Climatic conditions in different parts of Panama. Useful information about Panama. The seas and oceans of Panama

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PANAMA, The Republic of Panama, a state located on the Isthmus of Panama, the narrowest stretch of land that connects North America with South. Area 77,082 sq. km; population - 2.73 million people (1996 estimate). It borders Colombia to the east, Costa Rica to the west, the Pacific Ocean to the south, and the Caribbean Sea to the north. The capital is the city of Panama, whose population was estimated in 1997 at 413 thousand people.

Geographically being part of Central America, Panama was part of Colombia until 1903. The life of the country is centered around the Panama Canal, next to which the capital is located. The main political efforts of the governments of the country in the 20th century. were aimed at including in its jurisdiction the Panama Canal Zone, officially under US control, and in 1979 these efforts were finally crowned with success. Canal zone with an area of ​​1432 sq. km and a length of 68 km, with a population of 47 thousand people, crosses Panama from the northwest to the southeast, connecting the Caribbean Sea with the Pacific Ocean.

Nature.

In the latitudinal direction, the central mountain range extends almost across the entire country, bordered on both sides by coastal lowlands. Both the Caribbean and Pacific coasts are characterized by deep bays and nearby islands. On the south coast, several hilly peninsulas protrude into the ocean, the largest of which is the Azuero Peninsula. The mountainous interior of Panama is formed by several ranges. The western ranges, stretching to Panama from Costa Rica, are crowned with several volcanic peaks, the highest of them is Mount Baru (3475 m above sea level). To the east stretch the steep slopes of the Serrania de Tabasara ridge, more than 900 m above sea level, reaching the Panama Canal. This range ends abruptly southwest of Panama City, and further southeast is another mountain system - the Cordillera de San Blas, which passes into the higher Serrania del Darien, continuing into Colombia. Some peaks here rise above 1200 m above sea level. Another range, Serrania del Baudo, starts in the southeast of Panama and stretches from San Miguel Bay to Colombia. The Panama Canal is laid in the lowest part of the isthmus between the western and eastern mountainous regions, where the hills do not exceed 87 m above sea level.

On the caribbean coast and the northern slopes of the mountains the climate is rainy tropical. Especially powerful showers come from May to December, but in the remaining months there is no lack of moisture. In the port of Colon, the annual rainfall is 3250 mm, and the average temperature is 27 ° C, and the temperature difference between the seasons is almost imperceptible. In the highlands, rain falls less, and on the south side of the mountains on the Pacific coast dominates tropical climate with wet and dry seasons. In the capital of the country, for example, 88% of the annual rainfall of 1750 mm falls in May-November, and the remaining five months are dry.

Approximately three quarters of Panama is covered in forests. On the Caribbean coast, littoral mangroves give way to dense rainforest of evergreen broadleaf species that provide valuable timber. Above the slopes are covered with no less dense "liana" forest, reaching almost to the tops of the ridges. The Pacific coastal regions are covered with dense semi-deciduous forest with small patches of savanna woodlands.

The fauna of Panama is rich and varied. Puma, ocelot and other felines, deer, monkeys, peccaries, anteaters, sloths, armadillos and kinkajou are found here. Among reptiles, crocodiles, alligators, poisonous and harmless snakes stand out. In addition to North American migratory birds, there are many parrots, including macaws; there are herons and toucans.

Population.

According to the 2003 census, 29.60 million people lived in the country. 20.78 people were born per 1000 inhabitants, and 6.25 people died. per year, i.e. the natural increase was 1.36%.

In 2012, more than 35.10 million people lived in the country. The natural population growth in 2012 was 1.41%.

Approximately 70% of Panamanians are either mestizos, in whose veins the blood of Indians and whites flows, or mulattos - descendants of marriages of whites with blacks. Among the rest, 14% are "African Americans", 10% are whites, and about 6% are Indians.

75% of the population lives in cities (2010). According to the 1990 census, the four largest cities in the country were the capital of Panama (411 thousand inhabitants), San Miguelito (242 thousand), David (65 thousand) and Colon (54 thousand). With the exception of David, the regional trading center of Panama's interior, the townspeople are mainly employed in the maintenance of the canal and related commerce. Rural population concentrated in the southwest of the country.

The official language of Panama is Spanish. Approximately 14% of the population is native English, and the Indians speak their own languages.

Approximately 85% of Panamanians are Catholics, about 10% (mostly blacks from the West Indians) are Protestants of various denominations, and another 5% of the inhabitants, mainly from Hindustan and the Middle East, are Muslims.

State system and politics.

Under a constitution adopted in 1972 and amended in 1978, 1983 and the 1990s, Panama is a unitary presidential republic. Until 1989, the real power in the country belonged to the military, and only then the operation of the basic law was restored in full.

Legislative power in Panama belongs to the unicameral Legislative Assembly, which since 1999 consists of 71 deputies. She is elected by popular vote for a term of 5 years, depending on the population in single-member and multi-member constituencies. The Panamanian Parliament adopts laws, ratifies international treaties, approves the state budget, imposes taxes, declares an amnesty, and approves the administrative-territorial division of the country. The Assembly considers accusations against the president, vice-presidents (may declare them removed) and deputies, approves members of the highest judiciary and prosecutors.

Executive power is exercised by the President in conjunction with the Ministers of State. In the absence of the head of state, he is replaced by the first and second vice-presidents. The President appoints and dismisses ministers, coordinates the work of state institutions and the maintenance of public order. He can veto laws passed by Parliament, approve laws, appoint and remove police commanders, officers and governors, direct foreign policy, announces an amnesty, etc. For exceeding their powers and violating electoral procedures, presidents and vice presidents can be removed by the Legislative Assembly.

The president and vice presidents are elected by popular vote for five-year terms.

The country's judicial system includes Supreme Court, tribunals and other courts. Members of the Supreme Court are nominated by the government and confirmed by Parliament for ten-year terms. There are also five courts of appeal, and the lowest court is the municipal courts.

Provincial governors and municipal authorities are appointed by the president.

Local authorities.

Panama is made up of nine provinces (Darien, Panama, Colon, Cocle, Herrera, Los Santos, Veraguas, Bocas del Toro, Chiriqui) and three indigenous territories. Provincial governors are appointed by the president; There are no regional legislatures. Municipal councils and mayors are elected locally.

Political parties.

multi-party system. The main political parties participate in elections, forming blocs and coalitions, the composition of which undergoes changes from election to election.

In the 1999 general election, the struggle unfolded between three political coalitions. The winning Alliance for Panama bloc included the Arnulfist Party, the Nationalist Republican Liberal Movement, the Democratic Change Party, and the National Renewal Movement. The New Nation coalition was made up of the Revolutionary Democratic Party, the Solidarity Party, the National Liberal Party and the Papa Egoro movement. The Opposition Alliance was formed by the Christian Democratic Party, the Civic Renewal Party and the Genuine Liberal Party.

The consignment « Panamenista". Initially, the "Revolutionary Nationalist Party" is one of the oldest political parties in Panama. The Revolutionary Nationalist Party was founded by the eldest of the Arias brothers in 1932. In 1936 younger brother Arnulfo Arias took control of the party.

Since then, the party has been a movement of supporters of Arnulfo Arias Madrid (in his honor in 1991 the party became known as Arnulfist), who first assumed the presidency of Panama in 1940, but was overthrown the following year. The ideology of "panamism" put forward by him was a mixture of elements of natural philosophy, nationalism, populism and "dosed democracy".

After his re-election to the post of head of state, A. Arias created the Panamist Party in 1951, but in the same year he was removed for exceeding his powers. In the period up to 1964, the Panamist Party boycotted the elections. In 1968, A. Arias was again elected president, but 10 days later he was removed by the military. In 1984, he created the Genuine Panamist Party, but lost the presidential election. After the death of A. Arias in 1988, the new leader of the Arnulfists, the former personal secretary of Arias, Guillermo Endara, headed a bloc with the participation of the Christian Democratic Party and the Nationalist Republican Liberal Movement. In 1989, after the American military occupation, he became President of Panama. In 1991, the faction of Endara and M.E. Moscoso created Arnulfist party(AP). In 1994, the AP led the "Democratic Alliance" with the Genuine Liberal Party, the Liberal Party, but lost the election. In 1999, the coalition led by her managed to come to power. The AP won 11 out of 71 seats in the Legislative Assembly.

In the May 2004 legislative elections, the party won 19.2% of the popular vote and 17 out of 78 seats. The representative of the party in the presidential election, Miguel Alemán, received 16.4% of the vote, mainly from the poorest segments of the population.

In 2005, the party changed its name again and now it is called "Panamenista" (Partito Panameñista).

Nationalist Republican Liberal Movement(MOLIRENA) is a centre-right party supported by business circles. Founded in 1982 by people from the National Liberal Party, the National Liberation Movement and others. In 1984 and 1989 it was blocked with the Arnulfists and Christian Democrats; its representative took the post of the second vice-president of the country after the American occupation. In 1994, MOLIRENA joined the neo-liberal political bloc "Change-94" with the participation of the National Renewal Movement and the "Civic Renewal", but their candidate was defeated in the presidential election. In 1999, the party again blocked with the Arnulfists and came to power with them. She won 6 seats in the Legislative Assembly.

Democratic Change Party And National Liberation Movement- small right-wing parties that entered the winning coalition. They have several seats in the Legislative Assembly.

Revolutionary Democratic Party (RDP) - largest Political Party Panama. Founded in 1978 on the initiative of the military leader of the country, General Omar Torrijos, after the permission of party activities in the country. RDP advocated the continuation of socio-economic and political transformations, for the return of the Panama Canal to the country. After the death of Torrijos, a fierce factional struggle broke out in the RDP, but the party managed to head the government of Panama until 1985, and in 1985-1989 to enter the ruling bloc. In 1989-1994 she was in opposition. In 1994, having led the "United People" coalition with the participation of the Labor and Liberal Republican parties, the RDP managed to return to power; its candidate E.Perez Balladares was elected president. In 1999, a bloc led by the RDP won the parliamentary elections, but its presidential candidate Martin Torrijos Espina (son of Omar Torrijos) was defeated. The RDP has gone into opposition and has 33 out of 71 seats in the Legislative Assembly. The party adheres to the centre-left orientation and cooperates with the Socialist International.

Movement "Papa Egoro"(in the language of the Indians - "Motherland") - public organization, created in the early 1990s by popular actor and musician Ruben Blades. He considers himself an alternative to the country's political establishment, advocates for the protection of Indian heritage, traditional culture and the environment, for women's rights and equality in relations with the United States. The movement sought the withdrawal of American bases from Panama. In 1994, R. Blades collected more than 17% in the presidential election. In the late 1990s, the movement experienced an internal crisis and split: not all of its supporters and factions agreed with Blades' decision to support the RDP presidential candidacy in 1999, and received 6 seats in the Legislative Assembly.

Solidarity Party- Formed in 1993. Advocated for unity and national reconciliation, the fight against unemployment, poverty, corruption and injustice, for democratization and increased participation of the broad masses in politics. In 1994, she nominated a candidate for the presidential elections, but he collected less than 2% of the vote. In 1994-1999, the party was part of the government of President Perez Balladares, in 1999 it entered the bloc led by the RDP and won 4 seats in parliament. However, after the elections, she supported the government of the new President M. Moscoso.

National Liberal Party (NLP) - founded in 1997 by R. Arango Gasteasoro, Minister of Justice in the government of Pérez Balladares. He stands for "social justice, the well-being of people, the development of the education system and the observance of workers' rights." In 1999, it was blocked with the RDP and held 3 deputies into parliament. However, after the elections, she supported the new president, M. Moscoso.

Christian Democratic Party (HDP) - established in 1960 on the basis of the National Civil Union, which was under the influence of European Christian Democracy. The party advocated moderate reforms within the framework of the social-Christian doctrine and the mitigation of social contradictions. The CDA stood in opposition against the regime of General O. Torrijos, was a member of the opposition political coalitions of the 1980s, and in 1989 its representative took the post of vice president in the government of G. Endara. In 1991, the Christian Democrats left the ruling coalition of right-wing parties and went into opposition. The 1994 elections brought them a crushing defeat (2% of the vote). In 1999, the Christian Democracy blocked with the Civic Renewal Party and the Genuine Liberal Party, but did not achieve significant success. Has 1 seat in the Legislative Assembly. The party is a member of the International of Christian Democratic Parties. In 2001 the party became known as the "People's Party".

Party "Civil Renewal"- formed in 1993 by the leaders of the "National Civil Crusade" created in 1987 - a coalition of entrepreneurial and professional organizations who opposed the military regime of General Manuel Noriega. In the early 1990s, the leaders of the movement went into opposition to the regime of President Endara, whose rule they condemned for "traditionalism" and serving "private interests." In 1994, the party acted as part of the Change-94 bloc, and in 1999 it was blocked with the CDA. Has 2 seats in Parliament.

Genuine Liberal Party (PLP)– split off in 1988 from the Genuine Panamist Party. In 1989 she supported G. Endara. In 1999, she was blocked with the CDA and the "Civil Renewal", won 3 seats in parliament. Later, she announced her readiness to cooperate with President M.E. Moscoso.

