Love

What are the prerequisites for racial conflict indirect discrimination. What are the prerequisites and stages of the development of the conflict (open with examples). What are the main stages in the development of the conflict

suggests that the employer is applying a formally neutral condition, criterion or practice that puts members of a protected category in a clearly uncomfortable position. An employer's actions can be considered discriminatory if 4 provisions are met: the employer applies or would apply the condition, criterion or practice equally to all workers within the relevant group, including an employee who is part of a protected group; the condition, criterion or practice places, or would place, people in a protected group at a disadvantage compared to other workers; the condition, criterion or practice has put or would put the worker in a difficult position; the employer cannot prove that the condition, criterion or practice is a proportionate means towards a legitimate aim. With regard to the concept of differentiation in Russian legislation, there is also no specificity. Soviet encyclopedic dictionary differentiation is understood as "the division, dismemberment of the whole into various parts, forms and steps." Differentiation is also defined through differences in the content of legal regulation, due to objectively existing factors. You can also find the definition of differentiation as “any discrimination that depends on certain conditions and is enshrined in the norms”, that is, differentiation is legalized discrimination. In a broad sense, differentiation can be understood as all sorts of gradations in norms that depend on certain conditions. As applied, for example, to labor law differentiation involves the normative establishment of differences, exceptions, preferences and limitations in legal regulation labor relations certain categories of workers. The task that differentiation is intended to solve is, in particular, to adapt the general legal norm to the relations of certain categories of workers with unequal abilities or working in different conditions. The implementation of this task ensures the most effective impact of labor law on the public relations improves the process of legal regulation. But the main problem is to ensure that the boundaries between discrimination and differentiation, already rather blurred, are not erased at all. The term “differentiation” itself is not used by the Russian legislator, but differentiation in legal regulation is inherent in the norms of social sectors Russian law. At the same time, the Russian legislator does not always manage to implement the principle of unity and differentiation in the legal regulation of relations without violating the prohibition of discrimination. One of the main areas of differentiation of the norms of social branches of Russian law is the protection of the reproductive function of women, the protection of persons with family responsibilities, and the protection of children. As the Constitutional Court has repeatedly noted Russian Federation, the Constitution of the Russian Federation, including its Art. 17 (part 3), 19 and 55 (part 3), allows the existence of differences in the rights of citizens in a particular area of legal regulation, if such differences are objectively justified, justified and pursue constitutionally significant goals, and used to achieve these goals legal remedies proportionate to them; the criteria (features) underlying the establishment of special norms should be determined on the basis of the goal pursued in this case of differentiation in legal regulation. Accordingly, when establishing guarantees of state support and social protection family, motherhood, fatherhood and childhood, the legislator has the right to use a differentiated approach to determining the nature and scope of such guarantees provided to a particular category of citizens, taking into account specific socially significant circumstances. Gender stereotypes that successfully influenced throughout the twentieth century. on the formation of social branches of legislation both in foreign and in Russian society, are gradually leaving, taking with them the norms providing for enhanced protection of motherhood as a factor of differentiation. At the same time, legislation providing for the differentiation of legal norms in relation to persons with family responsibilities should be based on the principle of gender neutrality. The essence of this principle is that guarantees and benefits should be equally provided for both mother and father. The decision to use them should be entirely at the mercy of the family. The fact that Russia ratified ILO Convention No. 156 “On equal treatment and equal opportunities for working men and women: workers with family responsibilities” made it legally possible to extend the benefits and guarantees provided for single mothers to single fathers and persons with family responsibilities. But despite major breakthroughs in this direction, the path to the end is not yet passed. It's confirmed judicial practice. In 2010, the judgment of the European Court of Human Rights (hereinafter referred to as the ECtHR) dated October 7, 2010 in the case “Konstantin Markin v. Russia” became very indicative. The applicant was a soldier. After a divorce from his wife, by court decision, three children remained to live with their father. The applicant applied to the head of the military unit with a request to grant parental leave until the age of three years, but he was refused, since such leave can only be granted to