Sociological research program and sample - abstract. Stages and program of applied sociological research
1. Presentation of the results of sociological research.
2. Qualitative analysis and interpretation of the research results.
3. Registration of the results of applied sociological research.
4. Practical implementation of the results of sociological research.
1. The results of applied sociological research can be used in the interests of practice only if they are presented in a form that is convenient for perception, understanding and formulation of the conclusions of the study, development of recommendations to the customer. There are several ways to present the results of processing the initial data:
· construction ranks distributions values of the studied features (linear and according to a given condition). The results can be presented in absolute and relative form;
· tables,reflecting the structure of the grouping of respondents, the name or characteristic of the relationship between the signs, the time and place of the study;
· graphic aids presentation of the results of processing, having the greatest clarity. Their use is preferable in the final information and reference and analytical materials addressed to leaders and the general public. In the practice of sociological research, such graphic displays of processing results are most widely used, such as polygons, histograms, pie charts, schemes and coordinate fields.
For various methods processing, research tasks and customer needs, certain forms of presenting the results can be recommended. The combination of tabular and graphic forms of presentation should be reasonable and correspond to the text.
2. Visual design The results of a study are not yet a guarantee of its practical value. Only after correct interpretations information can serve as a basis for conclusions and recommendations.
When interpreting the results of sociological research, it should be remembered that its object is fixed using various measuring procedures (scales, scores, etc.) choice, made by the respondent under certain conditions. To interpret means to find, to explain the reason for a particular choice. Since some of the information contained in the original data is lost during processing due to various reasons, a distorted interpretation is possible.
aiminterpretation advocates search for reasons, explaining the existence of relationships between objects or their properties. Correctness of conclusions based on the results of processing research data, it can be provided if the interpretation of the results is beyond doubt and not banal. Obviously absurd results and well-known facts should be excluded from consideration. Second, the validity of the study's findings must be tested empirically or by comparison with the results of other studies. Thirdly, the formulated proposals need an exact addressee, they must carry an element of novelty and partially contain a mechanism for their implementation.
3. Having spent a lot of time and effort on understanding the assignment received, developing a program and tools, interviewing a significant number of people, processing the information received at the output, the researcher may receive a negative assessment of the work done. This happens if in the final documents it cannot “rise” to an acceptable level. level of generalizations, identify the causes of the phenomena under study, clearly formulate conclusions, will not offer clear and understandable practical advice to resolve identified problems.
When reporting results sociological research, it is important to combine competent presentation of the text, clarity of conclusions, proposals And recommendations, graphic means of presenting material that increase visibility. The high-quality design of the final documents, their practical value is an indicator of the sociological skill of the researcher.
The final documents of sociological research include: results report; analytical note; practical advice, which can be issued as an annex to the first two documents or be a separate document; certificate-report; information note.
Research Report - a document that reflects in the prescribed form the content of the research program, the procedure for its implementation, the results obtained, practical recommendations and possible ways of their implementation. The report documents the scientific and practical background of the study, the logic of its conduct, methods, information obtained and the most important results. This is a standardized document, the requirements for which are fixed in GOSTs. Competent compilation A research report requires some scientific training and research experience.
Analytic note according to the results of a sociological study, this is a material that combines the features of an official and research document. The structure of the policy brief is mainly focused on showing the results of the study, rather than how to achieve them. The volume of the note, as a rule, is 5-10 typewritten pages. The first part briefly characterizes the study: questions studied, venues, sources of information, representativeness error (sample size). Then the obtained results are presented, grouped into semantic blocks. For each question of the block, conclusions are first formulated, then comments are given on the results of processing, which, if necessary, are supported by figures confirming their validity. It is acceptable to use tables and graphs in the text.
Practical recommendations - a document that reflects the accumulated positive experience in solving a particular problem, as well as possible approaches, directions and methods for solving it that arose during the study. The quality of recommendations is evaluated by the following parameters:
· it is clearly defined to whom they are intended, and who can implement the proposals put forward;
· at least a schematic definition of the mechanism for their implementation (forms and methods of work to achieve optimal results);
· presented in simple and clear language.