Since the beginning of the new 21st century, new parties have appeared in the country, of which the Libertarian Party (2000) should be noted; United People's Movement (2002); Democratic Change Party (2002); Political organization of a new type (2004); party "Moral Vanguard of the Fatherland" (2006).

In 2009, an opposition right-wing conservative Alliance for Change. It included the traditional Panamist Party and the Democratic Change Party. Alliance representative Ricardo Martinelli was elected president until 2014.

Armed forces.

Until 1983, the Panama National Guard performed both military and police functions. In 1983 it was transformed into three armed formations (forces national defense), which in 1986 numbered 12 thousand soldiers and officers. In the 1980s, the country experienced a period of military dictatorship by General Manuel Noriega behind the façade of civilian government.

In 1988, President Eric Arturo Delvalier attempted to remove the military from power, but was defeated and forced to flee the country. After the failed coup attempt, the US sent troops to Panama in December 1989. Noriega was arrested on charges of aiding the drug trade, and the armed forces of Panama underwent a reorganization.

Foreign policy.

Panama has traditionally been associated with the United States by close military and economic cooperation. At the same time, relations between the two countries were initially complicated by a number of historical circumstances. Until 1936, the United States exercised a protectorate over all of Panama, until 1979 occupied the canal zone, then controlled the Panama Canal; in the 1970s and 1980s, the United States was extremely sensitive to Panama's friendly relations with the revolutionary governments of Cuba and Nicaragua; in 1988, the United States imposed severe economic sanctions in order to put pressure on the government of Panama; finally, in December 1989, the United States organized a military invasion of Panama, which caused destruction and loss of life. Panama is a member of the UN and the Organization of American States (OAS).

Economy.

Panama's economy is focused primarily on servicing international transit. This orientation was determined in the early colonial period, when local residents supplied food and goods to the expeditions of the conquistadors and the streams of colonists crossing the isthmus. Panama transported Peruvian gold and silver to Spain and Californian gold to New York. After the construction of the Panama Canal, the canal zone, which was under the control of the United States, became the center of the country's economic development. Until 1979, however, Panama received a very small share of the profits, as the canal zone lived mainly on duty-free goods imported from the United States, and Panamanian citizens worked in the zone in low-wage jobs. New agreements between the United States and Panama, signed in 1977 and entered into force in 1979, provided for the elimination of the North American enclave (canal zone) and a significant increase in Panama's income.

Starting in the 1950s, at the initiative of the government, Panama began to expand the scope of its services. In 1953, a free trade zone was created in the port city of Colon, where foreign companies could use duty-free transit warehouses and other services. By the early 1980s, Colón had become one of the largest free trade zones, second only to Hong Kong, and Panama's second largest source of income. Worked here entrepreneurial activity more than 350 companies, for the most part North American. Thanks to a new package of banking laws passed in 1970, by the early 1980s, Panama had become the world's sixth largest financial center.

The cities of Panama and Colon, which have become international transit service centers, absorb half of the country's entire labor force and provide 2/3 of GDP. The manufacturing industry is concentrated in Panama City. Since the mid-1970s, the Panamanian government began to encourage the development of a national industry; in 1976, a financial corporation was founded to attract private investment in the industry. However, despite all the measures, by 1999 Panama's industrial output did not exceed 17% of GDP. At that time, agriculture, which employed 28% of the able-bodied population, provided 7% of GDP. Although in the 1960s and 1970s the share Agriculture in the country's economy has been steadily declining, in 1983 it brought 54% of export earnings. By 2002, export earnings amounted to 5.8 billion US dollars.

During the 1990s, Panama's economy developed at a fairly high pace, ensuring a corresponding increase in per capita income. The unemployment rate has decreased, the percentage of families with a low standard of living has decreased. However, the reforms did not give a quick significant effect, in particular, there was no increase in the standard of living of the population in backward rural areas.

The period 1999-2000 was characterized by a decrease in the pace and volume of investment in the Panama economy. This was partly due to the decline in economic growth rates in the main developed countries (primarily the United States).

On the other hand, during this period the stage ended economic reforms and, above all, the privatization of former state-owned enterprises and organizations, which in turn attracted a significant amount of foreign investment. The period of initial investment associated with the acquisition of national Panamanian companies has been replaced by actions to consolidate and strengthen already established conglomerates.

In 2002, Panama's gross domestic product was $18.06 billion, or $6,200 per capita. This is the highest rate among the countries of Central America. During the 1970s, Panama's GDP increased by approximately 6% annually, except for the period 1972–1976. Between 1980 and 1986, annual economic growth was 2.7%, broadly in line with the country's population growth. By 2002, this figure had dropped to 0.7%. Panama's GDP began to show signs of growth with the election of the president of the economist and entrepreneur Ernesto Pérez Balladares in 1994. A high unemployment rate persisted - 16% of the working population. The main reason for Panama's economic difficulties was the need to pay high interest on foreign debts.

IN last years Panama has reduced the pace of economic development. The share of unemployed among young people has increased. A heavy burden on the economy falls on the external and internal debt of the country, the interest payments on which account for up to a quarter of the expenditure side of the budget.
Here are some economic indicators countries estimated for 2011.
GDP (according to purchasing power parity) - 51.26 billion dollars; real GDP growth rate – 10.6%; GDP per capita - $14,300

Distribution of GDP by sectors of the economy: agriculture - 4.1%; industries - 16.7%; service sector - 79.2%.

The unemployment rate in 2011 was 4.5%, the population living below the poverty line - 29%.

Agriculture.

Almost half of Panamanian peasants use state lands, engaging in slash-and-burn agriculture. After clearing a piece of forest, they cultivate it for two or three seasons, and then leave it for several years until soil fertility is restored. Peasants grow rice, corn, sugar cane, beans and bananas for their own consumption.

These small farms are in stark contrast to the large plantations in the province of Chiriqui, the country's most fertile agricultural zone. The main export crop of the country, bananas, is grown here. Most of the plantation is owned by the Chiriqui Land Company, a subsidiary of the North American United Brands, the third largest employer in Panama. The company originally established banana plantations in the province of Bocas del Toro on the Atlantic coast, but when local bananas were found to be susceptible to a fungus (called "Panama disease"), it moved the plantations to the Pacific coast. In the 1960s, after disease-resistant varieties of bananas were bred and developed effective means fight against the fungus, it became possible to revive plantations on Atlantic coast. Banana production began to grow and in 1986 reached 1.1 million tons (in 1960 - 439 thousand tons), although some weather and strikes adversely affected the harvest. In the western provinces of Panama, sugarcane and coffee are grown for export. Cocoa beans are grown both on large plantations and in small farms.

The development of the agricultural sector of the economy was significantly hampered due to the unequal distribution of land resources. In 1970, 2.9% of the country's farms owned 46% of the agricultural land, while 68% of small farms did not exceed 10 hectares and owned a total of 8.2% of the land.

After 1968, the Panamanian government adopted a series of measures aimed at boosting agriculture, including the construction of roads, electrification, the construction of state-owned factories for processing sugar cane, and land reform. The latter provided for the creation of peasant cooperatives, mainly rice farms, working for the domestic market. In this regard, the program was successful and fully provided the country with rice. With regard to the redistribution of land, the government failed to significantly weaken the positions of large landowners: according to rough estimates, only 5% of the land suitable for cultivation was redistributed in favor of the peasants. In addition to rice, Panama is fully self-sufficient in coffee, sugar and corn, but many staple foods have to be imported. The government is developing a system of benefits to stimulate the production of essential products.

Fishing.

Fishing plays an important role in Panama's economy. Shrimps are the second largest export item in Panama. Two plants preserve herring and anchovies for export. Lobsters go to the domestic market and for export.

Timber industry.

Panama has rich timber resources, but logging is carried out only along transport river routes. Mainly mahogany (mahogany) and cedar wood is harvested. The threat to the country's forest resources is slash-and-burn agriculture, which has been encouraged by the government as an alternative to large-scale agrarian reform. As a result, there was a serious threat of shallowing of the rivers that feed the Panama Canal and ensure its navigability.

Industry.

The industrial development of the country began during the Second World War, when the government took a number of measures to stimulate investment in industry. Along with products Food Industry Panama produces clothes, shoes and furniture. The oil refining and chemical industries are developing. The government owns a small steel mill, a cement plant and four sugarcane processing plants.

Mining industry.

In 1968, one of the world's largest copper deposits was discovered in Cerro Colorado (prov. Chiriqui). The government developed a plan to build a mine, a smelter and a seaport on the Pacific coast, but the $2 billion project had to be put on hold due to huge financial costs and volatile global copper prices. Small reserves of copper are found in Cerro Petakilla; explored, but not yet evaluated, copper deposits in Cerro Choicha and Rio Pinto. In the province of Veraguas, deposits of gold and silver were explored in 1980.

Oil fields were discovered in 1980 offshore near the San Blas Islands and 180 km east of Panama City. In 1982, the government approved a project to build an oil pipeline from Chiriqui Bay on the Pacific coast to Bocas del Toro on the Caribbean coast, where it is planned to build a terminal for loading tankers. The cost of the project is estimated at $250 million.

Energy.

In 1983, Panama received 56% of its energy from imported oil, 27% from timber, 11% from hydroelectric power, and 6% from sugar cane. Until 1976, the country's energy industry was completely dependent on the import of petroleum products; but by 1979, two-fifths of all electricity was generated at its own hydroelectric power stations.

Transport.

The transport system of Panama has traditionally been focused on external world and not in the interior of the country. After the construction of the transoceanic canal, the railway crossing the isthmus was abandoned, and only two short railway lines remained in Panama in the area of ​​​​banana plantations: one on the Caribbean, the other on the Pacific coast. The length of the railways of Panama is 238 km. From west to east, from the border with Costa Rica to the border with Colombia, the country is crossed by the Pan American Highway. In 1980, the total length of the Panamanian road network was 8530 km. There are 115 airfields in the country. The modern airport in the city of Panama is the most important transit point connecting North and South America.

An enormous fleet of merchant ships, the vast majority of them foreign (about 9,000 in 1977), was registered under the Panamanian flag. Panama's seaports are served by North American companies. The largest ports of the country are the cities of Panama and Colon.

International trade.

Panama's import spending has always exceeded its export earnings. In 1996, approx. 2.5 billion dollars, while exports brought about 570 million dollars to the treasury. Panama imports crude oil, vehicles and other industrial products. The main export items are bananas, shrimp, raw sugar and oil products. The United States remains Panama's main trading partner. In the 1980s, the US purchased more than half of Panamanian exports in monetary terms and provided more than a third of the value of imports. Panama bought oil from Ecuador, Mexico, and Venezuela. Panama's trading partners also include West Germany, Japan and Costa Rica.

Finance and banks.

The country's currency, the balboa, is equal to 1 US dollar. Panama does not issue banknotes and does not have a central bank. The country's finances are entirely dependent on the North American dollar, which makes its economy extremely vulnerable to US financial pressure. The National Bank of Panama holds both government funds and individual deposits. Many of the country's commercial banks are controlled by foreign banks.

After Torrijos came to power in 1968, government spending on the development of the basic sectors of the economy, education, health care, and housing construction increased significantly. To finance its programs, the government resorted to large loans from the United States, the Inter-American Development Bank and the World Bank.

Culture.

The culture of Panama developed on a Spanish basis, experiencing significant influences from African, Indian and North American cultures. The cultural center of the country is the capital, where the University of Panama (founded in 1935), the National Museum of Panama (founded in 1925) and the National Library (founded in 1892) are located. The Ministry of Education manages the department of fine arts, maintains museums and cultural monuments, implements a broad publishing program and organizes musical and theatrical performances.

Music and dance.

The folk music and choreography of Panama is distinguished by a great variety of genres. One of the most common folk dances is the tamborito. . This pair dance, performed to the accompaniment of drums and handclaps, is accompanied by a song dating back to the 17th century. Mehorana, a song and choreographic genre of Spanish origin, is performed collectively to the accompaniment of two five-string guitars (mehoraneras); its main elements are zapateo (tapping) and paseo (procession). Another popular song and dance genre, punto, is distinguished by a lively, cheerful melody. Cumbia, a dance of African American origin, became the emblem of national folklore. Folk musical instruments include, in addition to five-string guitars, a three-string violin called ravel, percussion, dried gourd rattles (maracas) and a wooden xylophone marimba ; urban folklore ensembles use classical violin, cello and Spanish guitar. The National Conservatory was founded in 1940. A national symphony orchestra was created in the capital.

Painting and literature.

Of the Panamanian artists, the most famous painter and sculptor Roberto Lewis (1874-1949) and Umberto Ivaldi (1909-1947). The founders of national literature were the poets Gaspar Octavio Hernandez (1893-1918) and Ricardo Miro (1883-1940). The largest figure in Panamanian literature is the poet, prose writer, essayist Rogelio Sinan (b. 1904), author of the famous novel magic island (La isla magica, 1977).

Education.