female military personnel. In August 2008, the applicant applied to the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation, challenging the unconstitutionality of the legal provisions relating to the three-year parental leave, however, by the decision of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation of 15.01.2009, the applicant's complaints were refused. Referring to Art. 14 of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms in conjunction with Art. 8 of the Convention, the applicant complained to the ECtHR about the refusal to grant him parental leave, arguing that the refusal constituted discrimination on the basis of sex. The court was not convinced by the arguments of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation that different attitudes towards male servicemen and military men are different. echr. coe. int/tkp 197/view. asp?action=html&documentI d=875216&portal=hbkm&source=externalbydocnumber&table=F 69A27FD8FB 86142BF01C1166DEA398649 to female employees in terms of granting parental leave is justified by a special social role mothers in raising children. Unlike maternity leave, parental leave is related to the subsequent period and is intended to provide an opportunity to take care of the child at home. With respect to this role, both parents are in a similar position. Arguments were also unconvincing that military service requires uninterrupted performance of duties and that, consequently, the massive receipt of parental leave by male military personnel will negative impact to the combat readiness of the armed forces. Indeed, there are no expert estimates or statistical studies on the number of male military personnel who are eligible for and would like to receive three years of parental leave. Thus, the RF Constitutional Court based its decision on a pure assumption. The ECtHR held that the failure to grant male military personnel the right to parental leave, while female military personnel are granted such a right, is not reasonably justified. The ECtHR by six votes to one (Judge Anatoly Kovler, elected from the Russian Federation, voted against) ruled that Art. 14 of the Convention in conjunction with Art. 8 of the Convention. We fully agree with the opinion of the ECHR in this case: if the Russian Federation decided to create a parental leave program, then it should not be discriminatory, and also with the fact that the perception of women as the main educators of children is a “gender prejudice” (p. 58 affairs). Unfortunately, instead of eliminating the discriminatory norm, the Chairman of the Constitutional Court of Russia considered that the position of the ECtHR in this case “directly affects national sovereignty fundamental constitutional principles” and “Russia has the right to develop a protective mechanism against such decisions” An attempt by the ECtHR to help Russian citizens To achieve a gender-neutral norm on special vacations for military personnel, V. Zorkin called "the imposition of external" orchestration "of the legal situation in the country", which ignores the "historical, cultural, social situation." At the same time, he pointed out that “such “conductors” need to be corrected. Sometimes 83 89t 90
most resolutely." Russia's tough stance on this case led to its transfer to the Grand Chamber, which, in fact, turned the gender issue into a political plane. The Grand Chamber upheld the original decision of the ECtHR. Providing benefits to certain categories of people is designed to make them competitive in the labor market, to protect the most vulnerable of them from the arbitrariness of the employer. And in defense, getting into heavy life situation, need not only mothers, but also other family members who, on an equal basis with a woman, have family responsibilities. Establishment for employees with family responsibilities advanced level protection, including protection from dismissal, is aimed at providing them with truly equal opportunities with other citizens to exercise their rights and freedoms in the sphere of work, which is due to objectively existing difficulties associated with raising children. Historically, at the legislative level, mothers and fathers in labor law were not equal in rights. Even now, despite the ratification of a significant number of international acts enshrining gender equality, the issue of equal opportunities for persons with family responsibilities remains relevant for Russia. Resolution of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation of December 15, 2011 No. 28-P on the case of checking the constitutionality of the fourth part of Article 261 Labor Code The Russian Federation, in connection with the complaint of citizen A.E. Ostaev, pointed out another serious drawback of a discriminatory nature, consisting in the exclusion of working fathers with many children from the category protected by law. The complaint of Ostaev A.E., a citizen dismissed by reduction, the father of three young children, one of whom has not reached the age of three, and the other is disabled, was aimed at checking the constitutionality of part 4 of article 261 of the Labor Code of the Russian Federation. Ostaev considered his dismissal unreasonable and illegal, pointing out that the ban on termination employment contract at the initiative of the employer, it should also apply to male fathers with children under the age of three (especially in a situation where the mother, as in his case, does not work in connection with caring for children). Refusing to satisfy the claims, the court of first and second instance indicated that