Help (reference-report) - a document whose main purpose is to involve the customer in problems that require immediate solutions. It reflects the general conclusions on the results of the study or on its main issues. The text of the help should be extremely clear, and the conclusions specific. First, a description of the study is given, and then the main conclusions are presented. To confirm the conclusions made, the most compelling summary data is used, sometimes tables and graphs are used. The sentences complete the reference, the volume of which is no more than two or three pages.
information note represents summary information of a digital and graphic nature necessary for the preparation of other materials, clarification of the details of the most interesting, from the point of view of the customer, problems, as well as the argumentation of speeches, for example, in the media. The material is usually presented in the form of separate figures, tables and comments to them. A feature of the information note should be considered the absence of conclusions and recommendations in it. The volume of the note is not limited.
4. After the preparation of the final documents and the development of proposals for solving the problem under study, the study itself ends. Concern about the implementation of the proposed conclusions and proposals in the first place should lie with the person who ordered (specified) the study.
It should be borne in mind that the implementation of the results obtained in practice (and, accordingly, the evaluation of the effectiveness of the study) depends on many factors. First, on the quality of the study and the practical value of the proposed solutions to the problem. Secondly, from the ability of the researcher to offer not one, but several ways to implement the proposals, which would make it possible to change the tactics of the work of the performers in time. Thirdly, from the possibilities of the customer for their implementation.
In some cases, it may be appropriate for the joint participation of the researcher and the customer in the implementation of proposals. Continuous interaction with managers in the process of working out the best forms, methods of action, methods for solving practical problems, in modeling, developing forecasts can be very useful. Options for solutions can be worked out in advance or arise in the process of setting current conditions by the customer in the form of varying the value of a social indicator (for example, on a computer).
Applied sociologists invited to the implementation team can perform expert consulting services based on the following types of models:
· structural - current proposals for optimizing the structure of an object (phenomenon) and the system of factors affecting it;
· dynamic, allowing, on the basis of previous states of a social object and its properties, to determine the next ones;
· simulation, reflecting the change in the social object (phenomenon) in space and time based on the study block diagrams, connection of decision rules and determination of stable states of the system (the field of "game situations" with strict rules of the game);
· based on artificial intelligence - unlike the previous type of modeling, here, at the request of the customer, the rules of the game can also be changed within the framework of constantly replenished knowledge-based and decision-based rules.
At present, taking into account the results of sociological research, the structure of enterprises and institutions is being optimized, production plans are being developed, and the image of managers is being created. Quite often, figures from sociological research reports are used by managers as an argument when substantiating their point of view or making a management decision. Effective forms of using sociological data are messages (faxes) to news agencies and articles (messages) in the media.
Sociological information cannot be absolutized and considered as "the only true one". By its nature, it is probabilistic, sometimes it can reflect the interests, opinions of a larger, but not the most active part of the team, social group, society as a whole. A comprehensive analysis of all information flows helps to make informed decisions. management decisions on urgent problems, and the results of sociological research are one of the sources of such information.
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"Sociological research: concept and types"
I. Sociological research and its types
Life poses a lot of questions that can only be answered with the help of scientific research, in particular sociological research. sociological research help to ensure the smooth operation of the feedback mechanism, supplementing and concretizing statistical information with specific data on the interests and requests, opinions and moods of people, their ideals, life plans, the degree of satisfaction with the organization of work, life and leisure, the state of the moral and psychological climate.
Goals of sociological research
Every serious business requires careful sociological preparation. And sociological research is no exception. We can assume that the reliability, and hence the value of the information obtained as a result of the study, is directly proportional to the efforts expended on its comprehensive preparation. That is why the development of methodological and organizational techniques of sociological analysis of social phenomena and processes is preceded by a deep mastery scientific rules capable of providing a high scientific level of analysis.
The preparation of a sociological study is a process saturated different types works, scientific procedures and operations. It is necessary to provide a reliable theoretical basis for the study, to think over its general logic, to develop tools for collecting information, and to form a research group.
The purpose of any sociological research is the analysis of such problems that are of key importance for the life of society. The subject of attention of sociologists should be distinguished by a pronounced relevance, i.e. to be in demand by life; the sociologist is called upon to help solve the most important problems and, in addition, to create a scientific reserve, a basis for meeting the needs of not only today, but also tomorrow. One of the main reasons for turning to sociological research is the need for extensive, meaningful and up-to-date information that reflects the most important aspects of the life and interaction of individuals, groups, collectives, social strata of society, which are most often hidden, represent the “silence of the sea”. Any interaction hidden from the “outer eye” (“silence of the sea”) can, under certain conditions, splash out violently, furiously, crossing out all the calculations of practitioners social management.
However, sociological research is not an end in itself. No matter how significant its role and wide possibilities, it acts as only one of the means of obtaining social information. Recognition of the status of sociological research as “one of...” does not allow us to absolutize its role and consider it, as it sometimes happens, as a panacea for all ills.
Sociological research, according to the majority of serious sociologists, is a system of logically consistent methodological, methodological and organizational-technical procedures, subordinated to a single goal: to obtain accurate objective data about the social phenomena being studied.) The primacy in any sociological research is given to methodology.
In the scientific literature, the concept of "methodology" has quite a few definitions. One of the most authoritative scientific publications, the Encyclopedic Sociological Dictionary, defines sociological research methodology how constituent part and a special area of sociological knowledge, which has as its content a set of principles and methods for organizing, developing and evaluating theoretical and empirical sociological knowledge, a system of norms and regulations for conducting sociological research1. There are other definitions of the term "methodology". One of the simplest is the decoding of this Greek word: method - way, technique; Logos is the law, the main condition, the principle. In this case, it is way to acquire new knowledge. If we consider this approach, then the main task methodologist - to show how concepts are constructed and what is their relationship with the studied social processes, human interaction. So, creating research programs, the sociologist-methodologist must know what should be selected, observe how to analyze the collected empirical material, transform it in accordance with theoretical provisions. This is done in order to increase the level of reliability of the empirical data obtained, to monitor how they fit into the theory, but if the reality contradicts the theoretical constructions, then correct the theory.
In the scientific literature, disputes still do not subside, what is considered a theory and what is a methodology. It is difficult to draw a demarcation line between these concepts: they interact so closely. It is necessary to remember their main features: the theory gives an explanation for a particular phenomenon and process, indicating what needs to be investigated, what specific problem situation is to be studied, and the methodology shows how to investigate, i.e. gives an explanation of the situation and how to study it.
Sociological research- this is a process of cognition, in which two levels of sociological knowledge are manifested: theoretical-methodological and empirical. It combines I deductive and inductive methods of analysis. FROM Sociological research begins with its preparation: thinking over the goals, program, plan, determining the means, timing, ways of processing information, etc. This is his first stage.
The second stage is the collection of primary sociological information. These are collected in different form non-generalized information - researcher's notes, extracts from documents, individual answers of respondents, etc.
The third stage is the preparation of the information collected in the course of a sociological study (questionnaire survey, interview, content analysis, etc.) for processing on a computer, drawing up a processing program, processing on a computer.
And finally, the final, fourth stage is the analysis of the processed information, the preparation of a scientific report based on the results of the study, the formulation of conclusions and recommendations for the customer, the subject of management.
Types of sociological research
The type of sociological research is predetermined by the nature of the goals and objectives set, the depth of analysis of the social process, etc. There are three main types of sociological research: intelligence (probe, pilot), descriptive and analytical.
1. Intelligence(or pilotage, probing) research- the simplest type of sociological analysis that allows solving limited problems. In fact, there is a “run-in” of the tools (methodological documents): questionnaires, interview forms, questionnaires, observation cards, document study cards, etc. The program of such a study is simplified, as is the toolkit. The survey populations are small: from 20 to 100 people.
Intelligence research, as a rule, precedes a deep study of the problem. In the course of it, goals, hypotheses, tasks, questions, their formulation are specified. It is especially important to conduct such a study in cases where the problem has not been sufficiently studied or is generally posed for the first time. Intelligence research allows you to obtain operational sociological information.
2. Descriptive research- more complex view sociological analysis. With its help, empirical information is obtained that gives a relatively holistic view of the studied social phenomenon. It is usually carried out when the object of analysis is a relatively large population with diverse characteristics, for example, the workforce of a large enterprise where people work. different professions, gender, age, work experience, etc. Allocation in the structure of the object of study of relatively homogeneous groups (for example, by level of education, age, profession) makes it possible to evaluate, compare the characteristics of interest, to identify the presence or absence of links between them. In a descriptive study, one or more methods of collecting empirical data may be applied. The combination of methods increases the reliability and completeness of information, allows you to draw deeper conclusions and sound recommendations.
3. The most serious kind of sociological analysis is analytical study. It not only describes the elements of the phenomenon or process under study, but also allows you to find out the reasons underlying it. The search for cause-and-effect relationships is the main purpose of such a study. If in a descriptive study a connection is established between the characteristics of the phenomenon under study, then in an analytical study it turns out whether this connection is causal and what is the main reason that determines this or that social phenomenon. In an analytical study, a combination of many factors that determine a particular phenomenon is studied. Usually they are classified as main and non-main, permanent and temporary, controlled and uncontrolled, etc.
Analytical research is impossible without a detailed program and polished tools. It usually completes exploratory and descriptive research, during which information is collected that gives a preliminary idea about certain elements of the social phenomenon or process being studied. Analytical research is most often complex. In terms of the methods used, it is richer, more diverse than not only exploratory, but also descriptive research.
II. Sociological Research Program
Preparation and development of the program
The preparation of a sociological study does not directly begin with the preparation of a questionnaire (which is often resorted to by incompetent researchers), but with the development of its program, which consists of two sections (blocks) - methodological and methodological.
IN methodological section programs include: but) formulation and justification social problem(problem situation); b) definition of the object and subject of sociological research; in) definition of the researcher's tasks and formulation of hypotheses. This section requires a thorough theoretical training of the sociologist carrying out the study, the ability to logically analyze the indicated phenomena.
Methodical section The program involves the definition of the population under study, the characteristics of the methods for collecting primary sociological information, the sequence of using the tools for its collection, the logical scheme (or program) for processing the collected data on a computer.
Careful preparation of the sociological research program helps to avoid mistakes during the research itself and the analysis of its results.
An essential (defining) part of the program of any research is, first of all, a deep and comprehensive substantiation of methodological approaches and methodological techniques studying a social problem.
Under social problem should be understood as a "social contradiction" recognized by subjects (individuals, groups, etc.) as a significant discrepancy between the existing and the proper, between the goals and results of activities, arising from the lack or insufficiency of means to achieve goals, obstacles to this way, the struggle around the goals between different subjects of activity, which leads to dissatisfaction of social needs1.
It is very important to avoid the danger of posing an imaginary problem or embracing the immensity in the proposed research.
The research program can be directed to multi-problem sociological analysis, although most sociologists believe that it is difficult and inappropriate to study several problems within the boundaries of one study. There are several reasons for this: the research tools become more complicated (“the questionnaire, survey form, interview, etc. swell”, the number of documents that you have to work with increases, etc.). All this can reduce the quality of the collected statistical and sociological information. Such a study will require much more time, people, financial and technical resources, in addition, the efficiency of information is lost: it becomes old even during the processing period. In this regard, a multidisciplinary study should be carried out only in exceptional cases.
Novice sociologists often confuse the object and subject of research, although this is far from the same thing. The choice of the object and subject of research to a certain extent is already embedded in the social problem itself.
Object of study can be any social process, sphere social life, work team, any public relations, the documents. The main thing is that all of them contain a social contradiction and give rise to a problem situation.
According to V. A. Yadov, “the object of sociological research is what the process of cognition is aimed at” 1 .
Subject of study- these are certain ideas, properties, characteristics inherent, for example, in a given team, the most significant from a practical or theoretical point of view, i.e. that is subject to direct study. Other properties, features of the object remain outside the field of view of the sociologist. For example, any labor collective has many different social and professional characteristics. But the researcher is only interested in the level of moral consciousness of the workers - members of this team. Then the object of research is the labor collective, and the subject is the state of moral consciousness.
The analysis of any problem can be carried out in theoretical and applied directions, depending on the purpose of the study. The purpose of the study can be formulated as theoretical. Then, when preparing the program, the main attention is paid to theoretical and methodological issues: the study of scientific literature on the problem of interest, the construction of the concept of the subject of research, etc. In this case, the object of study is determined only after the preliminary theoretical work has been completed.
Sociologist, decisive applied practical tasks, first of all, determines what specific goals are set for him, after which, with the help of scientific literature, he tries to find out: is there a typical solution to these problems so that he does not have to “reinvent the wheel”. The hypotheses of applied research will act as options for reading typical solutions in relation to specific conditions.
It is a mistake to erect a Chinese wall between theoretical and applied research. Any theoretical research can be extended to the level of applied research and vice versa, although not every applied research can lead to correct theoretical conclusions.
Defining the purpose of the study allows you to classify, streamline the tasks that are a kind of steps for climbing to the goal. Tasks can be primary and secondary (or primary and secondary). As main can be both theoretical and applied (practical) task. It depends on the research order, but the main task must necessarily be the central research question. Additional it is more expedient to solve problems on the basis of the material obtained in the process of searching for an answer to the main question. To do this, it is necessary to analyze the same information, but from a different angle.
The sociologist proceeds consistently towards the research goal, applying certain methods and techniques. Their number is predetermined by the research hypotheses. Hypothesis- this is a scientific assumption put forward to explain any factors, phenomena and processes, which must either be confirmed or refuted. The advancement of hypotheses in the research program determines the logic of the process of sociological analysis.
Sociological research is based, as a rule, on preliminary assumptions. They express thoughts about the causes of the problem under study. The researcher generalizes them, then formulates his assumptions in the form of hypotheses. Hypotheses make it possible to increase the efficiency of the study, to choose its object correctly, the method of collecting sociological information. But they should not bind the researcher and predetermine the results of his work. Hypotheses should be formulated clearly and precisely, unambiguously. Like tasks, they are basic and additional.
Logical concept analysis
A very essential part of the program of sociological research is the logical analysis of concepts. In this section, programs are developed methodological procedures, without which it is impossible to put the concept of sociological research into the toolkit. The essence of the procedures is reduced to a logical ordering of the main categories - the most general concepts that will be used in the study. Concepts can be basic and non-basic. The main categories occupy a leading place in determining the subject of research.
The logical analysis of concepts requires a deep and precise explanation of their content and structure. Then the ratio of the necessary elements, properties of the studied social phenomenon is determined. An analysis of these elements and properties will make it possible to form a more or less holistic view of the state (dynamics, statics) of the social phenomenon under study. For example, it is necessary to study the social activity of workers in a group. The logical analysis of the category "social activity" requires the identification of more fractional concepts that make it up. These include labor, political, cultural activity, in the field of education, public work, etc. Even more detailing, deciphering these concepts, we are approaching the definition of the essence of the individual elements of the subject of study. These concepts are increasingly approaching indicators that can be “put” into the questionnaire in the form of specific questions.
The more complex the proposed sociological research, the more branched, complex is the structure of the logical analysis of the basic concepts. But the deeper this analysis, the more logical and complete the tools for collecting primary sociological information, which can be measured by applying quantitative methods in its processing, i.e. methods of exact science.
III. Application of the sampling method
Sampling methods
The objects of study most often include hundreds, thousands, tens or hundreds of thousands of people. How to organize and conduct a survey in such cases? It is clear that if the object of study consists of 200-500 people, they can all be interviewed. Such a survey will solid. But if the object of study has more than 500 people, then the only correct application will be sampling method.
Sample should take into account the relationship and interdependence of qualitative characteristics and features of social objects; to put it simply, survey units are selected based on the most important features of a social object - education, qualifications, gender, etc. The second condition: when preparing a sample, it is necessary that the selected part be a micromodel of the whole and contain the most important features, characteristics of the whole, or, as it is called in sociology, the general population. To a certain extent, the general population is an object of study to which the conclusions of sociological analysis apply.
Sample population - this is a certain number of elements of the general population, selected according to a strictly specified rule. The elements of the sample (respondents, analyzed documents, etc.) that are to be studied (survey, interviews, etc.) are units of analysis. They can act as individuals, as well as entire groups (student), work teams. The sample is formed in this way: at the first stage, for example, any labor collectives, enterprises, institutions, elements of the settlement (small towns or villages) are selected. