaded it. They conquered all of Great Britain, except for its northernmost regions. Roman merchants and soldiers contributed to the spread of Christianity here and also the construction of many cities. In the 5th century A.D. e. The Roman Empire fell, and the Germanic tribes of the Angles and Saxons took over the country, which became known as England. Scandinavian Vikings devastated the northern and eastern regions of England, while Wales and Scotland remained under the rule of the Celts. In 1066, England was conquered by the Normans (Vikings who captured Northern France). In the Middle Ages, England often waged wars with neighboring countries. However, in the middle of the 16th century, it united with Wales, and in 1707 Scotland entered this union, as a result of which the state of Great Britain was formed. Starting from the 16th century, Great Britain began to turn into a powerful maritime empire. In the 18th century, thanks to the efforts of scientists and engineers, the country underwent a transition from agricultural production to industrial production. In the 20th century, Britain's political influence waned, although it played an important role in two world wars. By the 1960s, most of the English colonies had gained independence. In 1973, the United Kingdom joined the European Economic Community (now the European Union).

Great Britain is a permanent member of the UN Security Council; member of the OSCE and the Council of Europe; is a member of NATO, WEU and ANZU; since 1973 - a member of the EU. The political system is a parliamentary monarchy. The head of state is Queen Elizabeth II (since February 6, 1952). Parliament is the legislative body. Consists of the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The government is formed by the leader of the party that wins the most seats in the election and / or enjoys the support of the majority of deputies in the House of Commons; consists of cabinet members, ministers who are not members of the cabinet, and junior ministers (about 100 people in total).

2. UK BUDGET

In March 1998, Chancellor of the Exchequer G. Brown presented the Government's budget for the 1998/99 financial year to the House of Commons. In its first full-scale budget, Labor put forward the following priorities in the economic sphere: ensuring economic stability based on low inflation and an efficient public finance system; reform of the system of state aid and employment assistance, the fight against unemployment; encouraging entrepreneurship through tax measures that promote investment, small firms and R&D; improvement of the public sector of services, allocation of additional funds for the needs of health care and school education, as well as environmental protection.

1. According to the data contained in the budget message, core annual inflation (changes in consumer prices, excluding payments on mortgage debt) amounted to 2.5% by March 1998, which corresponds to the long-term parameters of the Treasury and the Bank of England. The Government expects that inflation will continue to rise slightly this fiscal year, reaching 3% in 1998 and 2.5% again in 1999.

Since May 1997, the Bank of England has been independently solving the task of keeping inflation within the set parameters. Since Labor came to power, first the government and then the Bank have repeatedly increased the base discount rate, which now stands at 7.25% - a relatively high figure that contributes to the "overheating" of the British economy. However, G.Brown in his speech did not respond to the reproaches of British exporters losing profits due to the extremely high exchange rate of the pound. The finance minister drew attention to the fact that the long-term interbank borrowing rate had fallen from 7.5% to 6% during the Labor government, a record low in 33 years.

One of the important components of the growth of inflation is the growth of wages outstripping the core inflation. For the first time this topic was touched upon by the Minister of Finance in the interim budget message in November 1997. As in the previous year, G.Brown appealed to employers and trade unions with a call to treat the revision of wages with restraint, linking the growth of this indicator with a possible increase in discount rates, job cuts and a slowdown in economic growth. It can be noted that this problem is to a large extent exacerbated by the active measures of the government itself to combat unemployment. The very high employment achieved by the Laborites for Great Britain has led to an aggravated shortage of qualified personnel and an increase in the number of unfilled jobs, which inevitably leads to higher labor costs.

Depending on whether wage revisions lead to their outstripping increase, according to the government's calculations, GDP growth in the new financial year will range from 2% (pessimistic scenario) to 2.5% (optimistic). Both of these indicators were reduced by 0.25% compared to the interbudgetary calculations of the Ministry of Finance. The reasons for the revision of the government's economic forecast are the impact of the financial crisis in Southeast Asia, as well as the impact on the economy of the overvalued pound (the pound is now "worth" more than three German marks or ten French francs). It is assumed that in 1999 the growth of the economy will be 1.75% - 2.25%, and in 2000 - 2.25% - 2.75%.

Blair's government has made significant progress in reducing the public sector's need for borrowed capital. In the previous financial year, the expenditure part of the budget exceeded the income by £23 billion; this year this figure should be only £5 billion, i.e. 0.6% of the state budget. Labor was more effective than they themselves expected, forecasting a deficit of £13.25 billion in last year's budget. In 1998/99 the government is expected to borrow £2.3 billion. (3.9 billion excluding a one-time tax on windfall profits), and by 2000 the government plans to have a deficit-free budget. The Treasury is making progress based on Brown's long-term "golden rule" of borrowing exclusively for investment, with all current government spending fully covered by tax revenues.

2. The reform of the system of state assistance to increase employment remains the cornerstone of the socio-economic policy of the Blair government. The current budget contains a number of provisions that develop Labor's strategy of minimizing the number of people living on public assistance and actively encouraging their employment growth through the provision of tax incentives. The 1998/99 budget provided £5.2 billion for this purpose from the windfall tax. This year, in accordance with the government program, every young person (18-25 years old) who has not had a job in the last six months will have the opportunity to receive the education necessary for employment or take a course vocational training. If individuals in this category do not find work (including in the voluntary sector and environmental organizations) and do not use the educational scheme, then they lose their right to receive unemployment benefits.

Additional steps are being taken to combat long-term unemployment. The state will allocate funds to the employers participating in this program for the remuneration of persons who have not had a job for more than two years, at the rate of £75. in Week. New counseling centers will be opened to help find permanent employment for this category of the unemployed, which now numbers 225,000 people.

Particular emphasis in the 1998/99 budget is placed on finding employment opportunities for women. £60 million from the windfall tax are allocated to help 250,000 women whose husbands are unemployed. A number of measures are aimed at creating conditions for increasing the employment of single mothers. Many critics of Labor point out that the government is effectively pushing single mothers out of state benefits by forcing them to take on temporary and unskilled jobs.

The budget provides for special programs to promote the employment of such categories of the population as school graduates, persons deprived of full legal capacity, the homeless, and the elderly. In order to make the steps in this area more efficient, the methods of calculating and collecting income tax and national insurance are being restructured, and the State Tax Collection Service is being given greater powers.

Contrary to the expectations of most experts, the current budget has not introduced a new lower income tax limit - 10%. In a previous budget message, the finance minister said that as part of reforming the system of taxation and benefits for the low-income segments of the population, the government intends to take this step soon, as well as introduce an income tax credit for the lowest paid categories of workers. The first measure, according to G.Brown, will be implemented when the necessary economic conditions are available for this. The tax credit for low-paid employed families will be introduced from October 1999. This measure is designed to reduce the amount of government benefits for low-income families. A similar reform provides for the introduction of tax incentives and a reduction in the total amount of benefits for persons with partial disability.