Children from 7 to 15 must attend free public schools. basis higher education They are made up of two metropolitan universities: the University of Panama (40,000 students) and the Catholic University of Santa Maria la Antigua, founded in 1965 (3,900 students).

History.

Since ancient times, dozens of Indian tribes have lived on the territory of the Isthmus of Panama, associated with the population of neighboring regions of South and Central America. The first pottery found in Panama dates back to the turn of the 4th and 3rd millennium BC. In 2 thousand BC. corn was cultivated here. In 1 thousand AD. ancient metallurgy spread on the isthmus. The cultures of Veraguas (3rd-2nd centuries BC), Darien (after the 7th century), Chiriqui, Cocle and others flourished here.

In 1501 Panama was discovered by the Spanish conquistador Rodrigo de Bastidas. The following year, Christopher Columbus founded a settlement at the mouth of the Belen River, later destroyed by the Indians. The colonization of the territory of Panama began in 1509–1510, when a settlement was founded in the Gulf of Darien, from which the province of Tierra Firme (Mainland) grew. In 1513, the expedition of Vasco Nunez de Balboa crossed the isthmus and went to the Pacific Ocean. In 1519, the governor of "Tierra Firme" Pedrarias Davila founded the city of Panama. Through the isthmus, goods from the colonies on the Pacific coast were transported to the Atlantic coast and further to Spain. Panama City became the most important trading center of Spanish America. In 1538, Panama was proclaimed a Spanish audience, in 1542–1560 it was part of the viceroyalty of Peru, then of the captaincy general of Guatemala, and in 1718–1723 and 1740–1810 it was included in New Granada (now Colombia).

The basis of the economy was plantations, on which black slaves were imported from Africa. In the 16th and 17th centuries the territory of the country was repeatedly attacked by pirates (in 1671 the city of Panama was destroyed by the English pirate Henry Morgan). From the end of the 18th century Panama's economy was in decline due to shifting trade routes.

In 1821, the Panamanians rebelled against the Spanish colonial government and proclaimed the independence of the province. Soon they joined the federal republic of Great Colombia, created by Simon Bolivar, and after its collapse in 1830, Panama became part of New Granada (Colombia). In 1840–1841, she again tried to declare the independence of the "Republic of the Isthmus", but was unsuccessful. However, the interests of the leaders of the province and the Colombian central government often diverged. In 1885, 1895, 1899, 1900 and 1901 the Panamanians rebelled against the Colombian authorities.

Panama was a major transit point during the California gold rush. In the middle of the 19th century The Isthmus of Panama became more and more of interest to the United States and European powers, which sought to establish their control over a strategically and commercially advantageous transport route. In 1846, the United States entered into an agreement with New Granada, obtaining the right to duty-free transit and operation of routes, as well as a concession for the construction of an interoceanic railway. railway, which was built by 1855. The Anglo-American agreements of 1850 and 1901 significantly increased US influence in Panama.

For some time, France tried to compete with the Americans here. In 1879, the French engineer and diplomat Ferdinand de Lesseps, who built the Suez Canal, created a company to build the Panama Canal, which later went bankrupt. In 1902, the US government bought all the rights and property from the French company, but the Colombian government refused to give permission for the construction of the canal. Under these circumstances, the United States provided military support to the Panamanian separatists, who on November 3, 1903, proclaimed the independence of the Panamanian Republic. The constitution of the new state was adopted.

Soon the first president of Panama, Manuel Amador Guerrero (1904 - 1908), signed the Hay-Buno-Varilla treaty, according to which the United States received "for all eternity" all rights to build and operate the canal, along with the right to unlimited control over a strip of land across the isthmus 10 miles wide and the right to interfere in the internal affairs of the state. This treaty effectively turned Panama into a US protectorate for a long time. The agreement with the US was revised in 1936 and 1955, but the US retained control of the canal zone. Under the supervision of the American military, elections were held in 1908, 1912 and 1918. American troops occupied the cities of Panama and Colon (1918) and the province of Chiriqui (1918-1920), suppressed social protests and strikes in Panama in the 1920s. The country's economy was completely dependent on American firms and companies.

In 1912–1916 and 1918–1924, the country's president was the liberal leader Belisario Porras, who carried out some reforms in the field of social and labor legislation. In 1931, the Communal Action liberal reform movement overthrew the government of constitutional president Florencio Arosemena (1928–1931). Under President Armodio Arias (1932–1936), the ruling Revolutionary Nationalist Party (RNP) was created. In 1935, its candidate Juan D. Arosemena (1936-1940) was elected president. In 1936, after mass protests, the United States agreed to conclude a new treaty with Panama, which lifted some conditions that limited the sovereignty of the Panamanian Republic and increased the annual rent for the canal from 250,000 to 430,000 dollars.

In 1940, Arnulfo Arias Madrid, a representative of the Genuine RNP, was elected president of Panama. He introduced national currency and paper notes, proclaimed a new constitution that extended the presidential term. In foreign policy, he, seeking greater independence from the United States, tried to develop relations with Germany and Italy. In 1941, A. Arias was accused of dictatorial aspirations and pro-fascist sympathies and overthrown by the National Guard. President Ricardo Adolfo de la Guardia (1941–1945), representative of the RPP, allowed the United States to establish 134 military bases in Panama during the war to protect the canal.

At the beginning of 1945, an acute crisis in the leadership of the country led to the abolition of the 1941 constitution and the holding of elections in constituent Assembly. The interim President Enrique Adolfo Jiménez (1945–1948) relied on a coalition of three liberal parties and one of the CHP factions. In 1946 a new constitution was adopted, and in 1947-1948 Panama obtained from the United States the return of the territory leased during the war. The 1948 presidential election was won by the liberal Domingo Diaz Arosemena (1948–1949). A.Arias disputed the results of the vote, but the National Guard supported his competitor. After Arosemena resigned in June 1949 for health reasons, his successor Daniel Chanis Pinzón declared an amnesty for political prisoners and released Arias, who had been imprisoned for organizing civil unrest in the previous elections.

In November 1949, he again became the leader of the "Genuine RPP", claiming to have won the elections of 1948. Arias imprisoned his political opponents, banned the Communist Party, dissolved parliament and the Supreme Court, and in 1951 created a new Panamist Party.

These actions of Arias caused widespread indignation, which in May 1951 escalated into a general strike and unrest, and the National Guard, led by Colonel José Antonio Remon Cantera, removed Arias from the presidency.

Before the elections of 1952, the parties of liberals, reformists, the RPP, the Genuine Revolutionary Party, which dissociated itself from Arias, and the People's Union united in the National Patriotic Coalition (NPK), which nominated Colonel Remon Cantera as its candidate. Having won, he began negotiations with the United States on the revision of the treaty regarding the Panama Canal. But on the eve of the signing of the agreement in 1955, he was assassinated. The agreement did not differ significantly from the agreement of 1903, but increased the rent to 1930 thousand dollars. The 1956 presidential election was again won by the CPP candidate, Ernesto de la Guardia Navarro (1956–1960).

In time for the 1960 elections, the opposition formed the National Liberal Union (NLS), which included the National Liberal, Republican, Third National Parties, and the National Liberation Party. This bloc defeated the CPP and the National Liberal Roberto Francisco Chiari (1960–1964) assumed the presidency. In 1964, the election was won by the NLS candidate Marco Aurelio Robles Mendez, ahead of A. Arias. A coalition government was formed with the participation of all major parties, with the exception of the Arnulfists, Christian Democrats and Socialists.

Since the late 1950s, mass demonstrations have unfolded in Panama demanding the return of the canal zone to the country. In January 1964, American troops shot down one of these demonstrations. Under pressure from the public, the United States agreed to negotiate a revision of the channel's status.

In 1967, President Robles Mendes entered into several new agreements with the United States, one of which provided for Panama's sovereignty over the canal zone, but the opposition refused to ratify them. In November 1967 the government coalition broke up. In March 1968, Parliament removed Robles Mendez, but he did not obey this decision, and until the Supreme Court upheld the dismissed head of state in April, “dual power” remained in Panama.

The 1968 presidential election was won by A. Arias, the chief critic of the 1967 agreements with the United States. On October 1, he took the presidency, but on October 11 he was removed by the National Guard, led by General Omar Torrijos Herrera. The activities of the parties were banned, the parliament was dissolved. Officially, power was transferred to interim President Demetrio Basilio Lacas (1969–1978), but in fact it passed into the hands of General Torrijos. The constitution, adopted in 1972, proclaimed the latter "the supreme leader of the Panamanian revolution" and head of government. She also declared: "The territory of the country can never be given away or alienated, temporarily or partially, to a foreign state."

During the Torrijos period, hundreds of thousands of hectares of land were confiscated from the landowners and transferred to the peasants, and transformations were carried out in the field of taxation, banking, and education. The government developed the public sector, adopted a labor law, and increased wages, created agricultural, transport and fishing cooperatives, nationalized (with compensation) the property of US companies and expropriated the property of large local owners, took control of financial transactions outside the country.

In 1977, a new agreement was concluded between Panama and the United States under President J. Carter, which provided for the liquidation of the canal zone from October 1, 1979 and the transfer of the canal itself to Panama by 2000. Despite the fact that the possibility of a US military presence to protect the canal was stipulated, a resolution was adopted US non-intervention in Panama's internal affairs. The number of military bases in Panama has been reduced from 13 to 3.

In accordance with Torrijos' promises to restore democratic norms in the country, elections were held in August 1978 for a new National Assembly. After Torrijos resigned as head of government in October, the National Assembly handed over power to a new president, Aristides Royo Sanchez, leader of the newly formed Revolutionary Democratic Party. He continued the independent line of Torrijos and supported the Sandinista government of Nicaragua, which caused discontent in the United States.

In 1981, Torrijos, who remained head of the National Guard, died in a crash under unclear circumstances. General Ruben Dario Paredes, who took over the National Guard in March 1982, was closely associated with the US military. In August 1982, he secured the early resignation of Royo Sanchez. New president Ricardo de la Espriella (1982–1984) promised to work more closely with the US. After his resignation in February 1984, former vice president Jorge Ilhueka Asumio became head of state.

In April 1983, instead of the National Guard in Panama, the defense forces were created. In August 1983, General Paredes, about to run for president, resigned from his post as commander-in-chief of the defensive forces. He was replaced by General Manuel Antonio Noriega, who was initially also closely associated with the US.

In the May 1984 elections, with the support of Noriega, Nicolás Ardito Barletta was elected president of Panama, nominated by the National Democratic Union coalition, which included the RDP, the Liberal, Labor and Republican parties, as well as the Popular Broad Front. Only slightly behind him was A. Arias, who accused the winner of rigging. President Barletta criticized the IMF and the tough economic program it dictated to Panama. In September 1985, under pressure from the opposition, Barletta resigned and was replaced by Vice President Eric Arturo Delvalier, a member of the Republican Party.

In the mid-1980s, General Noriega left the United States. After the Panama Defense Forces seized an American ship delivering weapons to anti-Sandinista rebels in Nicaragua in June 1986, relations between Panama and the United States began to deteriorate rapidly. Unions of entrepreneurs, employees, workers and church organizations united in the "National Civil Crusade" and in June 1987 held major strikes and demonstrations demanding Noriega's resignation. The trade unions that supported him organized response marches, after which a state of emergency was introduced in the country.

The opposition's demands were supported by the United States, which accused Noriega of involvement in the drug trade and stepped up diplomatic pressure on Panama. On February 25, 1988, President Delvalier removed Noriega from the post of commander-in-chief of the defense forces. But the country's parliament did not recognize this decision and removed Delvalier himself, replacing him with Manuel Solis Palma. Delvalier fled to the USA.

The May 1989 presidential election was held in a tense atmosphere of mutual intimidation and threats of US sanctions. The government candidate Carlos Duque, who was supported by the RDP, the Agrarian Labor, Labor, Republican and Revolutionary Panamist parties, the Democratic Party of Workers, the National Action Party, the People's Party (Communists), and others, was opposed by the Arnulfist Guillermo Endara. The latter also enlisted the support of the Christian Democrats, the Nationalist Republican Liberal Movement, as well as the patronage of the United States. Both challengers declared their victory; Clashes broke out between their supporters. As a result, the National Electoral Tribunal annulled the results of the vote. In September 1989, Francisco Rodriguez was declared interim president, and in December Noriega became head of government with emergency powers.

On December 19-20, 1989, American troops invaded Panama. More than 50,000 people were left homeless as a result of air bombardments. More than 200 civilians and more than 300 Panamanian soldiers were killed, according to official US figures, but human rights organizations put the number at 3,000-5,000 Panamanian dead. Noriega was captured and taken to the United States, where he was sentenced to many years in prison. Lawsuits by Panamanian citizens against the American administration for damages were dismissed by American courts.

The US occupying forces transferred power to Endare, declaring him the winner of the 1989 elections. However, the majority of the population did not trust his regime, considering him a protege of the interventionists. Already in 1990, demonstrations began to take place against the new government, in which 50-100 thousand people participated. They condemned the United States and the American military presence and demanded an end to the ongoing sale of public sector enterprises to American companies. In December 1990, an attempted coup d'état took place in the country, suppressed by American troops. In August 1991, the Christian Democratic Party left the government of Endara. In 1992, the regime was defeated in a referendum to change the constitution in 1972, failing, in particular, to win support for a proposal to ban the regular army. The ruling camp continued to fall apart: at the end of 1993, the NRLD refused to support the government candidate in the upcoming elections.

In 1994, a member of the RDP, Ernesto Perez Balladares, also supported by the Liberal Republican and Labor parties, won the presidential election. He collected more than 33% of the vote and outstripped M.E. Moscoso from the union of the Arnulfist, Liberal, Genuine Liberal parties and the Independent Democratic Union (more than 29%). Over 17% of the votes went to the leader of the Papa Egoro Indian movement, Ruben Blades. Assuming the presidency, Pérez Balladares (1994-1999) promised to achieve national reconciliation, ensure the independence of the judiciary, fight speculation and drug trafficking. He pardoned over 220 political prisoners, including Noriega's supporters. The President announced his intention to pursue a more cautious economic policy. In reality, however, he continued with neo-liberal reforms that increased social divisions and caused widespread discontent. More than a third of the population lived in poverty. The President signaled that Panama could extend the presence of US troops in the Canal Zone after 2000 in exchange for appropriate concessions.

The country's parliament in 1994 adopted a constitutional amendment on the liquidation of the armed forces and the transfer of their functions to the police. In 1998, the government of Pérez Balladares suffered a political setback when the majority of the participants in the referendum refused to agree with the item proposed by him and supported by Parliament on the possibility of direct re-election of the president for a second term.

The 1999 presidential election was won by opposition candidate M.E. Moscoso, who collected almost 45% of the vote.

Mireya Elisa Moscoso Rodriguez - the first woman in this post, a widow former president Arnulfo Arias. Born in 1946, she helped Arias in the election campaign of 1968 and accompanied him in exile, studied economics and design. In the late 1980s, she returned to Panama, in 1991 she was elected chairman of the Arnulfist Party, in 1994 and 1999 she ran for president.

Government spokesman Martin Torrijos, son of a former military leader, collected about 38%. However, in the parliamentary elections, the success was accompanied by the RDP.

In September 1999, Moscoso assumed the presidency, declaring that Panama intends to single-handedly ensure the security of the canal and is not going to negotiate with any country about the presence of foreign military bases on its territory. On December 31, 1999, the United States transferred full sovereignty over the Panama Canal and the surrounding area to Panama.

Panama in the 21st century

On January 1, 2000, the management of the Panama Canal passed into the hands of the Administration, which is headed by a governing board of 11 directors, approved for 9 years by the authorities of Panama.

The government of M.E.Moscoso basically continued the policy of its predecessors. During her presidency, the government moved from a program of liberalization to a program to eradicate poverty. Social security was increased; serious concessions were made on wages. The extra profits from the services sector were used to finance the trade deficit. The prerequisites were developed for the introduction in 2004 of the political system of Panama of a number of new elements, including the granting of the right to vote to Panamanians abroad, the introduction of a 30% representation of women in elected positions, the direct election of deputies to the parliament of Central America and the mandatory resignation of persons holding public office. posts, if he is nominated for election.

In 2001, a diplomatic conflict arose between Cuba and Panama, which was caused by the decision of the Panamanian authorities to release four Cubans whom Havana accused of preparing an assassination attempt on Castro. In addition, Havana suspected one of the terrorists detained in Panama of organizing the explosion in 1976 of a Cuban airline plane that killed 73 people. Castro did not get the Panamanian authorities to extradite the criminals. Moreover, a few days before her departure from the post of President of Panama, President Mireya Moscoso released the detained Cubans to freedom. According to one version, this decision was made at the request of the American administration.

The restoration of diplomatic relations between the countries took place only under the next presidency, in 2005.

The May 2004 presidential election was won by Martin Torrijos, leader of the Patria Nueva (New Homeland) alliance, which includes parties such as the Revolutionary Democratic Party, which was founded in the 70s by his father, General Omar Torrijos, ex-president of Panama and the People's Party, formerly the Democratic Party. He received over 47% of the popular vote.

Other parties seeking parliamentary representation in elections were the Nationalist Republican Liberal Movement (MOLIRENA), the Papa Egoro Movement, the Christian Democratic Party, the Civic Renewal Party, the Genuine Liberal Party, and others.

The administration of President Martin Torrijos has made significant progress. During the 5 years of his presidency, the poverty rate in the country decreased by 5% and amounted to 28% in 2008; there has been a shift in the distribution of income. Was made huge contribution to create the image of Panama as the financial and commercial center of Latin America. In October 2006, Torrijos proposed a plan for one of the largest investment projects in Latin America, the expansion of the Panama Canal. At the referendum held on this issue, the plan was supported by the majority of the population.

The total cost of the project is $5.25 billion. As expected, work on the expansion of the transport artery linking the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans will last until 2014. Modernization will double throughput the Panama Canal up to 600 million tons of cargo per year and will make it possible to serve especially large ships.

In May 2009, a multimillionaire member of the conservative party"Democratic Changes" by Riccardo Martinelli, which collected about 60% of the votes. He represented the Alliance for Change in the elections. For the candidate of the ruling Revolutionary Democratic Party, Balbina Herrera, more than 30% of voters voted.

Martinelli promised in the election to curb corruption and crime. However, first of all, the new president will have to deal with economic problems, primarily related to the Panama Canal, which accounts for a third of all tax revenues to the country's budget. At present, the number of ships passing through it has decreased markedly.

Literature:

Kravets N.A. Panama. M., 1968
Panama. 1903–1970. M., 1974
Panama fights. M., 1978

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Geography

Geographic coordinates - 9 00 N, 80 00 W.

Climate - subequatorial; May to January is the rainy season, January to May is the dry season.

The relief is mostly steep, uneven, mountains and plains. The highest point is the volcano Baru (volcan Baru) (3475 m), located in the province of Chiriqui.

History

The territory of modern Panama was inhabited by a few Indian tribes of Kuna, Choco and Guaya. In the south, there was a Coclet culture with a developed tradition of making metal objects and ceramics. The first contact with Europeans occurred in 1501 with the Spaniard Rodrigo de Bastidas.

The economy of the country was backward, but interest in shipping through Panama rose again in the 1850s, after the discovery of gold in California. The railroad was laid. In 1879, a French company began construction of the Panama Canal, which was supposed to connect the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. The bankruptcy of the company suspended the construction of the canal in 1889.

On the initiative and with the direct support of the United States, riots broke out in the northwestern regions of Colombia, and the province of Panama declared independence from Colombia in 1903. The canal and the land near the canal is given under the control of the United States. Between 1914 and 1914, the canal was completed under the direction of an officer engineering troops US Army George Washington Gotthols. Cheap labor was used in the construction - mostly the Negro population of the Antilles, Barbados, British Western India, who were recruited by American recruiters, seducing with "high" earnings.

Demonstrations and riots broke out against US control of the canal in , , and 1964.

An active policy in the field of eradicating illiteracy led to the fact that if in 1968 there were about 35% of illiterates in the country, then in 1978, according to O. Torrijos, “not a single child in Panama took more than half an hour to walk to school” Education up to 9 years became compulsory and free. The number of schoolchildren has increased 5 times, mainly due to schools focused on training future specialists for industry, transport and agriculture. The range of professions at the University of Panama has tripled, its branches have appeared in the provinces, the number of students has grown 4 times. . Textbooks were given out free of charge.

For the first time, the Ministry of Health was created, about 12% of government spending was allocated for the needs of medicine. There was a specialized medical center for every 10,000 people, and infant mortality dropped from 44 per 1,000 births to 24.

Over time, the popularity of Torrijos among the people grew due to socially oriented politics and populist speeches. During this period, there is a widespread construction of roads, bridges, residential buildings, agrarian reform is being carried out, although the country has climbed into heavy debts. Education and health care developed rapidly. A number of North American companies were nationalized and new enterprises built. The Government of Torrijos has taken steps to strengthen national sovereignty country.

In the elections to the National Assembly (NA) on August 6, 1972, with a turnout of 89%, the supporters of O. Torrijos received 350 seats, the left parties (including the communists and their supporters) - 60, the right parties - 50, the independents - 44, the democratic Christians - 1 The NA had the right to consider laws, to amend them, to accept and reject them, to approve amendments to the constitution, to ratify or reject international treaties. The NA gained the right to elect the president and vice president of the country. However, the right of legislative initiative was retained by the National Legislative Council, whose members were appointed by the president of the country and the chairman of the National Assembly.
On October 12, 1972, Demetrio Lacas was elected president of the country at the first session. The new constitution categorically forbade the alienation national territory under any pretext and introduced the institution of a popular plebiscite to approve the most important international treaties (in particular, those relating to existing or new inter-oceanic canals. The electoral qualification was reduced from 21 to 18 years. Article 2 of the new constitution obliged the executive, legislative and judicial powers to work in "harmonious cooperation between themselves "and with the armed forces of the country (the National Guard received the legal right to participate in the political life of the country). The right of the state to the public sector and economic activity was proclaimed. The temporary (for 6 years) article provided almost all the supreme power and authority to O. Torrijos as" Supreme Leader of the Panamanian Revolution."

The Cabinet of Ministers is appointed by the President, and the President and Vice President are elected by popular vote every 5 years.

The legislature is the unicameral National Assembly ( Assembly National) - 71 deputies, elected by the population for a five-year term.

Political parties

According to the results of the elections in May 2014:

• Democratic change - right-liberal, 30 seats in the National Assembly
• Revolutionary Democratic Party - centre-left, 25 seats in the National Assembly
• Panamist Party (former National Revolutionary, former Arnulfist) - conservative nationalist, 12 seats in the National Assembly
• Liberal Republican national movement(MOLIRENA, centrist) - 2 seats in the National Assembly
• People's Party (formerly Christian Democratic) - ultra-conservative, anti-communist, 1st seat in the National Assembly

There are several more legal parties and movements registered in the country that are not represented in parliament.

Economy

The economy of Panama is based on the operation of the Panama Canal, as well as on banking, insurance, registration of ships under the flag of the country and tourism. These industries account for approximately two-thirds of Panama's GDP and employ approximately two-thirds of the workforce.

GDP per capita in 2012 - 15.6 thousand dollars (63rd place in the world).

Industry provides about 17% of GDP (18% of employees are employed), and agriculture - about 6% of GDP (15% of employees are employed).

The main agricultural crops are bananas, rice, corn, coffee, sugarcane, vegetables; cattle are bred.

Industries - construction, brewing, cement and other building materials, production of granulated sugar.

International trade

Export - 10.3 billion dollars (in 2008): bananas, shrimps, sugar, coffee, clothes.

Major buyers: US 39.2%, Netherlands 10.7%, Costa Rica 5.8%, Sweden 5.4%, UK 5.4%, Spain 5%.

Import - 14.9 billion dollars (in 2008): industrial products, food, consumer goods, chemical products.

Major suppliers: USA 29.6%, Costa Rica 5%, China 5%, Japan 4.2%.

monetary system

Tourism

Since 2009, the Transpanama Trail has been developed in Panama. The TransPanama Trail is a 1,127 km hiking trail that runs across the country from the border with Colombia to the border with Costa Rica.

Population

Population - 3.4 million (July 2010 estimate).

Annual increase - 1.5% (fertility - 2.5 births per woman).

According to the average forecast, the population of the country by 2100 will be 3.9 million people.

Infection with the immunodeficiency virus (HIV) - 1% (53rd place in the world, 2007 estimate), 20,000 people.

Ethno-racial composition:

• mestizos ( Mestizo) 65 %
• blacks 9.2%
• mulattoes 6.8%
• whites 6.7%

Birth rate - 20.18 ‰ (96th place in the world), mortality - 4.66 ‰ (196th place in the world), infant mortality 12.67 per 1000 newborns (139th place), average life expectancy - 77.25 years (74. 47 years for men, 80.16 years for women).

Literacy - 91.9% (according to the 2000 census).

The share of the urban population is 73%.

American diaspora

Separately from the Panamanians, Americans should be considered - US citizens living compactly mainly in the area of ​​the Panama Canal zone on a permanent basis, of which about 75% are US military personnel (army, aviation, navy and marines). Americans live with their families apart in their own towns, specially built to accommodate them, with little or no contact with local population(having its own administrative bodies, police and other municipal and public utilities, schools, churches, shops, entertainment facilities, etc.). For many decades, such a sub-ethnic type has developed as Panamanian(the so-called "200% Americans"). In this regard, it is a common practice for family members of American employees in Panama to not understand a word of Spanish in several decades of living there.

Exotic Panama is a country located on the border between Central and South America. It is located on the Isthmus of Panama and is practically sandwiched between the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea.

The country borders Costa Rica to the north and Colombia to the south. The name of the country is translated from the language of the Cueva Indians as "a place where there are a lot of fish." This immediately says what is the basis state economy. is the city of the same name, sometimes referred to as Panama City.

The first inhabitants of this territory were the Guayami, Choco and Kuna Indians. Then begins the European period of the history of Panama. At the beginning of the 16th century, the first contacts of local natives with the Spaniards, in particular, Christopher Columbus, took place.

Climatic features and nature of the country

The climate throughout the country is subequatorial, so the rainy season here lasts quite a long time - from May to December. And only from December-January to mid-April, tourists will be able to enjoy dry weather. Air temperature fluctuates within +25…+28°С all year round, varying in winter and summer within 2-3 degrees. Rains are more intense in the foothills of the Caribbean coast, where tropical hurricanes often rage.

If you look at a photo of Panama taken from an airplane or satellite, you can see why the locals are proud of their amazing nature. The relief here is predominantly uneven, with many hills. A mountain range stretches across the entire central part of the country, bordered on both sides by coastal lowlands, and the jungles of Panama delight travelers with their luxurious vegetation and rich fauna. From the birds here you can see the sacred Indian bird quetzal, the largest feathered predator of the planet - the harpy eagle, many parrots, herons and toucans. Animals such as monkeys, cougars, anteaters, sloths, ocelots, deer, peccaries, armadillos, alligators, snakes, and kinkajou are also found in Panama.

The highest point in the country is considered (3475 m), located in the province of Chiriqui. Between the mountain ranges of the western and eastern parts of Panama, the famous is laid, dug in the lowest part of the isthmus.

Both the Caribbean and the Pacific coasts are characterized by the presence of deep bays and small islands located near the land. One of the most famous in Panama - where pearls have been mined for several centuries.

Political system and symbolism

In the Democratic Republic of Panama, the president is the head of state and government. He appoints the Cabinet, and the President and Vice President are elected to their office by popular vote after a five-year term. The legislature of the State of Panama is the unicameral National Assembly. The country consists of 10 provinces and includes 3 autonomous regions - comarca. The coat of arms and the flag of Panama look quite interesting. In the central part of the emblem there is an image of the Isthmus of Panama, in the upper two quarters a rifle and a silver sword are drawn, in the lower quarters - a bird and a cornucopia.

The flag of the country consists of two white, blue and red rectangles, symbolizing the conservative and liberal parties. Two stars are drawn on a white background: blue and red.

The national currency of Panama is the balboa, issued in denominations of 1 and 5 balboas. However, in practice, the US dollar is used more often in calculations.

The population of Panama, as the census shows, is very heterogeneous in composition. Most of it is made up of descendants of the indigenous Indian population and the Spanish colonizers who intermarried. The official language of Panama is Spanish, but many locals also speak English and French.

The largest cities in the country

The largest city is located on the Pacific coast, with a population of over 1 million people. The basis of its economy is the banking sector, real estate construction, transport and services. Most of Panama's exports and imports pass through the city's port, located at the entrance to the Panama Canal. But this is not the only important transport hub of the country. On the Caribbean coast of Panama, it competes with Colón, which is also connected to the capital by a high-speed highway and railway.

Resort life of the country

The import of any currency is not limited, but amounts over $10,000 and gold jewelry must be declared. You can not import vegetables, perishable products, fruits, drugs, weapons. You do not need to pay a fee if you carry with you no more than 500 g of tobacco, gifts worth no more than $ 50, three bottles of alcohol and the same number of bottles of perfume.

The Republic of Panama is located on the isthmus of the same name, called the Isthmo by geographers, on one side of which is the Pacific Ocean and the other side is washed by the Caribbean Sea. The country is located between Costa Rica and Colombia at 9° north latitude and 80° west longitude. The area of ​​the state is 75.5 thousand square kilometers. The length of the coastline is 2 thousand 490 kilometers. Panama has only two land borders.

The Colombian-Panamanian border forms an impenetrable jungle 225 kilometers long and on the other side there is a border with Costa Rica 330 kilometers long. The territory of Panama is divided into ten provinces and autonomies - Panama, Colon, Chiriqui, Cocle, Darien, Herrera, Veraguas, Los Santos, Bocas del Torro, San Blas. From one of the Indian languages, the name "Panama" can be translated as "a place where there are a lot of fish."

The type of government is a democratic republic. The head of state and government is the president. The current president is Ricardo Martinelli and the vice president is Juan Carlos Varela. The Cabinet of Ministers is appointed by the President, and the President and Vice President are elected by popular vote every 5 years. The legislative body is the unicameral National Assembly (Asamblea Nacional) - 71 deputies, elected by the population for a five-year term.

Relief of Panama

The relief of the country is mainly made up of coastal plains, a mountainous interior and tropical jungles in the northwest and east. The main part of the minerals and natural resources that can be found on the territory of Panama is copper, teak and mohagon wood, asbestos quarries, fruit (bananas, pineapples, two kinds of coconuts, mangoes, etc.) plantations, a huge amount of fish and shrimp, hydro -electricity, huge reserves of fresh water.

From the western border with Costa Rica to the central regions of Panama, the Cordillera de Veragua mountain range stretches. Within the ridge in its western part there are several volcanoes, including the highest point in the country - the active volcano Baru. It is the only active volcano in Panama. Its height reaches 3475 m. The width of the volcano caldera is 6 km. IN last time the volcano erupted in 1550, it is expected that its next eruption will occur in 2035. Volkan Baru National Park is located on the slopes of the volcano. Also in the western part of Panama are the extinct volcanoes of La Eguada and El Valle.

The climate of Panama

Panama has a subequatorial type of climate. It is hot and humid throughout the year, and fluctuations average monthly temperatures do not exceed 2-3 degrees. The hottest is the Pacific coast of the country. Here, in the period from March to September, during the daytime, the air warms up to +34..+36 degrees, and at night it cools down to +20..+22 degrees. In the period from September to March, daytime air temperatures rise to +31..+33 degrees, and nighttime temperatures drop to +17..+19 degrees. On the Caribbean coast of Panama daily course temperature is not so noticeable. From March to September during the day the air warms up to +30..+32 degrees, and at night it cools down to +23..+25 degrees. In a relatively cool season from September to March, daytime air temperatures reach +28..+30 degrees, nighttime temperatures drop to +20..+22 degrees. In the central mountainous regions of the country at altitudes of more than 1000 m above sea level, the air temperature is 7-8 degrees lower than on the coasts.

During the year, up to 3500 mm of precipitation falls in Panama on the northern slopes of the mountains and on the Caribbean coast, and up to 2000 mm on the Pacific coast. Relatively dry season lasts from December to mid-April, rainy - from May to December. On the Pacific coast, these seasons are more pronounced: during the dry season, less than 50 mm of precipitation falls per month, and during the rainy season - 300-400 mm. On the Caribbean coast and on the northern slopes of the mountains, a fairly large amount of precipitation falls - from 200 to 400 mm per month. Also during the rainy season, powerful cyclonic eddies often come to the Caribbean coast, characterized by strong gusty winds and heavy downpours, but the main path of tropical hurricanes, characteristic of the Caribbean Sea, passes to the north. It is worth noting that the rainy season has nothing to do with the phenomenon of the same name in East Asia. It doesn't rain continuously. Usually precipitation falls within 2-3 hours, and if it rains in the capital, then the sun may shine on the Caribbean or Pacific coast.

The best time to travel to Panama is during the dry season. From the end of May, temperatures and humidity begin to rise rapidly, making moving around the country a real torture. Showers, although short-lived, are very intense, and the sun that comes out after them quickly dries the earth, but saturates the air with moisture.

Flora and fauna of Panama

The eastern part of Panama and the coast are covered with rainforests - selva. There are many types of valuable trees in the country, such as the bakout tree, or the guayacán. The main decoration of the plant world of Panama is orchids, of which there are more than 300 species.

Jaguars, cougars, and ocelots are still preserved in hard-to-reach areas. There are armadillos, tapirs, monkeys, sloths, tree porcupines. Deer and peccaries are found in mountain forests. There are up to 850 species of birds. Lots of snakes, scorpions, spiders, various insects. Panama is often called the kingdom of butterflies: more than 1100 species are known in the country, of which at least 5 species of giant butterflies "morpho" (wingspan - 15 cm).

Nature and national parks of Panama

About 30% of the territory of Panama is reserved for nature protection zones. There are more than 1,300 plant species in the country, many of which are relics, and about 950 bird species. Panama is considered one of the best places on the planet for bird watching.

Not far from Panama City is the Metropolitan National Park. The park is adjacent to the Panama Canal and is the only park in Latin America that protects the tropical forest within the metropolitan area. Here, on an area of ​​265 hectares, you can see a variety of birds (parakeets, toucans and orioles), butterflies, small mammals (sloths, titi monkeys and anteaters) and reptiles. Also, an exhibition of orchids is open for tourists, where species that grow only in Panama are presented. Metropolitan Park has an observation deck from where you can see the Panama Canal. The information center of the park is very interesting, where you will be told in detail about the possibilities of recreation here. Of the routes, we can highlight the 45-minute Mono Titi route and parts of the historical routes of Camino de Cruces and Cienequita, which were used by the Spaniards in ancient times. The Camino de Cruces route links many national parks.

In the vicinity of Panama City, the Summit Botanical Gardens with an area of ​​250 hectares are also of interest. The gardens were formed in 1923. To date, the Summit has collected about 15,000 different exotic plants. A zoo was also set up here, where the national bird harpy eagle and tapir are represented. For harpy eagles, the zoo has one of the largest exhibition areas in the world ever created for a single species of bird. Here the life and features of this bird are presented in great detail.

Soberania National Park. The area of ​​the park is 20 thousand hectares. It is located 40 km north of the city Panama off the coast of the Panama Canal. Here for short period time that the tour lasts, you can see the largest number bird species. In total, there are about 200 species of birds in the Soberania National Park, among which is one of the few populations of the largest bird of prey the world - the harpy eagle.

Barro Colorado Island, along with several peninsulas of the lake, is part of the Barro Colorado National Park in Gatun Lake, adjacent to Soberania National Park. The total area of ​​this protected area is 5.4 thousand hectares. Gatun Lake and Barro Colorado Island appeared during the construction of the canal, when a dam was built on the Chagres River. Inside the lake that arose as a result of the flood of the river, a small area of ​​\u200b\u200bland 171 m high remained unflooded. In 1923, the island of Barro Colorado was declared a protected area. In 1946, the Tropical Research Institute began to manage the reserve, which established the Tropical Research Laboratory here. In 1979, in addition to the island of Barro Colorado, the reserve included several peninsulas and the reserve received the status national park. The only way to get to the park - take a boat from the village of Gamboa, which is located 38 km from Panama City. In order to visit Barro Colorado National Park, you must obtain a permit from the Tropical Research Institute. Visits to the park are paid, the ticket price includes lunch at the information center of the park. The information center of the park shows films about the history of the creation of the park and about its inhabitants. Barro Colorado Island can be circumnavigated in one day. The walk along the main route lasts only 45 minutes. All routes of the park pass through the forests, where many birds live.

Not far from here, on the banks of the Chagres River, lies the Chagres National Park. It was created to protect riverbank ecosystems, which are the main source of water for the Panama Canal, the source of drinking water for many large cities in this part of the country, and the source of electricity for the cities of Panama City and Colon. The area of ​​the park is 129 thousand hectares. Its main attractions are the Chagres River and Lake Alajuela, on the banks of which numerous colonies of birds settle. The park also offers excursions to the villages of the Embera and Wounan Indian tribes living in these protected areas. During the excursions, you can get acquainted with the culture of the tribes, preserved from ancient times, with the process of making and coloring the cake by local craftsmen. Parts of two ancient roads pass through the park, along which Europeans exported Inca gold in the 16-18 centuries - these are Camino de Cruces and Camino Real. Cerro Jefe observation platform (1007 m) offers a breathtaking view of the Panama Canal.

North of the Chagres National Park on the Caribbean coast is Portobelo National Park. Of the 34.9 thousand hectares of the park, about 20% is in the sea, the rest is occupied by tropical rainforests.

Of the other protected areas in the central part of the country, the Altos de Campanha National Park can be distinguished, which is located 60 km southwest of Panama City. The park protects tropical rain forests growing on the slopes of the mountains, and several mountain rivers. The total area of ​​the park is 4.8 thousand hectares. Monkeys live in the forests wild pigs, over 175 species of birds, as well as reptiles, including the endangered endemic golden frog.

Further south on the east coast of the Azuero Peninsula lies the Sarigua National Park. The area of ​​the park is 8 thousand hectares. It is known for its archaeological sites - the ruins of the oldest Indian villages of pre-Columbian times, dating back to 9500-7000 BC. Fragments of ceramic objects and stone products were found here.

Also on the Azuero Peninsula is the Cerro Joya National Park, which guards one of the last tracts of untouched Azuero forest.

Off the southern coast of the Azuero Peninsula, on the islands of Canas and Iguana, there are wildlife preserves. The Kanas Island Sanctuary was established in 1994 to protect a 13 km long stretch of coast where many turtles come to lay eggs every year. The most common type of turtle found here is olive turtle Ridley. In the reserve, tourists are offered nightly observations of turtles. The Iguana Island Sanctuary covers an area of ​​53 hectares. Several species of turtles lay their eggs on the local beaches between April and September. The park also protects one of the largest reefs in the Gulf of Panama with an area of ​​16 hectares. Every year, humpback whales can be seen near the reefs, which migrate from the polar regions to the tropical regions through these places.