the plaintiff was not included in the circle of persons who are provided with a guarantee provided for by part four of Article 261 of the Labor Code of the Russian Federation. The Constitutional Court recognized the provision of Part 4 of Art. 261 inconsistent with the Constitution of Russia, its art. 7, 19, 37 (part 1) and 38 (part 1 and 2), to the extent that it is in the system of current legal regulation, prohibiting the dismissal at the initiative of the employer of women with children under the age of three, and others persons raising children of this age without a mother excludes the possibility of using this guarantee for a father who is the only breadwinner in large family raising young children, including a child under the age of three, where the mother is not in an employment relationship and takes care of the children. In our opinion, these two cases are connected in some way. Both of them are based on the lack of gender neutrality of certain norms of Russian legislation and the violation of the principle of equality. Yes, Ostaev, unlike Markin, was not a military man, but both of them are fathers of many children, to whom Russian law did not give guarantees to the same extent as mothers, as required by the Convention on the Rights of the Child, which imposes on the state the obligation to take all possible efforts to ensure recognition of the principle of common and equal responsibility of both parents for the upbringing and development of the child, to take care of their family. The Constitution of the Russian Federation recognizes the care of children, their upbringing as an equal right and duty of parents (Article 38, Part 2). The principle of equality of rights and obligations of both parents in relation to their children was enshrined and specified in the Family Code of the Russian Federation. We consider absolutely correct the conclusion of the Constitutional Court that both parents may be subject to governmental support needed by a family that has a child under the age of three and therefore requires special care especially if several young children are brought up in such a family. Despite the positive trend of obsolete with the help of international acts and judicial practice gender imbalance, there are still norms in Russian legislation that should be adjusted in line with gender neutrality. In particular, these are norms that restrict the admission of women to certain types of work. Restricting women's right to free labor choice does not protect them, but automatically deprives them of the right to employment. In this connection, we do not agree, despite the motivation, with the position of the Cassation Board Supreme Court of the Russian Federation, which upheld the decision of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation of March 2, 2009 on the application of citizen Klevets A.Yu. their ability to work and the right to choose the type of activity and profession. The problem of distinguishing between differentiation and discrimination was also raised at the level regional organizations. The Seventh European Congress on Labor Law and Social Security, held in Stockholm, Sweden, on September 4-6, back in 2002, developed the following criteria for delimiting discrimination (as a violation of the principle of equality and human rights) and differentiation (as a method inherent in labor law). regulation of relations necessary to create guarantees of the same non-discrimination): - in some areas of art (for example, a man cannot act as a model for a sculptor if the latter is tasked with sculpting Eve); - depending on cultural or religious characteristics (in some states, women are excluded from the sphere of public service or business due to religious specifics); - when special requirements are explained by the interests of third parties (not only the employer and employee). So, for example, in correctional labor institutions, prisons, when an employee must be of the same sex as a person who is subjected to a personal search. An example was given judgment, which recognized as a manifestation of discrimination the fact that the existence of a single prison officer (male), responsible, among other things, for examining prisoners, is a manifestation of discrimination against female prisoners; - in order to guarantee the observance of the rights to the protection of honor and dignity, privacy; - in the interests of the safety of women themselves - limiting the use of female labor in underground work, night work, etc. It should be noted that one of the trends in EU legislation is the gradual reduction of such work, where the use of women's labor is prohibited or limited. In a number of countries (Germany - a ban on recruiting women for night work), such bans are considered as a violation of the principle of equal opportunities and, as a result, the Constitution; - the establishment of guarantees of increased protection for pregnant women and women raising children (as a rule, this manifests itself in the possibility of transferring such women to lighter jobs, as well as a ban on dismissal during pregnancy and until the end of parental leave). Signs of differentiation are: - the existence of reasons for differentiation, which lead to the need to adopt special regulation. First of all, it is the need to protect workers from the impact of production factors, as well as ensuring equality; - availability of grounds for differentiation - differences in legal regulation are based on objectively existing stable features of the subjects of labor relations and working conditions of employees.

Classification of materials by conflict

The material on the conflict was organized in the textbook into four chapters:

a) conflict as conscious competition,
b) war, instinct and ideals,
c) rivalry, cultural conflicts and social organization,
d) racial conflicts.

A) conscious competition.

The self-consciousness of the individual is formed during the contacts and conflicts of the individual with other individuals. It manifests itself in many different ways: in pride and humility, vanity and dignity, modesty and arrogance, pity and contempt, as well as racial prejudice, chauvinism, class and caste distinctions, and in any other social product through which social distances are maintained. It is from the reactions caused by social contacts and mutual influences that the personality of the individual develops, and his status is determined. It is from efforts to maintain or improve that status, to protect the individual, to increase her wealth, to extend her privileges, and to preserve her prestige, that conflict arises. This applies to all conflicts, whether personal or party squabbles, sectarian differences, or national and patriotic wars; for the personality of the individual is certainly so intimately bound up with the interests and order of his group or clan that in struggle the group becomes the motivating source of the personality. Much has been said and written about economic reasons wars, but whatever the sources of our feelings may be, it seems to be true that people never go to war just for economic reasons. Precisely because wealth and property are associated with prestige, honor and position in the world, people and nations fight for them.

B) War, instinct and ideals.

War is an excellent and typical example of conflict. In war, when hostility overwhelms every utilitarian interest and every sentiment that might otherwise unite rival parties or groups, the motives and role of the conflict in social life appear in their most obvious form. Moreover, there is a practical reason to use the example of war to illustrate conflict. Huge Interest manifested in war at all times, the incredible forces and resources mobilized by people organized for military aggression or defense, the colossal damage and sacrifices made in the name of the glory, honor or security of the homeland, made wars unforgettable. No other major aspect of collective life is so memorable to us. The problem of the relationship of war to human instincts, on the one hand, and to human ideals, on the other, is at the center of many current studies and discussions. To assert that hostility is not originally rooted in human nature is, apparently, an empty matter. The specific material presented in this chapter shows beyond any doubt how easily human desires and instincts take the form of conflict. On the other hand, the notion that tradition, culture, collective representations do nothing to determine the predisposition of nations to war seems equally untenable. Meaning sociological research and consists in determining how exactly the combination of inclinations in the original nature (of man) with the forces of tradition and culture and with the needs of the situation determines the organization of the attitude to struggle. Eat historical examples how warlike peoples became peaceful, and how peace-loving peoples turned into warlike ones. Understanding the mechanism of this process is the first condition for any application of control.

C) Rivalries, cultural conflicts and social organization.

Rivalry is a sublimated form of conflict, when the struggle of individuals is subordinated to the well-being of the group. Similarly, in rivalry between groups, conflict or competition is subordinated to the interests of the larger group. Rivalry, therefore, can be defined as a conflict controlled by a group in its own interests. The study of the phenomenon of rivalry reveals its role as an organizing force in the life of the group. In the study of conflict groups, it is not always easy to apply with certainty the distinction drawn here between rivalry and conflict. The sect is a conflict group, its struggle with other groups for survival and success is aimed at the highest well-being of the society that includes it. However, in fact, sectarian struggle can go against the moral, social and religious interests of the community. Belonging to a religion means joining an accommodation group that, through rivalry and competition, seeks to promote the well-being not only of an all-inclusive society, but also of other groups that make up this society. In the case of cultural and political conflict, the function of conflict in social life becomes understandable and acceptable. The role of mental conflicts in the life of an individual is aimed at creating, adapting to changing situations and learning new experiences. It is in the process of conflict between opposing impulses to act that the individual comes to conclusions or, as we call it, "makes a decision." Only where there is conflict, behavior is conscious and self-conscious; only in this case there are conditions for rational behavior.

D) Racial conflicts.

Nowhere do social contacts cause conflict more easily than in relations between races, in especially if racial differences are exacerbated not only by differences in culture, but also by skin color. It may be added that nowhere are reactions to social contact so obvious and, at the same time, not amenable to analysis and definition with such difficulty. Racial prejudice, as we call the sentiments that accompany (support) racial taboos, is not, at least in America, uncommon. But no one has yet succeeded in making them quite understandable. In racial prejudice, in contrast to class or caste prejudice, an instinctive factor is clearly manifested, rooted in fear of the unfamiliar and incomprehensible. Skin color or any other racial trait that emphasizes physical differences, becomes a symbol of moral incompatibility, which, perhaps, does not exist. The stranger both attracts us and causes fear, and an individual of a different race always seems to us a stranger to a greater extent than a person of our own race. This naive prejudice, if it is not supported by other factors, is easily modified, as evidenced by the close relationship of blacks and whites in slavery. A more positive factor in racial antagonism is the conflict of cultures: the unwillingness of one race to enter into personal competition with a race of another or lower culture. This unwillingness turns out, in the long run, to be the unwillingness of a higher-status people or class to compete on an equal footing with a lower-status people. Racial conflicts, like wars, are essentially a struggle between racial groups for status. In this sense and from this point of view, the struggle of the European nations and the so-called "enslaved peoples" for independence and self-determination is in fact a struggle for status in the family of nations. Under the conditions of this struggle, racial and national consciousness, in such manifestations as, for example, Irish nationalism, Jewish Zionism, or Negro racial consciousness, is a natural and obvious reaction to conflict situation. Nationalist movements in Europe, India, Egypt, like war, rivalry and more personal forms of conflict, are basically a struggle for recognition, that is, for honor, glory and prestige.

- 25.92 Kb

On the topic “What are the prerequisites and stages of the development of the conflict (open with examples)?”

Introduction………………………………………………………………………...3

1. What are the prerequisites and stages of the development of the conflict (open with examples)? ............. ............................. ....... ...................3

Conclusion…………………………………………………… …………………

INTRODUCTION

Each person in life has his own goals related to various areas of life. Everyone strives to achieve something of their own or tries to do something in their own way. Therefore, in everyday life, people often encounter conflict situations. For a conflict is a clash, and opinions, forces, interests, inclinations, claims can collide ... The list can be continued in any way, since the manifestations of human feelings are very multifaceted, and the reasons that push a person to conflict are also diverse. In any case, conflicts occupy a large place in our lives.

When people think of conflict, they most often associate it with aggression, threats, arguments, hostility, war, and so on. As a result, there is an opinion that conflict is always undesirable, that it should be avoided if possible, and that it should be resolved immediately as soon as it arises. But in general, conflict is not a tragedy, but a natural process that occurs within the human community, whether it is a cool team, a family, an educational institution, an organization where you work. Often this helps to reveal the rational grain in resolving the situation, if the conflict does not go beyond the reasonable in the ways of finding out the truth. Such disagreements are even a stimulus for personal growth, and for uniting the team, and for strengthening relationships.

The concept of "conflict" and its essence.

There are many definitions of the term "conflict". The most complete and universal for many disciplines, in my opinion, is this one: “Conflict is the most acute way of resolving contradictions in interests, goals, views, arising in the process of social interaction, consisting in the opposition of the participants in this interaction, and usually accompanied by negative emotions, leaving beyond rules and regulations."

The conflicting parties can be community groups, groups of animals, individuals and individuals of animals, technical systems.

Also, the conflict can be understood as a counteraction of the properties of two phenomena that claim to be the state of reality defined by them.

From an ordinary point of view, conflict carries a negative meaning, is associated with aggression, deep emotions, disputes, threats, hostility, etc. There is an opinion that conflict is always an undesirable phenomenon and should be avoided if possible and, if it has arisen, immediately resolved . Modern psychology considers conflict not only in a negative, but also in a positive way: as a way of developing an organization, a group and an individual, highlighting positive aspects in the inconsistency of conflict situations related to development and subjective understanding of life situations.

Prerequisites and stages of development of the conflict

Don't rush to see conflict where there isn't already. Conflict behavior of one person is not yet a conflict. Objectively, a conflict situation is a strong prerequisite for conflict, but conflict in this situation may not take place.

In the process of its development, the conflict goes through several stages, which are not mandatory. The duration of the stages also varies. But their sequence in any conflict is the same. The conflict includes 2 phases: latent (hidden conflict) and open conflict phase.

The pre-conflict situation forms a latent stage. This is the growth of tension in relations between potential subjects of the conflict, caused by certain contradictions. The conflict always has reasons, it does not arise from scratch, although the presence of conflicting interests is not always immediately recognized.

The variety of causes of conflict can be classified into 5 groups:

Striving for excellence;
The manifestation of aggressiveness;
Devaluation of the needs of other people;
Violation of the rules;
Circumstances that cause a negative reaction or state even before the conflict, before communication.

Considering the first group of "striving for superiority", we can say that this is the largest group of conflicts. The basis of the occurrence of which is the word. After all, as you know, for every word that generates a conflict, a person responds to himself with a stronger conflict word.

There are many examples of a conflict situation here. Such, in my opinion, are joking, interrupting the interlocutor, imposing one's advice. Also, I believe, direct manifestations of superiority contribute to the conflict: threats, orders, accusations. Often the cause of the conflict is a condescending attitude, such words as “Do not be offended”, “Calm down”, “Don't worry so much”, etc. - can also cause aggression on the part of the opponent of the conversation.

In the second group, “manifestations of aggression”, as a rule, two types of aggression are distinguished: natural and situational. There are very few examples of natural aggression, since it is restrained, can almost be nullified by education, an example of the behavior of loved ones (especially in early age), moral foundations, the laws of society and the structures responsible for the observance of these laws. But situational aggressiveness, I believe, can be provoked by a bad mood or well-being, troubles (personal or professional), and also as a response to an offensive message received.

The main feature of the devaluation of the needs of other people, I think, is selfishness, as well as deception or attempted deception. A person behaves like a child who thinks that the whole world revolves around him, and all people are obliged to give up their needs and serve his own. Such a person achieves a specific goal at the expense of other people, and not at the expense of his own resources.

Speaking of breaking the rules, I can say that breaking any rule is a factor that provokes conflict - be it the rule of ethics, internal labor regulations, safety, traffic, family arrangements, etc. Actually, the rules are developed as a means of preventing conflicts.

A provocation of a conflict can be a contact with an annoyed person that happened before your meeting with your interlocutor, unpleasant news or an incident, an undesirable change in the situation, bad weather, etc.

At this stage, the conflict participants are not aware of the contradictions. Conflict manifests itself only in explicit or implicit dissatisfaction with the situation. The discrepancy between values, interests, goals, means of achieving them does not always translate into direct actions aimed at changing the situation: the opposite side sometimes either resigns itself to injustice or waits in the wings, holding a grudge.

If the conflict still continues to develop, the second phase begins - the phase of an open conflict (confrontation). This phase includes several stages: the incident, the escalation of the conflict, the balanced counteraction, the end of the conflict.

I believe that the incident is a formal reason for the start of a direct confrontation between the parties. An incident can happen by chance, or it can be provoked by the subject (subjects) of the conflict. An incident may also be the result of a natural course of events. It happens that an incident is prepared and provoked by some "third force", pursuing its own interests in the alleged "foreign" conflict. The most striking example, it seems to me, is the murder in Sarajevo of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne Franz Ferdinand and his wife, carried out by a group of Bosnian terrorists on August 28, 1914, served as a formal pretext for the outbreak of the First World War, although the tension between the Entente and the German military bloc existed for many years.

Important elements of the development of the conflict at this stage are: “reconnaissance”, gathering information about the true capabilities and intentions of opponents, searching for allies and attracting additional forces to their side. Since in an incident the confrontation is local character, the full potential of the participants in the conflict has not yet been demonstrated. Although all forces are already beginning to be brought into combat condition. However, even after the incident, it remains possible to resolve the conflict peacefully, through negotiations, to come to a compromise between the subjects of the conflict. And this opportunity should be used to the fullest.

Further, the conflict can develop only in two ways - through the intensification of hostile actions towards each other (escalation); or through differentiation of the subject of the conflict (de-escalation). An example of escalation, I think, is the specifics of Germany's actions in World War II, when its attack on Poland was followed by armed incursions into Denmark, Belgium, Luxembourg, etc.

At this stage, any negotiations or other peaceful means of resolving the conflict become difficult. Emotions often begin to drown out the mind, logic gives way to feelings. The main task is to cause as much damage as possible to the enemy at any cost. Therefore, at this stage, the original cause and main goal of the conflict may be lost and new causes and new goals come to the fore. During this stage of the conflict, a change in value orientations is also possible, in particular, values-means and values-goals can change places. The development of the conflict acquires a spontaneous uncontrollable character.

The last stage is called the end of the conflict. At this stage, the conflict ends, which, however, does not mean that the claims of the parties are satisfied. In reality, there may be several outcomes of the conflict. In general, we can say that each of the parties either wins or loses, and the victory of one of them does not always mean that the other has lost. For example, a compromise may not always be considered a victory for both sides; a side often seeks a compromise only to prevent its opponent from considering itself victorious, and this happens even if the compromise is as unfavorable for it as losing.

It is important that when resolving a conflict, a solution is found to the problem that caused it. The more fully resolved the contradiction, the greater the chances for the normalization of relations between the participants, the less the likelihood of the conflict escalating into a new confrontation.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, I want to say that in order to be able to cope with conflicts and try to prevent them, it is necessary to understand the nature of conflicts, their causes, possible development paths and behavior patterns in them. Also, I believe that a thorough analysis of the conflict is necessary to overcome difficulties in repaying conflicts, to establish possible causes and consequences of this conflict.

There are no specific recommendations for conflict prevention if all its versatility has not been studied: the cause of occurrence, the psychological state of the parties, the object of the conflict, the readiness of opponents to cooperate in preventing or resolving the conflict, etc.

At the same time, it is clear that we must try in every possible way to avoid the emergence, and if this is not possible, then the escalation of conflicts into global cataclysms, both in the collective at enterprises and on a global scale.

LIST OF USED SOURCES

Fundamentals of psychology and pedagogy [Electronic resource]: electron. study method. complex for students of the specialty 1-25 01 07 Economics and management at the enterprise / compiled by: N. A. Goncharuk, G. P. Kostevich.
Antsupov, A. Ya. Meaning, subject and tasks of conflictology // Conflictology. - M.: UNITI, 1999. - S. 81. - 551 p.
Grishina NV Psychology of conflict. - St. Petersburg, 2003.
Ivanova V.F. Sociology and psychology of conflicts. M., 2000.
Myasishchev V.N. Psychology of relations // Selected psychological works - M.; Voronezh, 2005.

Unlike other Western societies, in the United States, racial-ethnic relations and conflicts at many stages played an independent, and even a leading role in social environment. Throughout the history of the United States, its people of color have differed significantly in their socio-professional structure from whites. Colored people have always been subjected to over-exploitation and racial discrimination, belonged to the most disadvantaged sections of the population.

As a result of massive anti-racist demonstrations, in 1964 ᴦ. was accepted Law on civil rights, which prohibited discrimination against black Americans in service in public places, in employment, etc. Also, the black population achieved quotas for admission to educational institutions. But racism, which had disappeared from the language of Americans, continued to persist in their minds. ʼʼAfrican Americansʼʼ, who received the same rights and benefits, began to cause discontent among whites, tk. they have more children, are more often in prison, more often receive benefits for poverty, unemployment, and child rearing. Whites began to separate from blacks with a dense wall and, contrary to their answers to questions from services public opinion, show no desire to mix with them into a single nation. In response, black Americans took their own racial position: in order to separate themselves from whites because of their ʼʼineradicable racismʼʼ, they sought to form their own sub-civilization: they created schools, theaters, higher educational institutions.

Groups of American citizens who speak English have also been discriminated against in the United States. Spanish, mostly Mexicans - Chicano. About 16 million legal immigrants have entered the United States since the early 1970s. The number of illegal immigrants is not exactly known, but is also measured in the millions. For this reason, the racial-ethnic question still remains important.

Although today there is no direct threat to the unity of American society, nevertheless, since the early 1970s. tendencies have been identified that may contribute to the emergence of racial conflicts. Now under the influence of mass immigration from Asia, Africa and Latin America the "porosity" of American society is increasing, since more or less large inclusions of communities of Chinese, Koreans, Burmese, Vietnamese, Mexicans, etc. are observed in it.
Hosted on ref.rf
A typical example of such an inclusion is the world of "Chinatowns" (Chinese communities) that gradually emerged in American cities, where the "100%" American has no access and where he does not aspire.

The racial-ethnic problem in modern America is a considerable threat to the future existence of the white, Anglo-Saxon population. As a result of the uneven distribution of various racial and ethnic groups throughout the country, powerful clusters of non-white populations have developed in a number of regions (Texas, California, New Jersey, etc.). As a result of the territorial concentration of national minorities, numerous "colored" cities appeared on the US map (Washington, Miami, Detroit, Atlanta, New Orleans, New York, etc.). It is the concern to preserve oneself as a Western nation that underlies the growing public sentiment in favor of limiting immigration. But limiting the flow of immigrants from other parts of the world comes into conflict with the economic benefits to America from this process. As a result, the task of integrating American society is again emerging today.

Questions for self-examination:

1. What factors determine the Northern Ireland conflict?

2. What is the basis of the contradictions between the Walloons and the Flemings in Belgium?

3. What are the methods of struggle of ethnic minorities for their rights in Western countries?

4. What are the trends in the development of racial-ethnic relations in the United States?

Topic 2.5. Ethnic and interethnic conflicts in Russia and the CIS countries at the end of the 20th century early XXI centuries

Summary: Causes of ethnic and interethnic conflicts in the post-Soviet space. Restoration of constitutional order in Chechnya. Conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan over Nagorno-Karabakh. The conflict in Moldova, the formation of the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic. situation in Tajikistan. Acute interethnic conflicts in the Caucasus. Interethnic conflicts in Georgia: events in Abkhazia and South Ossetia. The collapse of Georgia's armed attack on South Ossetia. Russia's recognition of the sovereignty of South Ossetia and Abkhazia.

Requirements To knowledge and skills:

Have an idea: about history and state of the art development of interethnic conflicts in the post-Soviet space.

Know: causes of interethnic conflicts in Nagorno-Karabakh, Transnistria and the Caucasus.

Be able to: generalize the experience in resolving conflicts on religious and national grounds in modern Russia.

Decay Soviet Union called into question the legitimacy of the governments of the former Soviet republics. This provoked oppositional unrest, the activation of anti-communist and nationalist forces. Disputes and contradictions arose between some states.

Racial conflicts in the USA - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Racial conflicts in the USA" 2017, 2018.

The causes of conflicts are extremely diverse, and for some types of conflicts there are their own, special reasons. There are several causes that lead to conflict either alone or in combination.

1. Limited resources to be distributed. These can be a wide variety of resources: material and technical, financial, socio-economic, etc. Their limitation can cause a conflict of interests between individuals and social groups, because their allocation to any individual or production association means that others will receive a smaller share. At the same time, it doesn’t matter what it is about - bonuses, computers, new equipment, etc.

2. Interdependence of responsibility and tasks. The possibility of conflict in an organization exists wherever one person or group is dependent on the performance of other people's tasks. This is due to the fact that any organization is a system, the elements of which are functionally interconnected. Therefore, if any element of the system (employee, department) does not fulfill the duties and tasks assigned to it, that is, it functions inadequately, allows malfunctions, then in this case the normal functioning of the entire system is disrupted. And this is already fraught with conflict on different levels and between different actors in the organization.

3. Goal inconsistency. The reason for the conflict lies in the fact that various functional groups in the organization may pay more attention to achieving their goals than the organization as a whole. In this case, the conflict can arise both between the group and the organization, and between groups within the organization. For example, between the sales department and the production department.

4. Differences in perceptions and values. The idea of any situation depends on the desire to achieve a certain goal. Instead of assessing a situation objectively, people may consider only those views, alternatives, and aspects of the situation that they believe are favorable to their group and personal needs.

5. Differences in behavior and life experience. These differences can also increase the possibility of conflict. Studies show that people with character traits such as authoritarianism, dogmatism, are more likely to come into conflict.

6. Bad communications. Poor communication is both a cause and a consequence of conflict. It can act as a catalyst for conflict, making it difficult for individuals or groups to understand the situation or the perspectives of others.

10. What are the main stages in the development of the conflict?

Any conflict is a process that develops in a certain sequence. The following stages of conflict development are distinguished: pre-conflict situation, open conflict stage, end-of-conflict stage, post-conflict period.

For the pre-conflict (latent) stage characteristic is the emergence and accumulation of contradictions in the system of interpersonal and group relations, the growth of distrust and social tension, the appearance of prejudice and hostility in the emotional sphere. This stage is characterized by the fact that it creates a real possibility of conflict. But it can also be resolved “peacefully”, without conflict, if the conditions that gave rise to it disappear on their own or are “removed” as a result of realizing the situation as a pre-conflict one.

If the contradictions of interests outlined at the pre-conflict stage cannot be resolved, sooner or later the pre-conflict situation turns into an open conflict. The transition of a conflict from a latent state to an open confrontation occurs as a result of one incident or another. Incident– an action or set of actions of participants in a conflict situation that provokes a sharp aggravation of the contradiction and the beginning of a struggle between the participants. In other words, an incident is a formal reason for the start of a direct confrontation between the parties. An incident can happen by chance, or it can be provoked by the subject (subjects) of the conflict.

Stage of open conflict characterized by the fact that the actions of opponents become practical, they acquire an external form, including violence, threats, etc. Escalation of the conflict- this is the most intense stage, when there is an aggravation of all the contradictions between its participants, and all the possibilities are used to win the confrontation. Escalation is such a change in the conflict that progresses over time, in which the destructive subsequent impacts of the parties on each other's interests (interference, use of force, etc.) are higher in intensity than the previous ones. There is a mobilization of all resources: material, political, financial, physical, mental and others. The characteristic signs of the escalation of the conflict are the creation of the image of the enemy, the demonstration of force and the threat of its use, the use of violence, the tendency to expand and deepen the conflict.

The duration and intensity of the conflict depend on many factors: on the goals and attitudes of the parties, on the resources at their disposal, on the means and methods of waging a struggle, on the symbols of victory and defeat, on the existing and possible ways to find consensus, etc.

End of the conflict- This final stage open period of conflict. It means any of its endings and can be expressed in a radical change in values by the subjects of confrontation, the emergence of real conditions for its termination or forces capable of doing so. Often the end of the conflict is characterized by the fact that both sides realized the futility of continuing the conflict.

The most typical ways to complete conflicts are as follows:

elimination (destruction) of the opponent or both opponents of the confrontation;

elimination (destruction) of the object of the conflict;

change in the positions of both or one of the parties to the conflict;

participation in the conflict new strength capable of completing it by coercion;

the appeal of the subjects of the conflict to the arbitrator and its completion through the arbitrator;

negotiations as one of the most effective and common ways to resolve a conflict.

It should be noted that the concepts of "end of the conflict" and "resolution of the conflict" are not identical. Conflict resolution there is a special case, one of the forms of ending the conflict, and it is expressed in a positive, constructive solving the problem by the main participants in the conflict or by a third party. In addition, the forms of the end of the conflict can be: attenuation (extinction of the conflict), elimination of the conflict, escalation of the conflict into another conflict.

The last stage in the dynamics of conflict is post-conflict period When the main types of tension are eliminated, relations between the parties finally normalize and cooperation and trust begin to prevail.

However, it should be borne in mind that the end of the conflict does not always lead to peace and harmony. It also happens that the end of one (primary) conflict can give impetus to others, derivative conflicts, and in completely different spheres of human life. Thus, the end of the conflict may be followed by post-conflict syndrome, expressed in tense relations between the former opponents of the conflict. And with the aggravation of contradictions between them, the post-conflict syndrome can become a source of the next conflict, and with a different object, at a new level and with a new composition of participants.