Signs of electoral systems table. Types of electoral systems (majoritarian, proportional, mixed). Types of electoral systems
Types of electoral systems
Consider the electoral system in the narrow sense of the term, ᴛ.ᴇ. as way of allocating seats in an organ state power between candidates based on the results of voting of voters.
By origin, all electoral systems can be divided into three broad categories:
1. Electoral systems that appeared evolutionarily. The English-speaking and Scandinavian countries have a long history of free elections and their electoral systems have been around for over a century.
2. Electoral systems that emerged as a result of changes in the constitutional order several decades ago. The electoral systems of France, Germany, Italy and Austria are based on the constitutions that were created after the Second World War.
3. Electoral systems that have recently emerged with the establishment of a new constitutional order. Today, Spain, Portugal, Greece hold elections on an alternative basis, but the electoral system of the country, which recently introduced the principle of free choice, is not able to institutionalize it in full right away. The post-Soviet countries, incl. and Ukraine.
Modern democracies use a wide range of diverse electoral systems (there are about 350 of them), each of which has its own advantages and disadvantages. This diversity is determined by historical, cultural characteristics, as well as political goals. As noted by R. Taagepera and M.S. Shugart, compared to other elements political system electoral rules are easier to manipulate, they allow you to create advantages for several large parties and nullify the role of small parties, or, on the contrary, give the latter the right to parliamentary representation.
As a rule, electoral systems are different modifications of two basic types: majoritarian and proportional.
majority system. Fundamentally majority system Majority principle (the winner of the election is the candidate who receives the most votes). Constituencies here are single-member, ᴛ.ᴇ. One deputy is elected from each constituency. The majority system has its own varieties.
At majority system relative (simple) majority the candidate who receives more votes than any of his rivals is considered elected. The system is simple, because ensures the victory of one party (candidate) even with a minimal margin. But it may turn out that a minority of voters will vote for the winning party (the rest of the votes will be taken by other parties), and the government that this party will form will not enjoy the support of the majority of citizens. By analogy with horse racing, this system is sometimes called "winner takes all". Today this system is used in the USA, Canada, Great Britain, New Zealand, etc.
Majoritarian system of absolute majority assumes that the candidate who receives more than half of the votes of the voters who participated in the voting (50% plus one vote) is elected.
In world practice, there are several varieties of this system:
The system of two rounds. If none of the candidates received more than 50% of the votes, a second round of elections is held, in which, as a rule, two candidates with the best results participate, which allows one of them to receive a majority of votes (absolute or relative). Such a system is used, for example, when electing the president of Russia, and in the second round it is enough for a candidate to receive a relative majority of votes;
· Alternative voting is used in elections to the lower house of the Australian Parliament. In a single-mandate constituency, the voter votes for several candidates, marking with numbers (1, 2, 3, etc.) against the names of their preference for the voter (rating voting). If none of the candidates receives an absolute majority, the candidates with the lowest first preferences are excluded from further counting, and the votes cast for them are transferred to the candidates of the second preferences. Candidates with the smallest number first and second preferences. The redistribution of votes takes place until one of the candidates receives an absolute number of votes.
· The majority system of a qualified majority is rarely used, when the support of 2/3 or 3/4 of the total number of votes is required (it was used in Chile when choosing deputies of Parliament).
proportional system involves voting on party lists, which means the allocation of a multi-member district (the district is the entire territory of the country) or several districts. This is the most common system (countries Latin America, Belgium, Sweden, etc.). The point of this system is essentially that each party receives a number of seats in parliament proportional to the number of votes cast for it. For all its democracy, this system has one drawback. It guarantees the representation of even small parties, which, under parliamentary or mixed forms of government, creates problems with the formation of a government. This becomes possible when none of the parties has an absolute majority in parliament or cannot create it without entering into a coalition with other parties. Many countries are trying to smooth this shortcoming, as well as excessive fragmentation of parties, introducing an "electoral threshold" (barrier) - the smallest number of votes, which is extremely important for the election of one deputy. Usually in different countries it is 2-5%. For example, in Russia this threshold is 5% of the votes.
There are many variants of the proportional voting system.