At west coast The Azuero Peninsula in Chiriqui Bay is home to the Coiba Island National Marine Park. Coiba Island is the second largest island in the Eastern Pacific (after Vancouver Island). Its area is 49 thousand hectares. In addition to the island of Coiba, the national park includes several other small islands. The total area of ​​the park is 270.1 thousand hectares. In 1910, a prison was built on the island of Coiba, which is still there today. Because of this, the forests covering the island have remained virtually untouched by human activity. In order to visit the Coiba National Park, you must obtain permission from the directorate of the colony. Its underwater world is considered one of the richest in the world, in addition, on some islands of the park, from April to September, you can see turtles that have come here to lay eggs, and this is the only place in the country where flocks of red macaws live. Damas Bay of Coiba Island is surrounded by 135 hectares of coral reef, which is the largest coral reef in Central America.

In the extreme west of Panama is part of the La Amistad International Park. This is the world's first biosphere reserve, which was created on the territory of two states. The other part of the park is located in Costa Rica. The Panama part of the reserve covers the mountain ranges stretching from Costa Rica, and covers an area of ​​​​207 thousand hectares. It is located on the territory of two provinces - Chiriqui and Bocas del Toro. The park information center in the province of Chiriqui is located in the village of Las Nubes, and in the province of Bocas del Toro, in the village of Panayungla. The mountain slopes of the national park are covered with forests inhabited by rare mountain cougars, jaguars and many birds, among which is the most beautiful bird Central America - quetzal.

Volkan Baru National Park is located next to the La Amistad National Park in the province of Chiriqui. The park is located on the slopes of the highest point in the country - Baru volcano (3475 m). It occupies an area of ​​14.3 thousand hectares, on which tropical rainforests and volcanic landscapes extend. In clear weather, both coasts of Panama can be seen from the top of the Baru volcano. The park also offers routes to several craters of the volcano, during the journey through which you can see a huge variety of orchids, ferns, mosses and birds, such as quetzals and toucans.

Off the northwest coast of Panama, in the southern part of the Bocas del Toro archipelago, is the Bastimientos Island National Marine Park. This is one of the few protected areas in Latin America where wild nature, indigenous tribes of the islands and coral reefs. Many of the park's beaches are nesting grounds for rare, endangered turtle species. Not far from here is Bird Island, which is famous for its colony of sea gulls.

In the eastern part of Panama, on the territory of 579 thousand hectares, the Darien National Park is located. This is the largest protected area in the country and throughout the Caribbean. The park has a colossal diversity of flora and fauna, and the park is also notable for the tribes that have lived here since time immemorial and still retain their identity. On the territory of the park there are mountain ranges up to 2500 m high, navigable rivers, sandy beaches, rocky coasts, mangrove forests and swamps. Most of the park is covered by tropical rainforests, which are home to many endemic plant species and are home to about 200 species. large mammals, including such a rare species as the jaguar, and about 500 species of birds, including the harpy eagle. The park is home to two Indian tribes, Embera and Waunan.

Population of Panama

The population of Panama as of July 2010 was 3.4 million. Annual increase - 1.5% (fertility - 2.5 births per woman). Infection with the immunodeficiency virus (HIV) - 1% (53rd place in the world, 2007 estimate), 20,000 people. Ethno-racial composition: mestizos (Mestizo) 70%, blacks, mulattoes and sambos 14%, whites 10%, Indians 6%.

Birth rate - 20.18‰ (96th place in the world), mortality - 4.66‰ (196th place in the world), infant mortality 12.67 per 1000 newborns (139th place), average life expectancy - 77.25 years (74. 47 years for men, 80.16 years for women). Literacy - 91.9% (according to the 2000 census). The share of the urban population is 73%.

The basis of the ethnic group "Panamanians" are the descendants of the Spanish colonialists of the 16th century, partially mixed with the Indians, that is, mestizos, and mulattos, who together make up 70% of the country's population. In addition to the Spaniards, here in the 19th and 20th centuries. other immigrants from Europe also migrated, mainly Italians. The minority are representatives of the indigenous population, the Indians of the Macro-Chibcha and Zhe-Pano-Caribbean families. There are also forest blacks (descendants of runaway black slaves living according to African traditions), cholos (Indians who lost their roots and switched to Spanish), and antillanos (immigrants from Jamaica and other Antilles. The consolidation of the nation occurred in the 19th century Repeated attempts to secede from Colombia led the Panamanians to declare independence in 1903. According to cultural traditions, they are closest to the Colombians, Costa Ricans and Hondurans.

Source - http://ru.wikipedia.org/
http://www.panama.ru/
http://www.extratours.ru/country/strani/panama.html

Basic moments

The majority of the population of Panama (67%) are Spanish-Indian mestizos. The remnants of the Indian tribes (Kunas, Chocoes and Guayamis) make up only 7%, they live mainly in remote areas. About 15% are blacks. The bulk of the population employed in the service sector is concentrated in the zone adjacent to the canal. Here are the largest cities - the capital city of Panama and the city of Colon.

Panama - tropical country with lush evergreen vegetation, humid and hot climate with very even temperature fluctuations. On the coast there are many picturesque bays and coves. More than one and a half thousand coral islands border the isthmus. Often Panama is called the kingdom of butterflies (more than 1100 species are known).

Nature and climate

In the latitudinal direction, the central mountain range extends almost across the entire country, bordered on both sides by coastal lowlands. Both the Caribbean and Pacific coasts are characterized by deep bays and nearby islands. On the south coast, several hilly peninsulas protrude into the ocean, the largest of which is the Azuero Peninsula. The mountainous interior of Panama is formed by several ranges. The western ranges, stretching to Panama from Costa Rica, are crowned with several volcanic peaks, the highest of them is Mount Baru (3475 m above sea level). To the east stretch the steep slopes of the Serrania de Tabasara ridge, more than 900 m above sea level, reaching the Panama Canal. This range ends abruptly southwest of Panama City, and further southeast is another mountain system - the Cordillera de San Blas, which passes into the higher Serrania del Darien, continuing into Colombia. Some peaks here rise above 1200 m above sea level. Another range, Serrania del Baudo, starts in the southeast of Panama and stretches from San Miguel Bay to Colombia. The Panama Canal is laid in the lowest part of the isthmus between the western and eastern mountainous regions, where the hills do not exceed 87 m above sea level.

On the Caribbean coast and the northern slopes of the mountains, the climate is rainy tropical. Especially powerful showers come from May to December, but in the remaining months there is no lack of moisture. In the port of Colon, the annual rainfall is 3250 mm, and the average temperature is 27 ° C, and the temperature difference between the seasons is almost imperceptible. In the highlands, rainfall is less, and on the south side of the mountains on the Pacific coast, a tropical climate prevails with wet and dry seasons. In the capital of the country, for example, 88% of the annual rainfall of 1750 mm falls in May-November, and the remaining five months are dry.

Approximately three quarters of Panama is covered in forests. On the Caribbean coast, littoral mangroves give way to dense rainforest of evergreen broadleaf species that provide valuable timber. Above the slopes are covered with no less dense "liana" forest, reaching almost to the tops of the ridges. The Pacific coastal regions are covered with dense semi-deciduous forest with small patches of savanna woodlands.

The fauna of Panama is rich and varied. Puma, ocelot and other felines, deer, monkeys, peccaries, anteaters, sloths, armadillos and kinkajou are found here. Among reptiles, crocodiles, alligators, poisonous and harmless snakes stand out. In addition to North American migratory birds, there are many parrots, including macaws; there are herons and toucans.

Attractions

The most famous landmark of the country is the Panama Canal. Tourists have the opportunity to view it from the Miraflores gateway. Here you can see how ships pass through the canal and visit the museum, which shows a film about its history. There is also the opportunity to admire the bridge that connects South and North America.

A little east of Panama City is the first city founded by Europeans on the Pacific coast - Panama Viejo. Despite the devastating raid of pirates in 1671, several churches of the 17th-18th centuries, a university, and a royal bridge are surprisingly well preserved here. Panama Viejo was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site back in 1997.

Colon is the second largest city in Panama. Among its most famous sights are the Statue of Christ on Avenida Central, the statue of Columbus, the first Protestant church Colombia. And of course, the Colon duty-free zone, with an annual turnover of more than $ 10,000,000, will be of interest to tourists.

To the east of Colon is the city of Portobelo, founded by Christopher Columbus himself. The city is famous for its forts of the 18th century, of which there are four. But only two of them can boast of good condition, and, as a result, accessibility for visiting.

Nature lovers will not be indifferent to the Darien National Park, where more than 500 species of birds and more than 200 species of large mammals live on an area of ​​​​more than 5500 km2. Pleasantly surprised by the entry price national park- only 3 $.

In the southwest of Panama is the village of Buque, famous for the annual ten-day exhibition of coffee and flowers. Bouquet starts the well-known Quetzal Trail, which will lead to the village of Cerro Punta. This is the highest village in Panama. Around Cerro Punta, the unique ruins of the ancient city have been preserved, which was destroyed in 600 AD by the eruption of the Baru volcano. In addition, traveling along the Quetzal Trail, you can visit some Indian villages that have survived to this day.

Kitchen

Traditional Panamanian cuisine is a synthesis of Spanish and Indian dishes. The basis of nutrition is corn, rice, meat, beans. All kinds of spices, seasonings and sauces are served separately, which is a definite plus for tourists. Very often, fried bananas are served as a side dish for meat. Interestingly, Panamanians serve many dishes not in plates, but in tortillas.

Panamanian cuisine is characterized by a huge amount of fish. By the way, the very word "Panama" from one of the Indian dialects is translated as "a place where there are a lot of fish." Here you can try both fairly familiar types of fish, such as tuna, as well as exotic ones. For example, it is difficult to carve a fish like tiburon alone, even for a strong man.

The meal traditionally ends with coffee, which is drunk from small cups, as this drink is very strong here.

Accommodation

Numerous hotels in Panama offer accommodation, ranging from budget options to luxurious five-star rooms. So, a night in a single room without meals in a three-star hotel will cost about $40. In a five-star hotel, you will have to pay about $210 for the same service. There is an option to rent a house privately. The cost of renting a one-room apartment near Panama City is approximately $260 per month.

Entertainment and recreation

Komarca Cuna Yala is the most popular beach in Panama. It consists of more than 350 islands. The entire area of ​​the beach is covered with white sand. The only minus of Komark Kuna-Yala is the ban on scuba diving. The Isla Coiba beach, specially designed for diving, compensates for this ban. Fans of water recreation will be interested in trying their hand at kayaking, a sport that is especially popular in Panama. Kayaking is like swimming in a single seat kayak. Such swimming on a calm lagoon allows you to fully enjoy the picturesque landscapes. For lovers of extreme sports, there is kayaking on mountain rivers.

In February, flocks of large fish approach the shores of the island of Las Perlas, which migrate to the Gulf of Panama. Fishing here is especially successful at this time of the year. The catch can be sea ​​ruffs, dorado, tuna. In August, humpback whales can often be spotted off the Pacific coast.

In August, Panama City hosts a traditional folklore festival. Here you can watch folk theatrical performances, hear national music, buy handmade souvenirs. In June, Los Santos hosts the Corpus Christi religious and folk festival. The holiday combines Catholic and folk motifs. His most striking moment is a religious procession along a street strewn with fresh flowers.

Numerous nightclubs, bars and restaurants are located on the capital streets of Uruguay and Zona Viva. There are also nightclubs where you can learn how to dance salsa, such as the Havana Panama Club.

In January, the Indian festival "Los Balserias" is held in the Chiriqui region. This is the most colorful procession of the ethnic minorities of Panama, where you can admire the national clothes of the Indians, listen to traditional music and even dance.

Purchases

The largest shopping center in Panama, Albrook Mall, is located near the Panama Canal. The center combines both expensive boutiques and small shops of locally produced goods. During the sales season, you can make bargains, for example, get a new set of branded clothes within $100. Not far from the center there is a bus station, from where buses run to all cities in Panama.

The level of prices for consumer goods is low here. It is noteworthy that many American retirees move to Panama precisely because the price level here is lower than in America.

Transport

The most convenient way to get to Panama is by plane. The international airport is located 17 km from the capital. You can also enter the country by sea, but only one port carries out international transport. Intercity mini buses run, the main disadvantage of which is the irregularity of flights. In Panama there is also the possibility of renting a car. An international driver's license and a credit card are required to rent a car. The age of the driver of the rented vehicle must be over 23 years old. The state of Panamanian roads is considered one of the best in Latin America.

IN major cities organized bus traffic. You can use a taxi to move around the city. It is customary to agree on the cost of the trip in advance.

Connection

Almost all cities in Panama have Internet cafes. The cost of one hour on the World Wide Web is approximately $1.

For mainstream subscribers mobile operators roaming is available in Panama. The cost of calls and SMS is determined by the mobile operator.

Payphones are installed on the streets of large cities. The cost of calling cards ranges from $10 to $50.

Security

The crime rate in Panama is quite high. Recently, the number of thefts and fraud has increased, so tourists should be vigilant. It is not recommended to visit alone remote areas of cities. Traveling between cities on small boats can also be dangerous, as there are known cases of drugs being transported in such transport. There is no ban on prostitution in the state, so you should be careful when dating in nightclubs.

Business climate

There are 110 international banks operating in Panama, making the country an international banking center open to investment. Tax incentives are provided for individuals and enterprises that are engaged in the development of the tourism sector and infrastructure in the country. There are more than 40 laws in the republic that are designed to protect foreign business. For example, non-disclosure of banking information and equal opportunities for both local and foreign companies.

Real estate

The cost of an apartment in Panama depends on its location. The price of an apartment up to 80 m² in one of the residential complexes in Panama City ranges from $65,000 to $100,000. At the same time, for such an apartment, but located on the coast, you will have to pay about $175,000. A villa on the coast will cost approximately $900,000.

To buy property in Panama, it is not necessary to be a resident of this country. It is necessary to make a deposit in the amount of 2 to 10% of the value of the property, pay the remaining amount, sign a contract of sale, and notarize the transaction.

The local population speaks mainly Spanish. Few understand English here, so a Russian-Spanish phrase book will be useful on a trip.

The sun in Panama is quite aggressive, the difference between night and day air temperature is only +5 ° C, so you need to purchase UV protection.

Visa Information

A tourist visa to Panama is issued for a period not exceeding 90 days. The consular fee is $75. Citizens of Belarus and Ukraine can visit the country for the purpose of tourism without a visa. When? if a tourist has a valid Schengen visa, it is not necessary to open a visa to Panama.

Address of the Embassy of Panama in Moscow: Mosfilmovskaya st., 50, bldg. 1. Phones (+7 495) 956-0729, 234-3671, 234-2951

Politics

Under a constitution adopted in 1972 and amended in 1978, 1983 and the 1990s, Panama is a unitary presidential republic. Until 1989, the real power in the country belonged to the military, and only then the operation of the basic law was restored in full.

Legislative power in Panama belongs to the unicameral Legislative Assembly, which since 1999 consists of 71 deputies. She is elected by popular vote for a term of 5 years, depending on the population in single-member and multi-member constituencies. The Panamanian Parliament adopts laws, ratifies international treaties, approves the state budget, imposes taxes, declares an amnesty, and approves the administrative-territorial division of the country. The Assembly considers accusations against the president, vice-presidents (may declare them dismissed) and deputies, approves members of the highest judicial bodies and the prosecutor's office.

Executive power is exercised by the President in conjunction with the Ministers of State. In the absence of the head of state, he is replaced by the first and second vice-presidents. The President appoints and dismisses ministers, coordinates the work of state institutions and the maintenance of public order. He can veto laws passed by Parliament, approve laws, appoint and remove police commanders, officers and governors, direct foreign policy, declare amnesties, and so on. For exceeding their powers and violating electoral procedures, presidents and vice presidents can be removed by the Legislative Assembly.

The president and vice presidents are elected by popular vote for five-year terms. In 1999, Mireia Elisa Moscoso Rodriguez was elected president - the first woman in this post, the widow of former president Arnulfo Arias. Born in 1946, she helped Arias in the election campaign of 1968 and accompanied him in exile, studied economics and design. In the late 1980s, she returned to Panama, in 1991 she was elected chairman of the Arnulfist Party, in 1994 and 1999 she ran for president.

The judicial system of the country includes the Supreme Court, tribunals and other courts. Members of the Supreme Court are nominated by the government and confirmed by Parliament for ten-year terms. There are also five courts of appeal, and the lowest court is the municipal courts.

Panama consists of nine provinces (Darien, Panama, Colon, Cocle, Herrera, Los Santos, Veraguas, Bocas del Toro, Chiriqui) and the San Blas Indian Territory. Provincial governors and municipal authorities are appointed by the president.

Economy

Panama's economy is focused primarily on servicing international transit. This orientation was determined in the early colonial period, when local residents supplied food and goods to the expeditions of the conquistadors and the streams of colonists crossing the isthmus. Panama transported Peruvian gold and silver to Spain and Californian gold to New York. After the construction of the Panama Canal, the canal zone, which was under the control of the United States, became the center of the country's economic development. Until 1979, however, Panama received a very small share of the profits, as the canal zone lived mainly on duty-free goods imported from the United States, and Panamanian citizens worked in the zone in low-wage jobs. New agreements between the United States and Panama, signed in 1977 and entered into force in 1979, provided for the elimination of the North American enclave (canal zone) and a significant increase in Panama's income.

Starting in the 1950s, at the initiative of the government, Panama began to expand the scope of its services. In 1953, a free trade zone was created in the port city of Colon, where foreign companies could use duty-free transit warehouses and other services. By the early 1980s, Colón had become one of the largest free trade zones, second only to Hong Kong, and Panama's second largest source of income. More than 350 firms, mostly North American, were doing business here. Thanks to a new package of banking laws passed in 1970, by the early 1980s, Panama had become the world's sixth largest financial center.

The cities of Panama and Colon, which have become international transit service centers, absorb half of the country's entire labor force and provide 2/3 of GDP. The manufacturing industry is concentrated in Panama City. Since the mid-1970s, the Panamanian government began to encourage the development of a national industry; in 1976, a financial corporation was founded to attract private investment in the industry. However, despite all the measures, by 1999 Panama's industrial output did not exceed 17% of GDP. At that time, agriculture, which employed 28% of the able-bodied population, provided 7% of GDP. Although in the 1960s and 1970s the share of agriculture in the country's economy was steadily declining, in 1983 it brought 54% of export earnings. By 2002, export earnings amounted to 5.8 billion US dollars.

In 2002, Panama's gross domestic product was $18.06 billion, or $6,200 per capita. This is the highest rate among the countries of Central America. During the 1970s, Panama's GDP increased by approximately 6% annually, except for the period 1972–1976. Between 1980 and 1986, annual economic growth was 2.7%, broadly in line with the country's population growth. By 2002, this figure had dropped to 0.7%. Panama's GDP began to show signs of growth with the election of the president of the economist and entrepreneur Ernesto Pérez Balladares in 1994. The unemployment rate remains high - 16% of the working population. The main reason for Panama's economic difficulties is the need to pay high interest on foreign debts.

culture

The culture of Panama developed on a Spanish basis, experiencing significant influences from African, Indian and North American cultures. The cultural center of the country is the capital, where the University of Panama (founded in 1935), the National Museum of Panama (founded in 1925) and the National Library (founded in 1892) are located. The Ministry of Education manages the department of fine arts, maintains museums and cultural monuments, implements a broad publishing program and organizes musical and theatrical performances.

The folk music and choreography of Panama is distinguished by a great variety of genres. One of the most common folk dances is the tamborito. This pair dance, performed to the accompaniment of drums and handclaps, is accompanied by a song dating back to the 17th century. Mehorana, a song and choreographic genre of Spanish origin, is performed collectively to the accompaniment of two five-string guitars (mehoraneras); its main elements are zapateo (tapping) and paseo (procession). Another popular song and dance genre, punto, is distinguished by a lively, cheerful melody. Cumbia, a dance of African American origin, became the emblem of national folklore. Folk musical instruments include, in addition to five-string guitars, a three-string violin called ravel, percussion, dried gourd rattles (maracas) and a wooden marimba xylophone; urban folklore ensembles use classical violin, cello and Spanish guitar. The National Conservatory was founded in 1940. A national symphony orchestra was created in the capital.

Of the Panamanian artists, the most famous painter and sculptor Roberto Lewis (1874-1949) and Umberto Ivaldi (1909-1947). The founders of national literature were the poets Gaspar Octavio Hernandez (1893-1918) and Ricardo Miro (1883-1940). The largest figure in Panamanian literature is the poet, prose writer, essayist Rogelio Sinan (b. 1904), author of the famous novel The Magic Island (La isla magica, 1977).

Children from 7 to 15 must attend free public schools. Higher education is based on two metropolitan universities: the University of Panama (40,000 students) and the Catholic University of Santa Maria la Antigua, founded in 1965 (3,900 students).

History

Since ancient times, dozens of Indian tribes have lived on the territory of the Isthmus of Panama, associated with the population of neighboring regions of South and Central America. The first pottery found in Panama dates back to the turn of the 4th and 3rd millennium BC. In 2 thousand BC. corn was cultivated here. In 1 thousand AD. ancient metallurgy spread on the isthmus. The cultures of Veraguas (3rd-2nd centuries BC), Darien (after the 7th century), Chiriqui, Cocle and others flourished here.

In 1501 Panama was discovered by the Spanish conquistador Rodrigo de Bastidas. The following year, Christopher Columbus founded a settlement at the mouth of the Belen River, later destroyed by the Indians. The colonization of the territory of Panama began in 1509–1510, when a settlement was founded in the Gulf of Darien, from which the province of Tierra Firme (Mainland) grew. In 1513, the expedition of Vasco Nunez de Balboa crossed the isthmus and went to the Pacific Ocean. In 1519, the governor of "Tierra Firme" Pedrarias Davila founded the city of Panama. Through the isthmus, goods from the colonies on the Pacific coast were transported to the Atlantic coast and further to Spain. Panama City became the most important trading center of Spanish America. In 1538, Panama was proclaimed a Spanish audience, in 1542–1560 it was part of the viceroyalty of Peru, then of the captaincy general of Guatemala, and in 1718–1723 and 1740–1810 it was included in New Granada (now Colombia).

The basis of the economy was plantations, on which black slaves were imported from Africa. In the 16th and 17th centuries the territory of the country was repeatedly attacked by pirates (in 1671 the city of Panama was destroyed by the English pirate Henry Morgan). From the end of the 18th century Panama's economy was in decline due to shifting trade routes.

In 1821, the Panamanians rebelled against the Spanish colonial government and proclaimed the independence of the province. Soon they joined the federal republic of Great Colombia, created by Simon Bolivar, and after its collapse in 1830, Panama became part of New Granada (Colombia). In 1840–1841, she again tried to declare the independence of the "Republic of the Isthmus", but was unsuccessful. However, the interests of the leaders of the province and the Colombian central government often diverged. In 1885, 1895, 1899, 1900 and 1901 the Panamanians rebelled against the Colombian authorities.

Panama was a major transit point during the California gold rush. In the middle of the 19th century The Isthmus of Panama became more and more of interest to the United States and European powers, which sought to establish their control over a strategically and commercially advantageous transport route. In 1846, the United States concluded an agreement with New Granada, obtaining the right to duty-free transit and operation of tracks, as well as a concession for the construction of an interoceanic railway, which was built by 1855. The Anglo-American agreements of 1850 and 1901 significantly increased US influence in Panama.

For some time, France tried to compete with the Americans here. In 1879, the French engineer and diplomat Ferdinand de Lesseps, who built the Suez Canal, created a company to build the Panama Canal, which later went bankrupt. In 1902, the US government bought all the rights and property from the French company, but the Colombian government refused to give permission for the construction of the canal. Under these circumstances, the United States provided military support to the Panamanian separatists, who on November 3, 1903, proclaimed the independence of the Panamanian Republic. The constitution of the new state was adopted.

Soon the first president of Panama, Manuel Amador Guerrero (1904 - 1908), signed the Hay-Buno-Varilla treaty, according to which the United States received "for all eternity" all rights to build and operate the canal, along with the right to unlimited control over a strip of land across the isthmus 10 miles wide and the right to interfere in the internal affairs of the state. This treaty effectively turned Panama into a US protectorate for a long time. The agreement with the US was revised in 1936 and 1955, but the US retained control of the canal zone. Under the supervision of the American military, elections were held in 1908, 1912 and 1918. American troops occupied the cities of Panama and Colon (1918) and the province of Chiriqui (1918-1920), suppressed social protests and strikes in Panama in the 1920s. The country's economy was completely dependent on American firms and companies.

In 1912–1916 and 1918–1924, the country's president was the liberal leader Belisario Porras, who carried out some reforms in the field of social and labor legislation. In 1931, the Communal Action liberal reform movement overthrew the government of constitutional president Florencio Arosemena (1928–1931). Under President Armodio Arias (1932–1936), the ruling Revolutionary Nationalist Party (RNP) was created. In 1935, its candidate Juan D. Arosemena (1936-1940) was elected president. In 1936, after mass protests, the United States agreed to conclude a new treaty with Panama, which lifted some conditions that limited the sovereignty of the Panamanian Republic and increased the annual rent for the canal from 250,000 to 430,000 dollars.

In 1940, Arnulfo Arias Madrid, a representative of the Genuine RNP, was elected president of Panama. He introduced the national currency and paper banknotes into circulation, proclaimed a new constitution, which increased the term of presidential office. In foreign policy, he, seeking greater independence from the United States, tried to develop relations with Germany and Italy. In 1941, A. Arias was accused of dictatorial aspirations and pro-fascist sympathies and overthrown by the National Guard. President Ricardo Adolfo de la Guardia (1941–1945), representative of the RPP, allowed the United States to establish 134 military bases in Panama during the war to protect the canal.