The Minister of Finance also unveiled government programs to improve the state insurance system, promote care for children from busy families, etc.

3. According to the Treasury, the British economy has reached a stage of stability and low long-term interest rates, which allows us to expect low inflation, high levels of investment and higher sustainable GDP growth. The Government finds that right now the conditions are in place to effectively promote productivity growth by encouraging entrepreneurship, education and the competitiveness of British business.

Continuing the program launched last year to promote the growth of long-term investment, the Ministry of Finance finally abolished the advance tax on corporations. Under the provisions of the Green Interim Budget, corporation tax will henceforth be levied on the US quarterly basis. One of the most important measures aimed at increasing investment in the British economy is a further reduction from April 1999 of the tax on corporations and small corporations by another 1%. In the last fiscal year, these taxes have already been reduced by 2%. Now the tax on corporations is 30%, on small corporations 20% - lower than that of the UK's main competitors in the international market. In addition, tax incentives for investors are increased by 50%, and the system of taxes on capital gains is being reformed. Labor expects that these measures should encourage investment in British companies.

A number of measures are aimed at the development of British science, as well as research and development, in which the UK lags far behind the United States and some European competitors. G. Brown announced the creation of a new venture capital fund of £50 million, open to all British universities.

4. The Labor government, which has retained a certain commitment to social democratic values, pays special attention to the public service sector. In the last budget, the Blair cabinet allocated additional appropriations for the needs of national health - 1.5 billion pounds, employment - 3 billion, education - 2 billion, pensions - 400 million pounds. The new budget allocates £500 million over three years. for public transport. Education will receive an additional £250 million in 1999, health care £500 million. In contrast to the measures taken in 1997/98, additional funding now comes not from the introduction of a one-time tax, but from the government's prudent policy in spending budget funds and combating tax evasion. Evidence of this is the fact that by decision of the Minister of Finance in 1998/99 an additional £500 billion will be contributed to the state reserve.

The government has budgeted a number of environmental measures. The most important of them are aimed at meeting the commitment made at the environmental summit in Kyoto by the EU countries to reduce carbon emissions by 8%. From 17% to 5%, the value added tax on energy-saving materials will be reduced. Differentiation of the road tax is introduced, which will encourage the use of more environmentally friendly cars. Fuel prices rise slightly. Among the measures aimed at taking care of human health, we can highlight the increase in prices for alcohol and tobacco products.

On the whole, business circles, experts and the public greeted the new state budget positively. The government's thriftiness, success in rehabilitating state finances, as well as loyalty to election promises are noted. Business representatives welcomed the provisions of the budget in the field of combating unemployment, easing the tax burden on British companies.

For the second time, Labor's budget has adhered to the main parameters of the tax rate of the last Conservative government. Many find in the current budget a number of fundamental innovations at the microeconomic level. However, limited by pre-election promises, Blair's cabinet is still forced to exclude fiscal methods of economic regulation from the set of available methods. The monetary rate is determined not by the government, but by the Bank of England, and the Ministry of Finance is deprived of real levers of influence on the macroeconomic situation.

3. SCIENCE AND EDUCATION IN THE UK

British companies have cut their spending on R&D. According to this indicator, the UK ranks fifth among the seven leading industrialized countries. In the field of high technology, British firms are ahead of Japanese and German companies, but behind the US and France. This situation is caused not only by a decrease in the level of development funding from the companies themselves, but also by a reduction in support from the state.

The Ministry of Trade and Industry and the Ministry of Finance are developing a joint policy to increase investment in R&D and to optimize the process of introducing research results into all sectors of the country's economy. The fact that the Ministry of Finance is involved underscores the attention that the government is paying to solving this problem. The two ministries lead the working groups involved in the restructuring of the process of organizing and financing British R&D.

The Chief Treasurer of the Treasury sponsors a group led by the director of British Biotech. The group is looking into R&D funding in high-tech companies, and in particular upstream funding. The Ministry of Trade and Industry sponsors the Tech-Stars group to overcome barriers to the development of small and medium-sized high-tech firms. The Minister of Science leads a working group on inventive activity and the implementation of inventions in industry.

The Investment Working Group, chaired by Lord Hollick, is busy looking at the constraints to investment in R&D. All groups include representatives of banking circles, joint capital and firms in the fields of production and services.

Research conducted by these groups has provided recommendations on sources of funding and ways to increase investment in UK R&D in a number of ways.

Thus, for large companies engaged in the field of high technologies, the main source of R&D financing is the deductions of fixed profit funds (retained profits). In order to increase the level of R&D funding, large companies must take an active part in the activities of the financial market, in which not only British but also foreign investors participate. In this case, R&D is considered as a long-term investment and the profit from it should fully ensure the interests of investors.

In order to improve R&D financing, large firms should actively cooperate with the financial institutions of the country: informing financial institutions of the specifics of R&D in the field of high technologies and explaining the benefits of investing in them; using the experience and knowledge of various financial trusts and funds in investing; collective planning and management of the R&D financing process.

The issue of financing R&D in small and medium-sized firms is solved by financing them from external sources. The solution of this problem is complicated by the fact that in the case when R&D expenditures in them are high and comparable to their turnover and profit, such financing from external sources is reluctant. Bank financing of R&D in the form of loans is unsustainable, especially at the initial stage of research and development. In this case, financing of R&D by mixed capital is proposed. Such investment in the UK has risen from £140m. in 1984 to 2.8 billion pounds. in 1996. Another source of funding for R&D in small and medium-sized firms is the investment of large companies that, in addition to purely financial assistance, can provide technical support by appointing their leading specialists to positions in small firms. The government's role in securing investment in small and medium-sized firms should be significantly strengthened.

In the 1998 budget, the Minister of Finance set out a package of measures to increase investment in high-tech R&D companies. Among them are the reform of tax legislation, the creation of a unified scheme for government financing of enterprises, the organization of management consultations, the intensification of research at universities and the commercial use of the results obtained.

A nationwide program to search for promising technologies. In 1993, at the initiative of the Conservative government, the identification of promising technological directions was started.

The Labor government, which came to power in 1997, confirmed its commitment to the implementation of this program and continued to finance it. An audit was conducted of the implementation of the activities of the program, the overall management of which is carried out by the Department of Science and Technology of the Ministry of Trade and Industry.

Scientific and technical programs aimed at solving urgent problems of industry and society have been developed and are being implemented, which include: the creation of a promising vehicle of the future; reducing the level of pollution in large cities of the country; creation of promising materials for industry; genetic and ecological balance of human health; an integrated approach to the problems of aging.

Based on the identification of promising technologies, a number of institutions and scientific centers: Institute of Applied Catalysis; Research financial club to optimize management processes in the financial sector; National Institute of Microelectronics for the introduction of modern technologies in all industries.

Government experts have developed recommendations for optimizing the process of managing the activities of small and medium-sized businesses. A website has been created on the Internet to protect the rights of national consumers and ensure healthy competition in business.

Edinburgh Science Festival. From 4 to 19 April 1998, the 10th annual International Science Festival was held in Edinburgh (Scotland). The main theme is science as the main driving force in the development of European culture and society (the festival was held during the British presidency of the EU).

Scientists have become the main driving force in the development within the framework of the festival of the relationship between science and society. For ten years, festival events, which include shows at specially created expositions, thematic seminars, exhibitions, round tables with the participation of famous scientists, have been visited by more than one million people. In 1997, the festival was visited by 175 thousand people. At the same time, 85% of visitors are not related to scientific research. The organizers are actively involved in the participation of schoolchildren.

Traditionally, the festival deals with a number of topics related to progress in the development of science and technology. The following topics were chosen in 1998: food; new technologies; problems of "active old age"; infectious diseases; the study of the universe; water and water resources. Competitions of popular science books and science films were also held.

For the preparation and holding of the festival, a permanent organizing committee consisting of eight people was formed. The total amount of funds for the festival is about 500 thousand pounds. Of these, 125 thousand are proceeds from the sale of entrance tickets. The rest of the funds come from sponsors, including the Bank of Scotland, British Telephone, Glaxo Wellcome, Microsoft, Tesco, the Scottish Office, the University of Edinburgh.

Military R&D. The British Ministry of Defense is preparing a package of proposals for reforming military R&D in the country.

The need to change the organization of military research is caused by three main factors: a decrease in budget allocations for defense R&D as part of a reduction in the military budget as a whole; insufficient return on the use of military technological developments in the civilian sphere; strengthening of the trend when commercially available technologies (especially in the field of processing and transmitting information) are higher and cheaper than military counterparts in terms of their level.

The reorganization and structural changes will affect the British Defense Evaluation and Research Agency. DERA employs 12,500 people and has an annual turnover of £1,050 million. Art. Only half of the indicated amount is provided directly for military R&D in the budget of the Ministry of Defense. The rest of the funds come from the Agency's provision of services to military department units, mainly by checking equipment and technology. In order to attract additional funding from the industry, the possibility of creating a joint venture between private defense firms and DERA laboratories is being considered.

It is assumed that DERA should significantly increase its role and influence in the process of transferring the results of military R&D to the civilian sector. Experts primarily single out such areas as the development of fiber-optic technologies and the production of liquid crystal displays. It is planned to create a special technology transfer agency within DERA that will be responsible for practical use dual-use technologies in the civil sphere. DERA will begin to form a generalized knowledge base of existing technologies and inventions, which should include commercial technologies as an integral part.

In the Ministry of Defense, working groups are being created from employees of the military department and representatives of industry. The responsibilities of such mixed working groups will include the management of specific projects for the development and creation of new models of military equipment, as well as ensuring their timely delivery to service. Wider use of the principles of modern management will solve a number of problems associated with an increase in the initial cost of samples and time delays in the process of their development and delivery to service. To date, the development of 22 projects for the creation of new models of military equipment has dragged on an average of 3 years from the original date, and the cost of more than half of them significantly exceeded the amounts originally allocated for development.

The reform will affect all stages of the military R&D process: from the concept of a new model to its operation. Thus, the former strict regulation of the actions of the supplier firm by the Ministry of Defense will be replaced by a new practice, when only the final technical requirements for the products are indicated to the contracting firm, and the firm seeks methods and means to fulfill the terms of reference on its own. To perform high technical requirements required for the production of defense products, private contractors will have to apply to the Research Institute of the Ministry of Defense, which has developments in the field of high technologies, one of which is DERA. Thus, there will be a mutually beneficial exchange of experience and technology between industry and the Ministry of Defense, which will ultimately lead to an increase in the overall scientific and technical potential of British industry.

The UK is the second largest arms exporter in the world (after the US). The main buyers of British weapons are Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Turkey, Indonesia, Malaysia, Kuwait.

Review military policy. In the UK, the War Policy Review (WRP), announced by Labor shortly after coming to power, is nearing completion. The concept of the new military strategy is based on the thesis of "there is little chance for Great Britain to conduct major military operations alone." Based on this, London does not intend to develop its own high-cost defense projects, such as the creation of space reconnaissance vehicles or missile defense systems, but will rely on the support of its closest ally - the United States.

The Laborites reaffirmed their commitment to a deterrence strategy based on their own nuclear forces - sea-based Trident ballistic missiles. At the same time, the possibility of limiting the total number of nuclear warheads on each of the 4 strategic submarines is being discussed.

There is a reassessment of the role of tanks and heavy artillery systems. The British believe that in the near future their combat functions will largely be taken over by attack helicopters and air-to-ground missiles. In this regard, significant reductions in armored vehicles and heavy artillery are expected. Substantial stocks of these weapons are at the disposal of the British contingent in Germany. Its strength will be reduced by a third, and in terms of tanks - by half. The released armored vehicles will be placed at military bases near British ports in a state of readiness for rapid deployment to areas of possible conflicts.

During the ORP, the option of a complete withdrawal of British units from Germany was also discussed. However, in London they came to the conclusion that such a step, firstly, would weaken the role of Great Britain in NATO, and secondly, would strengthen the positions of supporters of the withdrawal of American troops from Europe (which is unacceptable for the British).

As expected, the strength of the regular British army will increase by 2-3 thousand people. Only the so-called territorial army (reservists) will undergo serious cuts (from 57,000 to 40,000 men). The financial resources released from this will be directed to the purchase of new types of weapons and equipment that increase the efficiency and mobility of the British army in the course of possible peacekeeping operations and the elimination of local military conflicts. Thus, the Navy will adopt two new aircraft-carrying cruisers and several transport ships capable of quickly delivering soldiers and military equipment to "hot spots". The Navy will receive new transport aircraft for the same purpose. The military budget of Great Britain will be kept at the same level - about 22 billion pounds. Art. in year.

School

The Education Act, passed by the British Parliament in 1996, establishes compulsory schooling for all children between the ages of 5 and 16 inclusive. Parents are responsible for ensuring that their children receive a proper education. The state guarantees free education and provision of school places for all children. Through local public education bodies, which are in the counties - county councils, in areas that are not counties - district councils; in London, the rights of the local authority for public education are vested in the municipality of the corresponding district of the city. Local public education authorities are entrusted with monitoring the fulfillment by parents of the obligation to ensure that their children receive education.

All children who have reached the age of five must be enrolled in school and begin their studies from the next quarter, which begins after their birthday. In practice, the vast majority of children start school before reaching the legal age. This is due to the desire of parents to prevent the child from lagging behind in the school curriculum from their peers who started classes at the beginning of the school year.

If it is not possible to enroll children 5-7 years old and 8-16 years old in a school that is within walking distance (3.5 km for children of the first age group and 5 km for the second age group), local education authorities are obliged to provide transport delivery of schoolchildren . In other cases, if the school is not within walking distance, students are paid to travel by public transport from home to school and back.

The law requires local public education authorities to provide primary and secondary education in separate schools. In some cases, the joint functioning of primary and secondary schools is allowed with their mandatory placement in separate buildings. They are also responsible for ensuring the necessary number of school places in boarding schools.

93% of school students receive education in educational institutions at the expense of funds allocated from the state budget, as well as by local governments. Along with public schools in the UK, there is traditionally a fairly extensive network of so-called. independent (private) schools.

There is a state program of material support for children from low-income families, as well as a number of charitable programs aimed at providing this category of students with the opportunity to study in independent schools. We are talking about teaching children for whom local educational authorities cannot, taking into account their characteristics and needs, provide the necessary education: musically gifted schoolchildren, children who decide to devote themselves to ballet or mastering rare foreign languages, etc.

Boys and girls are taught together in public primary schools. In the secondary education system, the number of mixed schools is about 80% of the total number of public schools. Most independent elementary schools also host co-education. However, among independent secondary schools, separate schools for boys and girls prevail.

In the system of primary and secondary education, three main types of public schools can be distinguished, fully or partially funded from the central and local budgets:

public schools of the county (in London - municipal schools), the territory and buildings of these educational institutions belong respectively to the county or municipality, and their financing is carried out from the funds of local public education bodies, i.e. at the expense of funds allocated centrally from the state budget, supplemented by subsidies from the budgets of local self-government bodies;

voluntary schools established by religious communities and taken under the auspices of the state. The first type of such schools, founded by one of the two state churches in the UK, is fully funded by local education authorities. The other two types of schools are also mainly financed from centralized sources, however, the trustees of the school, represented by the relevant religious community, must ensure their share in their financing in the amount of at least 15% of the necessary funds. They are given autonomy to determine the recruitment of students, the recruitment of teaching and support staff and the organization of religious instruction;

Directly subordinate public schools were created by the decision of the Conservative government in 1989 in order to improve the efficiency of the use of centralized budgetary funding and improve the level of teaching. This type of school is an independent budget recipient and is directly subordinated directly to the Ministry of Education and Employment.

According to annual published performance data for students in schools of all types, students in direct-run schools perform better. This situation is partly explained by the fact that the actual budget of these schools exceeds the budgets of similar educational institutions of other types by 15-30%.

Secondary education is based on the compulsory national school curriculum. The Ministry of Education has determined the recommended level of knowledge that a student should have at the end of each of the four study cycles of the school. Testing for the level of knowledge gained in British schools is carried out when students reach the age of 7, 11 and 14, and coincides in time with the end of the program for the corresponding level. Testing is carried out by each school independently, with the right to control the results of the independent organization of inspection of schools (OFSTED), whose work is coordinated by the chief inspector of schools, appointed by decree of the Queen. The results of testing by age group must be brought to the attention of parents and must be published in the press, as well as in specially published annual guides "Which school to choose?"

latest version the nationwide secondary education program of January 1995 will remain in force at the beginning of the third millennium. The knowledge acquired by students from the I to III stage of education is evaluated according to an eight-point system of the level of knowledge.

Examinations for the Uniform Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE), as a rule, are taken by students at the end of their studies in grades 10-11, i.e. on the development of the program of the fourth, last, stage of secondary school at the age of 16 years. To a certain extent, the GCSE certificate can be considered the equivalent of the Russian certificate of incomplete secondary education.

Those wishing to continue secondary education can be enrolled for the next two years in classes for advanced secondary education or enter the so-called. sixth form college to complete the course and pass the Uniform Certificate of Advanced Secondary Education in Selected Subjects (GCE-A). Local public education authorities, by law, provide those wishing to continue their studies with access to free education, either directly at school or in the system of out-of-school educational institutions, under the advanced secondary education program of full-time and part-time education.

Obtaining a GCE-A certificate can be considered equivalent to obtaining a Russian certificate of complete secondary education and opens up the possibility of obtaining higher education for its holders. The training includes two components: a two-year course in a chosen subject and a final written examination paper for the GCE-A. The number of subjects that a schoolboy or college student can study is practically unlimited, but they should not be less than three, and these three subjects are chosen by students so that they coincide with the major subjects of the university in which this student or college student plans to receive in the future. higher education.

Examination papers of applicants for obtaining unified certificates are sent for evaluation to independent examination boards. These commissions are established, as a rule, based on the geographical principle. In major cities such as London, Birmingham, Manchester, etc. commissions can also be created to take into account differences in the curricula of schools. Unlike the secondary school curriculum, advanced secondary education courses can be so different from each other in a number of subjects that it is difficult, if necessary, to transfer students in this age group from one school to another. The assessment of the knowledge of secondary school graduates who have completed an advanced secondary education course is carried out on a scale of grades from A to G in the Latin alphabet.

Most independent schools also provide their graduates with the opportunity to continue their secondary education, followed by examinations for a certificate of advanced secondary education. The assessment of the acquired knowledge is carried out in the same manner as the assessment of the knowledge of public school graduates. Those who wish can also continue their education in private colleges that prepare for the GCE-A certificate exams while preparing their students in the basics of their chosen profession.

Secondary students who decide to continue their education at a higher education institution must submit an application form indicating the institution in which they would like to study at the Cheltenham University and College Admissions Service (UCAS). In the application form, the school administration, based on the results of the "training exams", gives the expected results that the graduate must show when passing the exams for the GCE-A certificate. The received questionnaire applications are registered and then sent directly to the respective educational institutions.

Said application forms must be submitted to UCAS by December 15 of the year preceding the academic year in which the examinations are to begin. Individuals wishing to study at Oxford and Cambridge, along with sending application forms to UCAS, must send a copy directly to the admissions office of the chosen university. In accordance with the law, universities in the UK have the right to independently determine the criteria for selecting applicants.

The law does not contain any restrictions on the number of applications that a school graduate has the right to send to various universities. The more famous and authoritative the institution of higher education, the higher the requirements for it. Holders of GCE-A certificates with grades from A to G have a fairly high chance of being enrolled in a higher education institution. Theoretically, a student can also become a student who has received all "G" grades in the GCE-A exams.

In order to facilitate the receipt of higher education by representatives of national minorities, students of schools from large families and other categories of schoolchildren who, at the time of completing the course of secondary advanced education, did not manage to obtain grades sufficient for entering a university, the government finances a system of preparatory courses (in general, their number across the country is about 600). During the training, which lasts from one to two years and can be full-time and part-time, course participants re-take courses in their chosen majors and pass the appropriate qualifying exams. An important place in equalizing the level of knowledge belongs here to the private sector, which provides the opportunity for accelerated preparation and passing exams in one or a number of subjects. As is the case with high school graduates, examination papers graduates of the mentioned courses are sent for assessment to independent examination boards.

Graduates of British schools do not take entrance exams when entering a university. The primary selection of students is carried out on the basis of a competition of certificates of advanced secondary education, followed, if necessary, by a personal interview of members admission committee university with the applicant.

The long-term program for the development of the education system puts forward the need to bring the number of boys and girls receiving higher education to a ratio of one to three of the total number of young people by the year 2000, against one to eight in the mid-seventies. To date, this goal has been practically achieved.

Financing the public school system. Funds allocated in the state budget for the school are brought to the local bodies of public education, as it were, through two channels. One part is included in the budget determined for the Ministry of Transport, Regions and Environment. Through this ministry, local self-government bodies are financed (of which local public education bodies are also an integral part): remuneration for teachers, operation of school buildings and territories, school meals, purchase of textbooks, etc., about 80% of the filling of the budgets of local public education bodies . Another part of the funds is directed through the Ministry of Education and Employment to the budget of local public education bodies for the overhaul of school buildings, new school construction, etc.

Schools have the right to decide at their own discretion issues such as the number of teaching staff and support staff, including hiring and dismissal, etc. The right to dispose of funds is in the competence of school councils, which include representatives of the teaching staff, parents, local public organizations, and relevant religious communities when it comes to voluntary schools. Local businesses are also represented on school boards. The school board has the responsibility of keeping records of receipts and expenditures of all received from various sources funds, including additional attracted extrabudgetary funds.

The basis for the preparation by local public education bodies of justifications for the requested appropriations from the state and local budgets is the accounting for the number and age of schoolchildren, the possible costs of reimbursement by the school transport costs schoolchildren, additional expenses incurred by those schools in which there are a significant number of students for whom English is not their native language, etc.

Schools that experience a significant outflow of students due to the fact that the latter are given preference to other educational institutions, find themselves in a difficult financial situation. The only way out of this situation is to increase the level of education in order to restore the school's former trust and respect. Leaders of public education see this as putting into practice the principle "money follows students."

The Ministry of Education and Employment publishes an annual updated version of the School Board Members' Guide "Introduction to the Law" providing interpretations of laws at a public level. Taking into account the differences in the rights of county and municipal schools and voluntary schools, the said guide is issued, respectively, in two editions. The handbook is distributed free of charge and should be available to every school board member.

The law prohibits the collection of tuition fees in public schools. At the same time, they have been granted the right to raise additional funds (in monetary and other forms) through voluntary donations from parents and other citizens.

The law provides for the obligation of school boards (administration) to ensure that such donations are voluntary, and declares the inadmissibility of infringing on the interests of children whose parents, for one reason or another, did not make an appropriate donation. A student cannot be excluded from participating in such an event on the grounds that his parents were unable or unwilling to contribute the necessary funds. The use of budgetary funds by the school council for full or partial payment of extracurricular activities is not allowed.

Along with the practice of collecting voluntary donations from the parents of students, it is widespread in British schools to attract donations (in cash or in any other form) from commercial structures, as well as leasing school premises and territory (open sports grounds, etc.) in rent to local organizations. Another form of attracting additional funds, such as sales of schoolchildren's handicrafts and things donated by parents and children, has also become widespread. commercial organizations for "school bazaars".

The use of school premises outside the classroom on a lease basis by various educational organizations - linguistic schools, various professional training courses, sports clubs, and organizations - is quite widespread. In cases where school premises are rented by educational non-profit or public organizations, schools are generally exempt from tax on profits received. In other cases, the law equates educational institutions that lease their premises and territory to third parties with landlords.

In order to attract businesses and encourage individuals, businesses, companies and firms to provide financial support to the school, the law provides for exemption from taxation of monetary donations and gifts to schools made by these categories of sponsors. For example, equipment and funds donated to educational institutions are not subject to taxation. The Ministry of Education and Employment has issued a special brochure "Support the School", aimed at potential sponsors, which details the possible forms of sponsorship of schools and the benefits that the state provides to sponsors in this case.

About the Scottish Association of Private Schools. Her governing body is a council, which includes teachers elected from schools that are members of the Association. The daily work of the Association is organized by a staff of 5 people. The budget is made up of school contributions, at the rate of 5l. Art. per year for each student.

In total, the Association includes 80 private schools, which is 90% of the total number of this category of schools in Scotland. 31,000 students study in private schools that are members of the Association, and over 3,000 teachers work in them. All member schools are registered with the Department of Education of the Scottish Office and are subject to its inspection.

The Association provides the following types of assistance to schools: development of recommendations by advisory groups; providing information about the latest achievements in the educational process; advanced training of teachers and technical staff of schools.

The Association's member schools offer parents a wide range of services for their children. There are schools that provide schoolchildren with housing, meals and necessary educational materials or only with a day stay with the subsequent residence of the child in the family.

Teachers are admitted to teaching after registering with the Scottish Council of Teachers. Most schools strictly follow the requirements of the current examination system, the criteria for which are determined by government agencies. The Association annually summarizes the proposals of school administrations to improve the educational process and submits them to the Scottish Office.

The Association provides advice to parents in determining the child to school, in choosing an acceptable mode of stay at school, a list of services provided. In private schools, round-the-clock maintenance of a child, including the cost of training, costs parents up to 12-14 thousand pounds. Art. behind academic year(19-22 thousand dollars).

Disabled people. There are dozens of specialized organizations and associations in the UK for various groups of people with disabilities. These are associations of the blind and deaf and dumb, homes for the disabled with severe disabilities, organizations for military invalids, pensioners, women, young people over 16, etc. There are also various services and institutions for the disabled.

The government policy regarding their work is built on several planes: legislative registration, financial support, coordination at the national and local levels, assistance in international contacts, etc.

Organizations are financed in the form of grants or grants from the central government and local governments, as well as through revenue Money from conducting independent economic activity and collection of voluntary donations. There are also separate groups of disabled people who build their activities without support. government agencies with exclusive reliance on own funds. Organizations of the disabled are non-profit organizations, which provides them with the opportunity to receive significant financial and customs benefits in the implementation of administrative and economic activities. Important role the institute of patronage plays in their activity.

One of large organizations is the Royal Disabled Foundation. His patron is the Queen. The Foundation specializes in working with severely disabled people. It has branches throughout the country. The Foundation has a college and free retraining and professional retraining courses. The Foundation has a solid medical base, as well as its own rest houses. The Royal Foundation for the Disabled works closely with government departments, local authorities, and voluntary organizations.

The British Council of Disabled Organizations unites national, regional, local organizations of disabled people, is an important information center where discussions are held, legislative projects are discussed, and links are maintained between new and existing groups of disabled people. Here, disabled people can get a wide variety of information, qualified assistance from lawyers and doctors.

An important activity of the association "Assistance to the Armed Forces" is the organization of work on a voluntary basis. 7.5 thousand people in 100 branches of the Association participate in this activity. They visit the sick and elderly in hospitals and at home, organize donation campaigns. The Association is patronized by the Queen and the Queen Mother. The President is Prince Michael of Kent. At the government level, the work of the Association is coordinated by the Ministry of Defense.

The work of the Royal British Legion is based on the following areas: financial support and assistance in the psychological adaptation of those who are retired or retired; using the experience of retired military personnel in relation to civilian life, their retraining and retraining. Free course programs include training in the basics of management and business, working with computer technology, construction and carpentry, work in preschool institutions, providing social assistance at home. The structure has a unit that provides effective assistance to those wishing to start their own business: it is possible to provide a gratuitous loan in the amount of 2,500 pounds. The Legion owns residential buildings for veterans, consisting of 2-3-room apartments, provides all possible material assistance, pays scholarships, and assists in organizing sanatorium treatment for seriously ill patients.

Veterinary

The government began taking steps to prevent the spread of spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), an animal disease called "mad cow disease", as soon as it received reported cases in 1987. Under the auspices of the Ministry of Agriculture, an advisory committee on BSE was formed, which is responsible for conducting research work and preparing recommendations to the government.

In March 1996, after being discovered new version disease known as "Creunzfeldt-Jakob Syndrome" (nv CJD) and 23 cases were recorded, the government initiated a study of the possibility of transmission of spongiform encephalopathy to humans. The coordination committee included representatives of the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of Health, research councils for biotechnology and medicine, the environmental protection agency and a number of insurance companies. Studies have confirmed the assumption about the relationship between the disease of animals with spongiform encephalopathy and the emergence of a new variant of the "Kreinzfeldt-Jakob" disease in humans.

USDA has spent £12 million on BSE research in the current fiscal year alone. Art. Taking into account the funding of work by other departments, by the beginning of the next financial year, government spending on BSE research will amount to 84 million pounds. Art. Total infected cows from the moment of registration of the first case of the disease is estimated at 1 million heads. The largest number of registered diseases occurred in 1992; the peak of the spread of the disease among animals occurred in 1988-89, because. clinical symptoms of the disease appear in animals from the age of 30 months. There is a sharp decrease in the number of recorded diseases. It is expected that this indicator will reach its minimum level by 2001.

A ban has been introduced on the sale of beef animals older than 6 months in the country (both for local and foreign suppliers). The special service for the quality of meat products has strengthened control over the implementation of established restrictions in order to prevent infection of people. Particular attention is paid to the identification of cases of human infection. It is envisaged to conduct a nationwide mandatory, on an anonymous basis, research of surgically removed internal human organs (mainly tonsils) and the brain tissue of victims of car accidents.

4. GOSETIKA IN THE GREAT BRITAIN

Prevention of corruption among government officials at all levels - the fundamental document in this area should be considered the Prevention of Corruption Act of 1906. Any cash payment, gift or reward to government officials from a private person or organization executing a government contract or seeking to obtain one will be considered in court as evidence of corruption, unless proven otherwise.

The procedure for receiving gifts and services by civil servants is an integral part of the "Code of Rules Governing the Activities of Civil Servants", which is a basic document, and sections of which determine the procedure for behavior in various official situations.

At present, the basis for intradepartmental documents establishing the rules and regulations for the activities of civil servants is the "Code of Rules", prepared by the apparatus of the Cabinet of Ministers and entered into force in May 1996. One of the central places in the document is given to the norms that, in the opinion of the authors, give an exit to the proper balance between the official activities of the highest officials of the state and their personal commercial interests.

The prime minister demanded that members of the Cabinet "most carefully avoid real or possible situations where their official activities would be superimposed on their private financial interests." This provision also applies to spouses of senior officials and persons who are in a civil marriage with cabinet members.

In order to prevent situations in which members of the cabinet could be accused of using their official position for personal gain, a rule is introduced in accordance with which members of the government are encouraged to voluntarily undertake to refrain from doing business while in office, as well as from transactions in the stock market with their securities. Another possible option for the behavior of officials holding shares is the recommendation to transfer securities to trust management. At the same time, the fact that they are in the trust does not relieve the official from liability in the event of conflict situations, since the owner of securities retains the possibility of obtaining information about working with them. In the same context, one should also consider the provision providing for the retiring minister to agree, over the next two years, on the issue of his possible employment with an independent committee on official appointments in the business sector.

Among other rules, which to a certain extent can also be attributed to the sphere of regulating the financial interests of senior officials, it should be noted that members of the cabinet are not allowed to receive monetary compensation for public speaking in their official capacity, even if it means using them for charitable purposes. A ceiling is introduced on the value of accepted gifts and the procedure for their special registration.

A special section of the document is devoted to issues related to professional ethics and the preservation of official secrets. Members of the government should not disclose information about the course of meetings of the cabinet, government committees, as well as make public the various points of view and positions expressed at them, and disclose the contents of internal documents. One of the key provisions was the consolidation of the norm, according to which, in the event of deliberate misinformation of the parliament by the highest official, it must resign.

The "Code of Rules" regulates in some detail the activities of senior officials in their capacity as leaders of the party that formed the government. Conducting party work, the heads of departments have no right to force civil servants to participate in party conferences or to participate in the work of special groups created by political parties represented in parliament to study a particular issue. At the same time, the minister is allowed to speak at the party forum outlining issues related to his activities, if the highest official himself considers it necessary. There is a strict ban on the use of state property for party work by ministers in their constituencies, as well as for party work more generally.

The compilers of the "Code of Rules" devoted a separate section to issues related to travel and accommodation of senior officials. Ministers are advised to refrain from using transportation and accommodation services provided free of charge by third parties or individuals. In foreign trips, the use of transport provided on behalf of the state of the host country is allowed, however, with the understanding that this will not entail the assumption of any obligations. When traveling abroad, it is also strongly recommended to refrain from using transport provided or paid for by private organizations or individuals. On all trips, cabinet members are instructed to strive for budget savings.

Taking into account the practice of airlines providing their regular customers with significant financial payments for flying a certain mileage, it is envisaged that the benefits received by ministers in connection with official trips will be used either to pay them or their colleagues' travel expenses in the future, or for charitable purposes.

Senior officials must agree in advance with the Prime Minister's office on the subject and format of their any significant public speeches to the media. Even lunches where journalists were present are included in the count.

It should be noted that with the introduction of the "Code of Rules", the ban on regular class journalistic activities of cabinet members. Today, in particular, they are allowed to appear as authors and columnists in local publications distributed in their constituencies. However, this requires permission from the Prime Minister.

On the procedure for issuing national journalistic certificates. The work of the national journalistic corps of Great Britain traditionally enjoys respect and trust from the society. In accordance with the regulation on the press card, the National Police (New Scotland Yard), the London City Police and the Association of Senior Police Officers recognize the journalistic status of its bearer and declare their readiness to provide, within reasonable limits, the necessary assistance in the exercise of his professional powers in collection of information (on the reverse side of the press card, an appropriate excerpt is printed confirming the above statement).

A uniform press card is issued both to journalists working for national media and to all foreign journalists (in this case, the card is issued through the Association of Foreign Journalists).

The regulation on the press card provides that they can be issued to journalists-photographers, members of television film crews, as well as certain categories of support personnel, for example, lighting, sound engineers, messengers, etc., whose activities are directly related to the promotion of operational training and transmission of information from the scene.

14 associations of journalists have the right to issue journalistic press cards. These are the Newspaper Society, the Press Association, the Foreign Press Association, the Newspaper Publishers Association, the Institute of Journalists, the National Union of Journalists ), the Periodical Publishers Association, the BBC Television News, the National Association of Press Agencies and a number of other organizations.

The right to issue press cards imposes liability on the relevant public and professional associations of journalists. A procedure has been introduced under which novice journalists are given a two-year trial period, after which they can apply for a press card.

The issued press cards are an identification document of a single sample, on the front side of which there is the name of the public and professional association that issued it, a photograph, an expiration date and a serial number. There is no name of the journalist, and his place of work is also not indicated. On the reverse side there is security code from several numbers. The document is rolled up in thermal film.

It is envisaged that all associations with the right to issue press cards must register the fact of their issuance with law enforcement agencies. At the same time, when registering, the latter are only informed of the security code and control password. Data on the issuance of all press cards are summarized in a single computer database.

In the event that law enforcement agencies have doubts, they request a central database via any available connection, where they report the security code indicated on the document, and also called the password by the person who presented the document. The coincidence of these data is a confirmation of the identity and professional authority of the person who presented the document. The central database, as assured by the British authorities, does not contain any personal information about the owner of the document (such as name and surname, place and time of birth, etc.), nor any indication of the media for which he works bearer. Thus, the professional interests of journalists are protected from arbitrariness or discriminatory approach on the part of the authorities.

5. UK AVIATION

The government pays great attention to the improvement of air traffic management (ATS), which is considered one of the most efficient in the world and ensures a high degree of flight safety.

The lead body responsible for all ATS matters in the country, including the air traffic control (ATC) system, is the Civil Aviation Agency. Most of the agency's 6,200 employees work for its NATS (National Air Traffic Services) company, which is responsible for all air traffic control issues in the country, including air traffic control, radio communications and navigation. NATS manages both civil and military aircraft and is accountable to the UK MoD for the latter part.

The Agency's budget is formed from funds allocated by the government, contributions from the private sector (in particular, the aviation industry), as well as payment for the services provided. Turnover of financial assets in 1996-97 amounted to 592 million pounds.

The main tasks assigned by the state to the Civil Aviation Agency are as follows.

Ensuring flight safety, including: checking the airworthiness of the aircraft fleet and technical condition control systems; licensing of flight personnel, aircraft engineers, air traffic controllers and airfields: certification of national airlines, aircraft, equipment and support systems in accordance with the developed standards.

Carrying out economic regulation, including: licensing of traffic routes; approval of prices for air transportation outside the European Union; regulation of prices for airport services; licensing of organizations engaged in air transportation.

Air traffic control (via NATS).

Government advice on civil aviation matters.

The agency also forms the state technical policy in its field, conducts economic and scientific research, including on a contract basis with universities and private companies.

In order to improve coordination between civil and military dispatch services, NATS and the defense department signed an agreement that specifies their relationship and areas of responsibility. In particular, the practice of including military dispatchers in the duty control shift of the ATC center, which has been used for a long time in the south-eastern zone of the country, which is most saturated with air transport, received a positive assessment. This experience is expected to be extended to other areas.

To solve the problem of more efficient use of civil and military navigation systems, a joint navigation committee (Joint Air Navigation Services Council) was formed, which included representatives from NATS, the Agency and the military air traffic control service.

The improvement of the ATS system and its management bodies will continue further. This is due to the expected significant growth in air traffic (by 55% between 1995 and 2010) and the need to attract additional investment (primarily from the private sector) to modernize the ATC system and build a new control center in Scotland (total program cost - 800 million f.st.).

In early 1997, the Conservative government raised the issue of privatizing NATS, which would allow the company to actively attract private investment in the construction and modernization of ATC equipment and to improve service. Currently, this issue is being actively discussed, but so far the new Labor government is leaning towards the option of using a scheme based on attracting funds from the national aviation industry and the private sector, but without changing the state status of the company.

In any case, the government does not plan to allocate budgetary funds for the construction of the Scottish ATC center. It also asks the Civil Aviation Agency and NATS that all capital construction projects should be funded by private investment.

Great Britain is an island state (the largest island is Great Britain, the country also includes the Channel Islands, the Isle of Wight and the northeastern part of the island of Ireland), located in the British Isles, in northwestern Europe.

This country is washed by the Atlantic Ocean, the North and Irish Seas, as well as the straits of La Mashne, Pas-le-Calais, North and St. George. In the north and south, the coastline is dissected by bays that form the peninsulas of Cornwall and Wales. On the territory of Great Britain are England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland (not to be confused with the state of Ireland - approx.) Many years ago, the British Isles were part of Europe, but after the flooding of the lowlands (now it is the bottom of the North Sea and the English Channel) they are forever cut off from mainland. Northern Ireland is located on the island of Ireland, and is the western extension of the Scottish mountains, which are separated by a narrow North Channel.

Great Britain geography: features

The area of ​​Great Britain is about 240,842 sq. km. Mostly it is land, and the rest is rivers and lakes. The area of ​​England is 129634 sq. km., Wales - 20637 sq. km., Scotland - 77179 sq. km. and Northern Ireland - 13438 sq. km., that is, England is larger than all the others, and also has a larger population than other regions. These factors play an important role in the history of English dominance in the British Isles.

Geographic features of Great Britain directly influenced and influence settlements, migrations of people, their aggressive policy and alliances. Today they determine the operation of transport systems, agriculture, communications, the fishing industry, energy resources and forests. Mountain ranges and hills are located in the north and west of the country. Most of the lowlands, apart from the Scottish lowlands and the central territories of Northern Ireland, lie in the south and east. The north and west are composed of strong rocks created by the movements of the earth's crust. These areas, unfortunately, are unsuitable for agriculture. Softer rocks are present in the south and east (which is the process of mountain weathering). They have fertile land. Much of the lowland land is used for agriculture. Pastures predominate in the mountainous regions. The flat areas of England with a favorable climate for agriculture have always been used for settlement and agricultural development.

Later, mountainous areas began to be developed, where rich pastures and mineral resources served as the main incentive. Almost all known minerals have been found in Great Britain, with the exception of diamonds. Coal deposits are rich in the Pennines, on the Mid-Scottish Lowlands, in the foothills of South Wales (its industrial reserves amount to 4 billion tons). The East Midlands has the largest iron ore deposit (60% of the country's total reserves). There are rock and potash salts in Cheshire and Durham. Lead-zinc and hematite ores were found in the Cambedlen massif, lead-zinc and tin ores were found on the Cornwall peninsula. In the North Sea - oil and gas fields (2.6 billion tons and 1400 billion cubic meters).

Water resources

Seas, bays, rivers and lakes have a huge impact on the country. On the coast there are bays, bays, deltas and peninsulas, for this reason most of the UK is located at a distance of 100 km from the sea. High tides on the coastline and flooding of the rivers cause frequent floods in many regions of the country. The government is building dams and water protection structures (a protective barrier was built in London in 1984). The depth of the sea off the coast is 90 meters, since most of the British Isles lie on the continental shelf (raised seabed that connects to the mainland).

The warm current of the Gulf Stream heats the sea and air on the coast of Great Britain. Therefore, the climate on the islands is very mild. The current has an important influence on the fishing industry (good catch of fish and fishing on boats that are arranged for foreigners). A dense network of full-flowing rivers (Thames, Severn, etc.), many of which are connected by canals, are important transport arteries connecting many cities in Great Britain. And Scotland and Ireland are known throughout the world as the land of beautiful lakes (Loch Ness, Loch Lomond and others in Scotland; Loch Neagh in Northern Ireland).

Climate

Great Britain belongs to the temperate continental climate of the maritime type with warm winters and cool summers. Throughout the UK, temperatures very rarely rise to +30 and fall below -10. The average temperature is between +10 and +20. Due to the peculiarities of the country's relief, in mountainous and hilly areas (Scotland, some parts of Wales and England) it is cooler in summer and colder in winter compared to the rest of the UK.

Great Britain is called Foggy Albion, although with the onset of the industrial revolution (which entailed the replacement of fireplaces with other heating devices), the country ceased to be foggy. Although rain and fog are not uncommon, they occur mainly in mountainous and hilly areas. More precipitation falls in the western part of the country than in the eastern part. In fact, the weather in the country can be characterized by instability of precipitation: leaving the house in the morning in sunny weather, you can return after an hour in heavy rain.

Political system

The political system of Great Britain is as follows - it is a unitary state (parliamentary monarchy). There is no single constitution, there are laws that are based on centuries-old constitutional customs, the most important statuses and decisions of the highest judicial bodies (precedents). Officially, the supreme power in the country belongs to the royal house of Winzdorov. The current reigning monarch of the United Kingdom is Queen Elizabeth. But she reigns, not governs. Parliament is the supreme legislative body, which consists of the House of Commons (a representative national assembly elected once every five years) and the House of Lords (it includes hereditary peers, princes of royal blood, the highest spiritual and judicial dignitaries). Executive power is in the hands of the prime minister. According to tradition, he is appointed by the reigning monarch from the party that won the most seats in the House of Commons.

The administrative divisions of Great Britain are as follows: it consists of four administrative and political parts (historical provinces): England (39 counties, 6 metropolitan counties and London), Wales (9 counties, 3 cities, 10 city-counties), Scotland (32 regions) and Ireland (26 regions) . Great Britain was once a country on which the sun never set, because it owned colonies all over the world. After the Second World War, it finally lost all territories, but nevertheless today it has sovereignty over the following territories: Bermuda, Montserrat Island, Gibraltar, Anguilla, Saint Helena, Cayman Islands, British Antarctic Territory, Falkland Islands, Turks and Caicos Islands, British Virgin Islands, Pitcairns Island, British Indian Ocean Territory, South Georgia and the Sandwich Islands. The official language is English. Although 4 more languages ​​​​are spoken in the country: Welsh, Irish, Gaelic and Cornish. The ethnic composition of the population is quite diverse. From the early periods of British history, there was a process of formation of three different ethnic communities - the English, the Scots and the Welsh.

The country has a hierarchy of cities. London, as the capital of Great Britain, occupies a leading position as the main political, cultural, industrial, economic center of the country, as well as one of its largest seaports. In addition to London, it is worth highlighting such cities as Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast (the capitals of Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland); Glasgow, Newcastle, Leeds and Bradford, Birmingham, Manchester, Sheffield and Liverpool are conurbation core cities and regional centres. Few places in the world have seaside cities as important as the United Kingdom, which has 44 port cities. London arose as a seaport for trade with continental states; through Gul (Hull) trade was conducted with the countries of the Baltic Sea; Bristol and Liverpool are transport arteries that connected the UK with the USA. Seaside resort towns (Brighton, Margate, Blackpool and Scarborough) are very popular among both the British and tourists.

Industry

Great Britain has established itself as a highly developed industrial country, which acts as a supplier of industrial products in the world. The largest industrial monopolies are Imperial Chemical Industries, or IKI, Unilever, British Leyland and the General Electric Company. The industrial belt of Great Britain starts from London, further to Lancashire, and also from West Yorkshire to Gloucestershire, you can also mention south Wales, central part Scotland and North East England. The country's industrial facilities are located in this region. The remaining areas have become lagging (i.e. Northern Ireland, almost all of Wales, most of Scotland, the northeast and part of the southwest of England).

The government is taking steps to prevent further concentration of people and industrial facilities in one area. Agriculture in the UK employs only about 3% of the working population of the country, who produce more than half of the agricultural products consumed by its inhabitants. However, natural conditions favorable for the development of animal husbandry rather than agriculture. Therefore, the UK imports products such as bacon, sugar, wheat, etc.

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