· a system with a national party list (Israel, the Netherlands). Voting takes place nationwide within a single nationwide constituency;
· a system with regional party lists involves the formation of several districts (Austria, Greece, Spain, Scandinavian countries, etc.);
· Closed-list system: the voter votes for a party and cannot express their preference for an individual candidate on the party list. Candidates on the party list are ranked in descending order of importance, and those at the bottom of the list are less likely to win;
· An open list system allows one to vote for a party and express preference for one of its candidates, ᴛ.ᴇ. voters can change the position of candidates on the list (preferential voting). It's done different ways: the voter puts a cross in front of the names of the candidates he would like to see (Belgium); enters the names of candidates on the ballot (Italy); ranks candidates according to the degree of preference (Switzerland, Luxembourg), etc.
There is no ideal electoral system. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages.
Supporters of the use of traditional varieties majoritarian voting systems among its main advantages highlight the following:
direct communication between voters and a candidate for deputies;
· sifts out parties that are small in their influence;
forms the parliamentary majority;
· contributes to the establishment of a stable two-party system;
· leads to the formation of a one-party, but effective and stable government.
To significant shortcomings The majoritarian system is criticized for the following points:
· does not reflect the real alignment of political forces in the country and does not ensure their adequate representation in parliament. First of all, this applies to the one-round voting system, when the winning party is the candidate who receives less than half of the votes from among those participating in the elections. But even if one side wins 52%, the problem persists - 48% of voters will be disrepresented. There are cases when up to 2/3 of the votes cast for failed candidates "disappear". Such a situation can be a source of potential political conflicts and contribute to the activation of non-parliamentary methods of struggle on the part of the losing side;
· generates disproportions between the votes gained and the mandates received. For example, in 1997 ᴦ. in the parliamentary elections in the UK, the Laborites received 64% of the mandates, while only 44% of voters voted for them, the Conservatives received 31% of the vote and 25% of the mandates, respectively, and the Liberal Democrats - 17% of the vote and only 7% of the seats;
· the possibility of the predominance of regional (local) interests over national interests;
Leads to higher prices electoral process when it is extremely important to hold the second round.
To positive moments proportional systems elections include the following:
· provides more adequate representation of political forces;
· allows for the representation of minorities (eg ethnic, religious);
· stimulates the creation of parties and the development of political pluralism.
Wherein the proportional system has weak sides:
· weak communication of the candidate for deputies with voters;
· dependence of the deputy on the party faction in the parliament;
generates big number rival factions in parliament, which negatively affects the stability of the latter;
· contributes to the formation (under parliamentary and mixed forms of government) of coalition governments, which are sometimes less effective and stable than one-party governments;
· Potentially increases the influence of the party elite in the formation of electoral lists, especially if a closed list system is used.
In a number of countries (Germany, Bulgaria) they are trying to find a compromise between the two electoral systems and use various options mixed system , which involves a combination of elements of proportional and majority systems.
For example, in Russia, during elections to the State Duma, half of the deputies (225 people) are elected according to the majoritarian system of relative majority, and the second half - on the basis of the system of proportional representation of political parties in the federal constituency. A closed list system is used.
In political science, the question of the influence of voting systems on the configuration of the country's party system and the nature of inter-party relations is being actively discussed.
Western political scientist R. Katz, having conducted research in Great Britain, Ireland and Italy, came to the following conclusions:
· proportional representation contributes to the manifestation on the part of parties of more ideological and radical positions on political issues than in a system of relative majority;
· in two-party systems, the ideological positions of the parties are gradually converging;
· Parties competing in small constituencies will predominantly focus on leader personalities and patronage, while parties competing in large constituencies will tend to be problematic.
French political scientist M. Duverger developed a pattern that was called " Duverger law". According to this law, the majority system of a relative majority contributes to the formation of a two-party system (alternation of two large parties in power). This is explained by the fact that voters will strive for "useful" ( strategic) voting, ᴛ.ᴇ. voting for large parties that have a chance of success, realizing that votes cast for small parties will "waste". This is a kind of "psychological effect" of the electoral system. Small parties are either doomed to permanent defeat, or are forced to unite with one of the parties - the parties of "favorites". The two-round majoritarian system favors the emergence of numerous and relatively stable parties that depend on each other. Proportional representation contributes to the formation of a multi-party system, consisting of independent and stable parties with a rigid structure. The regularity noticed by Duverger is not absolute and implies exceptions.
Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, the following conclusions can be drawn:
1. Electoral system - a set of electoral procedures provided for by law and related to the formation of government bodies.
2. The electoral system operates on the principles of universality, equality and secret ballot. At the same time, the electoral legislation provides for the qualification of residence and the age qualification. The age limit is different for active (the right to vote) and passive (the right to be elected) suffrage. In addition, some countries (Austria, Belgium, the Netherlands) provide for mandatory voting.
3. Electoral systems are divided into three basic types: majoritarian, proportional, mixed.
Types of electoral systems - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Types of electoral systems" 2017, 2018.
The electoral system is the procedure for organizing and conducting elections, enshrined in legal norms ah, methods of determining the results of voting and the procedure for distributing deputy mandates.
The choice of this or that electoral system entails great changes in the alignment of political forces. The electoral system in each country is created depending on how they understand the interests of their party and society, what are the political traditions and culture. Therefore, politicians are cautious about changing the electoral legislation. Election results, which determine winners and losers, largely depend on the type of electoral system. There is in the world a large number of electoral systems, but their diversity can be reduced to the following three types: majoritarian, proportional, mixed.
Historically, the first electoral system was the majoritarian system, which is based on the principle of the majority (from the French majorite - majority) - those candidates who receive the established majority of votes are considered elected. There are majoritarian systems of absolute, relative and qualified majority.
Under a majoritarian system, one deputy is elected from each constituency. The candidate with the most more votes. Under such a system, if not two, but several candidates are running in the same constituency, the one who received less than 50% of the votes can also win.
Under this system, the majority received by the winning side can be of two types - absolute and relative. In the first case, the winner is the candidate who won 50% plus 1 vote of all voters participating in the voting. If no candidate receives the required number of votes, a second round of elections is scheduled, in which the two candidates who won the largest number of votes in the first round take part. In the second round, the winner is the candidate with the relative majority of votes. In a plurality majoritarian system, the candidate who receives more votes than all the other candidates, individually, wins.
The main advantages of the majoritarian electoral system:
- - provides the winning party with a majority in parliament, which makes it possible to form a stable government under parliamentary and mixed forms of government;
- - involves the formation of large political parties or blocs that contribute to stabilization political life states;
- - contributes to the formation of strong direct ties between voters and the candidate.
However, all varieties of the majority system are characterized by some significant drawbacks.
First, this system can distort the real picture of the country's socio-political forces in favor of the winning party. Those who voted for the defeated party are deprived of the opportunity to appoint their representatives to elected bodies.
Secondly, this system can cause distrust in the existing system, because. the access of representatives of the losing small parties to deputies is limited. In addition, the formed government may not enjoy the support of the majority of the country's population.
Thirdly, the direct dependence of deputies on the electors of "their" constituency encourages them to protect, first of all, local interests to the detriment of national ones.
Fourthly, the frequent ineffectiveness of the first round of elections under the majoritarian system of absolute and qualified majority requires additional expenses for holding the second round of elections.
Proportional electoral system - the procedure for determining the results of voting, in which the distribution of mandates between the parties that nominated their candidates for representative body, is made in accordance with the number of votes received by them.
The main difference between the proportional system and the majority system is that it is based not on the principle of majority, but on the principle of proportionality between the votes received and the mandates received. Deputy mandates are distributed not between individual candidates, but between parties in accordance with the number of votes cast for them. At the same time, not one, but several parliamentary deputies are elected from the constituency. Voters vote for party lists, ie. actually for this or that program. Of course, the parties try to include the most famous and authoritative people in their lists, but the principle does not change from this.
There are different types of proportional electoral systems:
- - list (voting for the list);
- - unlisted (candidates are ranked within the list);
- - with an open list;
- - with a closed list.
The popularity of the proportional electoral system is evidenced by the fact that ten of the twelve EU countries (except the UK and France) use this particular system. This system is the most democratic, allowing to take into account the political sympathies of the country's population. It stimulates a multi-party system, creates favorable conditions for the activities of small political parties.
At the same time, the continuation of the named advantages of the proportional system are its disadvantages. In conditions of a multi-party system, when about a dozen parties are represented in the parliament, it is difficult to form a government, which, as a rule, is not very stable. The proportional system does not allow the voter to evaluate the personal merits of the candidate, since he chooses not a person, but a party. In addition, the role of small parties may increase significantly, which, in exchange for supporting larger parties, demand posts, privileges, etc., that do not correspond to their real place in the political system.
To overcome the shortcomings and use the advantages of the majoritarian and proportional electoral systems in post-war period began the formation of a mixed electoral system. It is a system based on a combination of two systems of representation: proportional and majoritarian. The essence of this system lies in the fact that one part of the deputy mandates is distributed on the basis of the principles of the majoritarian system, and the other - in accordance with the principles of the proportional system.
The advantages of a mixed electoral system include that it:
- - contributes to the consolidation of political parties or blocs while respecting the principle of proportionality, and this ensures the formation of a stable government;
- - provides an opportunity to preserve the connection between voters and their elected deputies, which to a certain extent is violated by the proportional system.
Electoral systems have gone through a long evolutionary path. As a result of almost three centuries of development, representative democracy has developed two main forms of citizen participation in the formation of state authorities and local self-government: majoritarian and proportional electoral systems.
Based on them in modern conditions mixed forms are also used. Considering these systems, we pay special attention to the fact that they differ not so much in formal aspects as in political goals achieved when using these electoral systems.
· Majoritarian electoral system characterized by the fact that a candidate (or a list of candidates) who receives the majority of votes provided for by law is considered elected to one or another elective body.
Most are different . There are electoral systems requiring absolute majorities (it's 50% + 1 vote or more). Such an electoral system exists, for example, in Australia.
Majoritarian system of relative majority means that the one who gets more votes than each of his rivals wins the election .
Majoritarian electoral system is called "first-comer-to-finish system". They also talk about her "winner takes all".
Currently such a system operates in four countries - USA, Canada, Great Britain, New Zealand .
Sometimes both varieties of the majority system are used simultaneously.. For example, in France, in the elections of deputies of parliament in the first round of voting, an absolute majority system is used, and in the second - a relative one.
Under a majoritarian system, as a rule, direct ties between a candidate (hereinafter a deputy) and voters arise and become stronger. .
Candidates are well aware of the state of affairs in their constituencies, the interests of voters, and are personally acquainted with their most active representatives. Accordingly, the voters have an idea of who they trust to express their interests in government.
It's obvious that Under a majoritarian system, representatives of a stronger political current in the country win elections. In turn, this contributes to the ousting of representatives of small and medium-sized parties from parliament and other government bodies.
The majority system contributes to the emergence and strengthening of the tendency to become in the countries where it is used, two or three party systems .
· proportional electoral system means that mandates are distributed strictly in proportion to the number of votes cast.
This system is common in modern world wider than the majority. In Latin America, for example, elections are held only by proportional system .
When using a proportional electoral system, the goal is to ensure broad and proportional representation of political parties, as well as social and national groups in government bodies. .
This system contributes to the development of a multi-party system . She is used in Australia, Belgium, Sweden, Israel and many other countries.
Like the majority proportional system has varieties . There are two types of it:
· proportional electoral system at the national level. In this case, voters vote for political parties throughout the country. Constituencies are not allocated;
· proportional electoral system based on multi-member constituencies. In this case deputy mandates are distributed on the basis of the influence of political parties in constituencies.
Majoritarian and proportional electoral systems have their advantages and disadvantages. . Let's dwell on them in more detail.
To the number positive properties of the majoritarian electoral system refers to what is in it opportunities for the formation of an effective and stable government have been laid.
The fact is that it allows large, well-organized political parties to easily win elections and establish one-party governments .
Practice shows that the authorities created on this basis are stable and capable of pursuing a firm state policy . The examples of the USA, England and other countries testify to this quite convincingly.
However The majority system has a number of significant shortcomings. Under a majoritarian system, only the fact that a candidate receives a majority of votes matters for the distribution of parliamentary mandates. The votes given to all other candidates are not taken into account and in this sense disappear..
Interested forces can, under a majoritarian system, manipulate the will of voters . In particular, Significant opportunities lie in the "geography" of constituencies .
As experience shows, rural population votes more traditionally than in the city. Interested political forces take this circumstance into account when forming constituencies . As many as possible electoral districts with a predominance of the rural population are allocated.
Thus, The shortcomings of the majoritarian electoral system are very significant. The main one is that a significant part of the country's voters (sometimes up to 50%) remains unrepresented in government.
The advantages of a proportional electoral system include the fact that the bodies of power formed with its help present a real picture of the political life of society, the alignment of political forces.