In early 1945, an acute crisis in the leadership of the country led to the abolition of the 1941 constitution and the holding of elections to the Constituent Assembly. The interim President Enrique Adolfo Jiménez (1945–1948) relied on a coalition of three liberal parties and one of the CHP factions. In 1946 a new constitution was adopted, and in 1947-1948 Panama obtained from the United States the return of the territory leased during the war. The 1948 presidential election was won by the liberal Domingo Diaz Arosemena (1948–1949). A.Arias disputed the results of the vote, but the National Guard supported his competitor. After Arosemena resigned in June 1949 for health reasons, his successor Daniel Chanis Pinzón declared an amnesty for political prisoners and released Arias, who had been imprisoned for organizing civil unrest in the previous elections.

In November 1949, he again became the leader of the "Genuine RPP", claiming to have won the elections of 1948. Arias imprisoned his political opponents, banned the Communist Party, dissolved parliament and the Supreme Court, and in 1951 created a new Panamist Party.

These actions of Arias caused widespread indignation, which in May 1951 escalated into a general strike and unrest, and the National Guard, led by Colonel José Antonio Remon Cantera, removed Arias from the presidency.

Before the elections of 1952, the parties of liberals, reformists, the RPP, the Genuine Revolutionary Party, which dissociated itself from Arias, and the People's Union united in the National Patriotic Coalition (NPK), which nominated Colonel Remon Cantera as its candidate. Having won, he began negotiations with the United States on the revision of the treaty regarding the Panama Canal. But on the eve of the signing of the agreement in 1955, he was assassinated. The agreement did not differ significantly from the agreement of 1903, but increased the rent to 1930 thousand dollars. The 1956 presidential election was again won by the CPP candidate, Ernesto de la Guardia Navarro (1956–1960).

In time for the 1960 elections, the opposition formed the National Liberal Union (NLS), which included the National Liberal, Republican, Third National Parties, and the National Liberation Party. This bloc defeated the CPP and the National Liberal Roberto Francisco Chiari (1960–1964) assumed the presidency. In 1964, the election was won by the NLS candidate Marco Aurelio Robles Mendez, ahead of A. Arias. A coalition government was formed with the participation of all major parties, with the exception of the Arnulfists, Christian Democrats and Socialists.

Since the late 1950s, mass demonstrations have unfolded in Panama demanding the return of the canal zone to the country. In January 1964, American troops shot down one of these demonstrations. Under pressure from the public, the United States agreed to negotiate a revision of the channel's status.

In 1967, President Robles Mendes entered into several new agreements with the United States, one of which provided for Panama's sovereignty over the canal zone, but the opposition refused to ratify them. In November 1967 the government coalition broke up. In March 1968, Parliament removed Robles Mendez, but he did not obey this decision, and until the Supreme Court upheld the dismissed head of state in April, “dual power” remained in Panama.

The 1968 presidential election was won by A. Arias, the chief critic of the 1967 agreements with the United States. On October 1, he took the presidency, but on October 11 he was removed by the National Guard, led by General Omar Torrijos Herrera. The activities of the parties were banned, the parliament was dissolved. Officially, power was transferred to interim President Demetrio Basilio Lacas (1969–1978), but in fact it passed into the hands of General Torrijos. The constitution, adopted in 1972, proclaimed the latter "the supreme leader of the Panamanian revolution" and head of government. She also declared: "The territory of the country can never be given away or alienated, temporarily or partially, to a foreign state."

During the Torrijos period, hundreds of thousands of hectares of land were confiscated from the landowners and transferred to the peasants, and transformations were carried out in the field of taxation, banking, and education. The government developed the public sector, passed a labor law and raised wages, created agricultural, transport and fishing cooperatives, nationalized (with compensation) the property of US companies and expropriated the property of large local owners, took control of financial transactions outside the country.

In 1977, a new agreement was concluded between Panama and the United States under President J. Carter, which provided for the liquidation of the canal zone from October 1, 1979 and the transfer of the canal itself to Panama by 2000. Despite the fact that the possibility of a US military presence to protect the canal was stipulated, a resolution was adopted US non-intervention in Panama's internal affairs. The number of military bases in Panama has been reduced from 13 to 3.

In accordance with Torrijos' promises to restore democratic norms in the country, elections were held in August 1978 for a new National Assembly. After Torrijos resigned as head of government in October, the National Assembly handed over power to a new president, Aristides Royo Sanchez, leader of the newly formed Revolutionary Democratic Party. He continued the independent line of Torrijos and supported the Sandinista government of Nicaragua, which caused discontent in the United States.

In 1981, Torrijos, who remained head of the National Guard, died in a crash under unclear circumstances. General Ruben Dario Paredes, who took over the National Guard in March 1982, was closely associated with the US military. In August 1982, he secured the early resignation of Royo Sanchez. The new president, Ricardo de la Espriella (1982–1984), promised to work more closely with the US. After his resignation in February 1984, former vice president Jorge Ilhueka Asumio became head of state.

In April 1983, instead of the National Guard in Panama, the defense forces were created. In August 1983, General Paredes, about to run for president, resigned from his post as commander-in-chief of the defensive forces. He was replaced by General Manuel Antonio Noriega, who was initially also closely associated with the US.

In the May 1984 elections, with the support of Noriega, Nicolás Ardito Barletta was elected president of Panama, nominated by the National Democratic Union coalition, which included the RDP, the Liberal, Labor and Republican parties, as well as the Popular Broad Front. Only slightly behind him was A. Arias, who accused the winner of rigging. President Barletta criticized the IMF and the tough economic program it dictated to Panama. In September 1985, under pressure from the opposition, Barletta resigned and was replaced by Vice President Eric Arturo Delvalier, a member of the Republican Party.

In the mid-1980s, General Noriega left the United States. After the Panama Defense Forces seized an American ship delivering weapons to anti-Sandinista rebels in Nicaragua in June 1986, relations between Panama and the United States began to deteriorate rapidly. Unions of entrepreneurs, employees, workers and church organizations united in the "National Civil Crusade" and in June 1987 held major strikes and demonstrations demanding Noriega's resignation. The trade unions that supported him organized response marches, after which a state of emergency was introduced in the country.

The opposition's demands were supported by the United States, which accused Noriega of involvement in the drug trade and stepped up diplomatic pressure on Panama. On February 25, 1988, President Delvalier removed Noriega from the post of commander-in-chief of the defense forces. But the country's parliament did not recognize this decision and removed Delvalier himself, replacing him with Manuel Solis Palma. Delvalier fled to the USA.

The May 1989 presidential election was held in a tense atmosphere of mutual intimidation and threats of US sanctions. The government candidate Carlos Duque, who was supported by the RDP, the Agrarian Labor, Labor, Republican and Revolutionary Panamist parties, the Democratic Party of Workers, the National Action Party, the People's Party (Communists), and others, was opposed by the Arnulfist Guillermo Endara. The latter also enlisted the support of the Christian Democrats, the Nationalist Republican Liberal Movement, as well as the patronage of the United States. Both challengers declared their victory; Clashes broke out between their supporters. As a result, the National Electoral Tribunal annulled the results of the vote. In September 1989, Francisco Rodriguez was declared interim president, and in December Noriega became head of government with emergency powers.

On December 19-20, 1989, American troops invaded Panama. More than 50,000 people were left homeless as a result of air bombardments. More than 200 civilians and more than 300 Panamanian soldiers were killed, according to official US figures, but human rights organizations put the number at 3,000-5,000 Panamanian dead. Noriega was captured and taken to the United States, where he was sentenced to many years in prison. Lawsuits by Panamanian citizens against the American administration for damages were dismissed by American courts.

The US occupying forces transferred power to Endare, declaring him the winner of the 1989 elections. However, the majority of the population did not trust his regime, considering him a protege of the interventionists. Already in 1990, demonstrations began to take place against the new government, in which 50-100 thousand people participated. They condemned the United States and the American military presence and demanded an end to the ongoing sale of public sector enterprises to American companies. In December 1990, an attempted coup d'état took place in the country, suppressed by American troops. In August 1991, the Christian Democratic Party left the government of Endara. In 1992, the regime was defeated in a referendum to change the constitution in 1972, failing, in particular, to win support for a proposal to ban the regular army. The ruling camp continued to fall apart: at the end of 1993, the NRLD refused to support the government candidate in the upcoming elections.

In 1994, a member of the RDP, Ernesto Perez Balladares, also supported by the Liberal Republican and Labor parties, won the presidential election. He collected more than 33% of the vote and outstripped M.E. Moscoso from the union of the Arnulfist, Liberal, Genuine Liberal parties and the Independent Democratic Union (more than 29%). Over 17% of the votes went to the leader of the Papa Egoro Indian movement, Ruben Blades. Assuming the presidency, Pérez Balladares (1994-1999) promised to achieve national reconciliation, ensure the independence of the judiciary, fight speculation and drug trafficking. He pardoned over 220 political prisoners, including Noriega's supporters. The President announced his intention to pursue a more cautious economic policy. In reality, however, he continued with neo-liberal reforms that increased social divisions and caused widespread discontent. More than a third of the population lived in poverty. The President signaled that Panama could extend the presence of US troops in the Canal Zone after 2000 in exchange for appropriate concessions.

The country's parliament in 1994 adopted a constitutional amendment on the liquidation of the armed forces and the transfer of their functions to the police. In 1998, the government of Pérez Balladares suffered a political setback when the majority of the participants in the referendum refused to agree with the item proposed by him and supported by Parliament on the possibility of direct re-election of the president for a second term.

The 1999 presidential election was won by opposition candidate M.E. Moscoso, who collected almost 45% of the vote. Government spokesman Martin Torrijos, son of a former military leader, collected about 38%. However, in the parliamentary elections, the success was accompanied by the RDP. In September 1999, Moscoso assumed the presidency, declaring that Panama intends to single-handedly ensure the security of the canal and is not going to negotiate with any country about the presence of foreign military bases on its territory. On December 31, 1999, the United States transferred full sovereignty over the Panama Canal and the surrounding area to Panama.

On January 1, 2000, the management of the Panama Canal passed into the hands of the Administration, which is headed by a governing board of 11 directors, approved for 9 years by the authorities of Panama.

The government of M.E.Moscoso basically continues the policy of its predecessors. It is to remain in power until the next general election in 2004. Starting from that date, a number of new elements should be introduced into the Panamanian political system, including granting the right to vote to Panamanians abroad, the introduction of a 30% representation of women in elected office , direct election of deputies to the parliament of Central America and the mandatory resignation of persons holding public office, if they are nominated for election.

In 2001, a diplomatic conflict arose between Cuba and Panama, which was caused by the decision of the Panamanian authorities to release four Cubans whom Havana accused of preparing an assassination attempt on Castro. In addition, Havana suspected one of the terrorists detained in Panama of organizing the explosion in 1976 of a Cuban airline plane that killed 73 people. Castro did not get the Panamanian authorities to extradite the criminals. Moreover, a few days before her departure from the post of President of Panama, President Mireya Moscoso released the detained Cubans to freedom. According to one version, this decision was made at the request of the American administration.

The restoration of diplomatic relations between the countries took place only under the next presidency, in 2005.

The May 2004 presidential election was won by Martin Torrijos, leader of the Patria Nueva (New Homeland) alliance, which includes parties such as the Revolutionary Democratic Party, which was founded in the 70s by his father, General Omar Torrijos, ex-president of Panama and the People's Party, formerly the Democratic Party. He received over 47% of the popular vote.

Other parties seeking parliamentary representation in elections were the Nationalist Republican Liberal Movement (MOLIRENA), the Papa Egoro Movement, the Christian Democratic Party, the Civic Renewal Party, the Genuine Liberal Party, and others.

The administration of President Martin Torrijos has made significant progress. During the 5 years of his presidency, the poverty rate in the country decreased by 5% and amounted to 28% in 2008; there has been a shift in the distribution of income. A huge contribution was made to create the image of Panama as the financial and commercial center of Latin America. In October 2006, Torrijos proposed a plan for one of the largest investment projects in Latin America, the expansion of the Panama Canal. At the referendum held on this issue, the plan was supported by the majority of the population.

The total cost of the project is $5.25 billion. As expected, work on the expansion of the transport artery linking the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans will last until 2014. The modernization will double the capacity of the Panama Canal to 600 million tons of cargo per year and will make it possible to serve especially large ships.

In May 2009, the new president of Panama became a multimillionaire, a member of the conservative party "Democratic Changes" Riccardo Martinelli, who collected about 60% of the vote. He represented the Alliance for Change in the elections. For the candidate of the ruling Revolutionary Democratic Party, Balbina Herrera, more than 30% of voters voted.

Martinelli promised in the election to curb corruption and crime. However, first of all, the new president will have to deal with economic problems, primarily related to the Panama Canal, which accounts for a third of all tax revenues to the country's budget. At present, the number of ships passing through it has decreased markedly.