She is provides a system feedback between the state and civil society organizations , ultimately contributes to the development of political pluralism and multi-party system.
However the system under consideration has very significant shortcomings. . (Example Italy using this system: 52 governments have changed since 1945 ).
The main disadvantages of this system can be reduced to the following.
First of all , with a proportional electoral system, it is difficult to form a government . Reasons: lack of a dominant party with a clear and firm program; creation of multi-party coalitions, including parties with different goals and objectives. Governments established on this basis are unstable.
Secondly , the proportional electoral system leads to the fact that political forces that do not enjoy support throughout the country receive representation in government bodies.
Thirdly , under a proportional electoral system due to the fact that voting is carried out not for specific candidates, but for parties, direct communication between deputies and voters is very weak.
Fourth,since under this system voting goes for political parties, this circumstance contributes to the dependence of deputies on these parties. Such a lack of freedom of parliamentarians can adversely affect the process of discussing and adopting important documents.
The disadvantages of the proportional system are obvious and significant. Therefore, there are numerous attempts to eliminate or at least mitigate them. This left a visible imprint on the proportional electoral systems themselves..
World practice shows that if the majority systems are relatively the same, then all proportional systems are different .
The proportional system of each country has its own specifics, which depend on its historical experience, the established political system and other circumstances..
Although all proportional systems have as their goal the achievement of proportional representation, this goal is realized to a different extent.
According to this criterion There are three types of proportional electoral systems.
1. Systems that fully implement the principle of proportionalism;
2. Electoral systems with insufficient proportionalism;
3. Systems that, although achieving proportionality between the votes cast and the mandates received, however, provide for various protective barriers to the penetration of representatives of certain political forces into parliament.
An example is the electoral system of Germany. Here, candidates from political parties that do not win 5% of the votes throughout the country do not get into parliament. Such a "selection meter" is used in a number of other states.
As already emphasized, electoral systems have come a long way in their development. During this process (in the post-war period) the formation of a mixed electoral system began, that is, a system that should incorporate positive characteristics both majoritarian and proportional electoral systems.
The essence of the mixed electoral system is that a certain part of the deputy mandates is distributed in accordance with the principles of the majoritarian system. It contributes to the formation of sustainable government .
§2. Types of electoral systems
The concept of the electoral system
In the electoral law of each country, a certain system of representation is fixed. The electoral system is a set of rules, principles and techniques established by law, with the help of which the results of voting are determined and deputy mandates are distributed.
The functioning of any electoral system can only be assessed in relation to the form of government, the political culture of the country, the nature of its political parties. Therefore, electoral laws cease to correspond to their goals as other institutions of society and the state change. It is no coincidence that in the context of major social changes, the electoral system is also changing. Thus, the electoral system in Russia has changed, the electoral system is being reformed in Italy, the electoral laws have changed in Belarus and other post-Soviet republics.
The choice of one or another electoral system entails significant changes in the alignment of political forces. Thus, in France, the electoral law became the object of a fierce political struggle and changed significantly several times depending on the prevailing correlation of political forces. The American system corresponds to the nature of the watershed that has developed there between the main trends and parties and contributes to its preservation and even deepening. The Italian (proportional) system takes into account the more diverse political world of this country, although it no longer fully corresponds to the current alignment of political forces, which makes it necessary to reform the electoral system.
Thus, the electoral system in each country is created depending on how they understand the interests of their party and society, what are the political traditions and culture. Therefore politicians, as a rule, approach changes of the electoral legislation cautiously. Violation of the balance of power in a stable society always leads to unpredictable consequences and can destabilize political life.
There are a large number of electoral systems in the world, but their diversity can be reduced to the following three types: majoritarian, proportional, mixed.
Majoritarian system of absolute majority
This type of electoral system is based on the principle of the majority in determining the results of voting (fr. majorité - majority). The candidate who receives the established majority of votes is considered elected.
There are two types of majority system: absolute majority and relative majority. In the first case, the candidate who receives an absolute majority of votes - 50 percent plus one vote - is considered elected. Due to the fact that it is not always possible for any of the candidates to collect more than half of the votes in the first round, a second round of elections has to be held. This practice has developed, for example, in France, where all candidates from the first round are allowed to the second round, with the exception of those who collected less than 12.5 percent of the votes. The one who received more votes than any of the competitors is considered elected in the second round.
Belarus also uses an absolute majority system. Unlike France, in the second round, if the first was inconclusive, the two candidates who received the largest number of votes go to the second round. The one who received the most votes is considered elected, provided that the number of votes cast for the candidate is greater than the number of votes cast against him. For an election to be valid, at least 50 percent of the registered voters in that constituency must vote.
As a rule, elections under the majority system of an absolute majority contribute to the formation of relatively stable party blocs, excluding the influence of small, fragmented parties. As a result, a system of large and, what is very important, interdependent political parties is formed. For example, in France, where this system has been used with a short break for more than 30 years, there are more than eight parties that actually claim the votes. In the first round, parties that are close in ideology go separately, while the second round forces them to unite and confront a common rival.
One of the variants of the majority system of the absolute majority is the holding of elections with preferential (preferential) voting. The voter receives a ballot with a list of candidates, in which he allocates seats at his discretion. If none of the candidates gains an absolute majority, then the votes cast for the candidate in last place are transferred to the more successful one, and he himself is excluded from the electoral list. And so it continues until one of the candidates receives the required majority of votes. Such a system is good in that a second round of elections is not required.
Majoritarian system of relative majority
In elections under the majority system of relative majority (plural electoral system), a candidate needs to win more votes than any of his competitors, and not necessarily more than half. Constituencies, as in the case of an absolute majority system, are, as a rule, single-member, that is, only one deputy is elected from each constituency. At the same time, if a citizen managed to achieve only his nomination as a candidate, he would automatically become a deputy without holding a vote. Under this system, the winner only needs one vote, which he can cast for himself.
The majority system of relative majority is currently used in Great Britain and countries that were once under its influence, including the United States. Thus, the territory of the United States is divided into 435 districts for the election of deputies of Congress. In each constituency, citizens elect one deputy to the lower house (House of Representatives), who must receive a simple majority of votes. Votes cast for losing candidates do not count and do not affect the allocation of seats in Congress.
The political consequence of the application of the majoritarian system of relative majority is a two-party system, that is, the presence in the country of two largest, constantly alternating political parties in power. This is not so bad for the country and the stability of its political system. The bipartisanship forces the parties to take a more responsible approach to solving state problems, because the winning party is given full control, and the losing party automatically becomes the opposition that criticizes the government. It is clear that it is the ruling party that bears full responsibility for the policy pursued.
Advantages and disadvantages of majority systems
The main advantage of majoritarian representation is the consideration of the opinion of the majority of voters in a particular constituency in the formation of public authorities. Majoritarian elections predetermine the dominance of several large parties that can form stable governments, which contributes to the stability of the political system of society as a whole.
From the advantages of the majority system, its disadvantages follow, being their continuation. The main disadvantage of this system is that it does not fully express the political will of the population. Almost 49 percent of the votes of the electorate may be lost, not taken into account, unless, of course, there is an overwhelming majority of the winning party. Thus, the principle of universal suffrage is violated, since the votes cast for candidates who have suffered defeat are lost. Voters who voted for them are deprived of the opportunity to appoint their representatives to elected bodies. Thus, an elementary calculation shows that in Belarus it is enough for a candidate to get only 26 percent of the votes to be elected, because if a little more than 50 percent of the voters come to the polling stations and a little more than half of them vote for the candidate, then as a result he will receive only a quarter of the votes. voters. The interests of the remaining 74 percent will not be represented in the elected body.
The majoritarian system does not give an adequate balance between the support a party receives in the country and the number of its representatives in parliament. A small party that has a majority in a few constituencies will win a few seats, while a large party that is scattered across the country will not win a single seat, although more voters voted for it. Quite a typical situation is when parties gain an approximately equal number of votes, but receive a different number of deputy mandates. In other words, the majoritarian system does not raise the question of how fully the political composition of the elected authorities corresponds to the political sympathies of the population. This is the prerogative of the proportional electoral system.
proportional system
The main difference between the proportional system and the majoritarian system is that it is based not on the principle of the majority, but on the principle of proportionality between the votes received and the mandates won. Deputy mandates are distributed not between individual candidates, but between parties in accordance with the number of votes cast for them. At the same time, not one, but several deputies of parliament are elected from the constituency. Voters vote for party lists, in fact, for this or that program. Of course, the parties are trying to include the most famous and authoritative people in their lists, but the principle itself does not change from this.
Party lists can be various kinds. Some countries, for example, Spain, Greece, Portugal, Israel, Costa Rica, adhere to the rules of closed or hard lists. Voters have the right to choose only a party by voting for the entire list. If, for example, there are seven candidates on the list, and the party won three seats, then the first three candidates on the list will become deputies. This option strengthens the power of the party elite, the top, since it is the party leaders who decide who will take the first places on the list.
In a number of countries, another option is used - the system of open lists. Voters vote for the list, but they can change the places of candidates in it, express their preference (preference) to a certain candidate or candidates. open list allows voters to change the order of the list of candidates drawn up by the party elite. The preferential method is used in Belgium, Italy. In the Netherlands, Denmark, Austria, a system of semi-rigid lists is used, in which the first place won by the party is assigned to the candidate with the first number. The remaining mandates are distributed among the candidates depending on the preferences they receive.
There is another unusual shape list, called panashing (mixing). This system, used in Switzerland and Luxembourg, allows the voter to vote for a certain number of candidates belonging to different party lists. In other words, the voter has the right to give preference to candidates of different parties - mixed preference. This creates favorable opportunities for the formation of pre-election party blocs.
To determine the voting results, a quota is established, that is, the minimum number of votes required to elect one deputy. To determine the quota total number of the votes cast in the given constituency (country) is divided by the number of deputy seats. The seats are distributed among the parties by dividing the votes received by them by the quota.
In a number of countries with a proportional system, there is a so-called electoral threshold. In order to be represented in parliament, a party must receive at least a certain percentage of the vote, overcome a certain barrier. In Russia, Germany (mixed systems), Italy, it is 5 percent. In Hungary and Bulgaria - 4 percent, in Turkey - 10 percent, in Denmark - 2 percent. Parties that do not cross this threshold do not receive a single seat in parliament.
Advantages and disadvantages of the proportional system
The popularity of the proportional electoral system is evidenced by the fact that ten of the twelve EU countries (with the exception of the UK and France) use this particular system. It largely defines modern Western European democracy as party democracy. The proportional system is the most democratic, allowing to take into account the political sympathies of the population. It stimulates a multi-party system, creates favorable conditions for the activities of small political parties.
However, the continuation of the named advantages of the proportional system are its disadvantages. In conditions of a multi-party system, when about a dozen or even more parties are represented in the parliament, it is difficult to form a government, which, as a rule, is unstable. Thus, during the post-war years in Italy, where the combination of a multi-party system and proportionality was fully expressed, about fifty governments were replaced. For 50 years, Italy has lived for more than four years without a government, which, of course, weakens the effectiveness of democracy.
The proportional system does not allow the voter to assess the personal merits of the candidate, since he chooses not a person, but a party, although to some extent this contradiction removes the method of preferences. In addition, the role of small parties can significantly increase, which, in exchange for supporting larger parties, demand posts and privileges that do not correspond to their real place in the political system. This creates conditions for corruption, the degeneration of parties, the merging of parties with the state apparatus, defections from camp to camp, the struggle for warm places etc. The very principle of proportionality is violated.
Mixed electoral systems
The mixed system of representation combines the advantages and disadvantages of both systems - majoritarian and proportional. The degree of efficiency of a public authority elected according to a mixed system depends on the nature of the combination of majority and proportional elements in it.
Elections are held on this basis in Russia and Germany. In Germany, for example, one half of the deputies of the Bundestag is elected according to the majority system of relative majority, the other half - according to the proportional one. Every voter in this country has two votes. He gives one vote for a candidate elected by the majoritarian system, and the second vote for a party list. When summarizing the results, both the first and second votes of voters are counted separately. The representation of any party consists of the sum of majoritarian and proportional mandates. Elections are held in one round. The 5% electoral threshold prevents small parties from winning seats in parliament. Under such a system, the major parties receive most of the seats, even with a slight preponderance of forces in most constituencies. This makes it possible to form a fairly stable government.
Concepts of the role of a deputy
In the practical implementation of various electoral systems huge role plays the political culture of the population and the deputy corps. Importance also has an established idea of the role of the deputy, his functions. The most common concepts and views on the role of a deputy include the following:
The deputy represents his party in parliament, defends and explains its political program;
The deputy represents first of all those voters who voted for him and his program;
The deputy represents in parliament all the electors of his constituency, including those who voted against or abstained. It protects the general social, economic and political interests of the county;
The deputy at all levels expresses and defends the interests of the nation, the country as a whole, each social group.
The highly qualified, honest work of people's representatives at all levels of government makes it possible to neutralize the negative aspects of the electoral system. Of course, a politician in parliament must proceed from the interests of the whole country, find the optimal degree of combination of the interests of the region and the country. It is necessary to strive to ensure that relations between people's deputies and voters are based on authority and trust.
In Russian legal and scientific literature two different concepts of the electoral system are used. Two terms are used to distinguish them: "electoral system in the broad sense" and "electoral system in the narrow sense".
The concept of the electoral system
- a set of legal norms that form the electoral right. Suffrage is a set of legal norms governing the participation of citizens in elections. Unlike many foreign constitutions, the Constitution of the Russian Federation does not contain a special chapter on the right to vote.
-a set of legal norms that determine the results of voting. Based on these legal norms, the following are determined: the type of constituencies, the form and content of the ballot, etc.
Depending on what type of electoral system (in the narrow sense) will be used in a particular election, the results for the same voting results may be different.
Types of electoral systems
The types of electoral systems are determined by the principles for the formation of a representative body of power and the procedure for distributing mandates based on the results of voting. In fact, there are as many types of electoral systems in the world as there are countries that form governments through elections. But over the centuries-old history of elections, basic types of electoral systems have been created, on the basis of which elections are held all over the world.
- (French majorité - majority) electoral system. Under the majoritarian electoral system, the candidate with the most votes is considered elected.
There are three types of majority system:
- absolute majority - the candidate must gain 50% + 1 vote;
- Relative majority - the candidate needs to get the largest number of votes. Moreover, this number of votes may be less than 50% of all votes;
- Qualified Majority – The candidate must obtain a predetermined majority of votes. Such an established majority is always more than 50% of all votes - 2/3 or 3/4.
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- Mixed electoral system.
An electoral system in which part of the mandates to a representative body of power is distributed according to the majority system, and part according to the proportional system. That is, two electoral systems are used in parallel.
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This is a system of formation of elected authorities through party representation. Political parties and/or political movements put forward lists of their candidates. The voter votes for one of these lists. The mandates are distributed in proportion to the votes received by each party.
It is a synthesis of majoritarian and proportional electoral systems. The nomination of candidates takes place according to the proportional system (according to party lists), and the voting - according to the majority system (personally for each candidate).
Electoral system of the Russian Federation
The electoral system in Russia includes several main types of electoral systems.
The electoral system of the Russian Federation is described by the following federal laws:
- No. 19-FZ "On the election of the President Russian Federation»
- No. 51-FZ "On the election of deputies of the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation"
- No. 67-FZ "On Basic Guarantees of Electoral Rights and the Right to Participate in a Referendum of Citizens of the Russian Federation"
- No. 138-FZ "On ensuring the constitutional rights of citizens of the Russian Federation to elect and be elected to local governments"
- No. 184-FZ "On general principles organizations of legislative (representative) and executive bodies state authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation"
Prior to the adoption of the relevant law in 2002, at the regional elections of senior officials in some subjects of the Russian Federation, varieties of the majority system were used that did not belong to either the absolute or the relative majority system. The candidate was required to receive a relative majority of votes, but not less than 25% of the number of citizens included in the voter lists, and in some subjects of the Russian Federation - not less than 25% of the number of voters who took part in the vote. Now all regional elections are held according to the same principles for all.
When electing senior officials (president, governor, mayor), the majoritarian electoral system of absolute majority is used. If none of the candidates has won an absolute majority of votes, a second round is scheduled, where two candidates who have received a relative majority of votes go through.
In elections to the representative body of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation, a mixed electoral system is used. In elections to a representative body municipality it is possible to use both a mixed electoral system and a majoritarian system of a relative majority.
From 2007 to 2011, elections to the State Duma were held according to the proportional system. Since 2016, half of the deputies (225) State Duma The Russian Federation will be elected in single-member constituencies under the majoritarian system, and the second half - in a single constituency under the proportional system with a percentage threshold of 5%
The electoral system of the Russian Federation this moment does not provide for the use of a hybrid electoral system. Also, the electoral system in Russia does not use the majoritarian electoral system of a qualified majority.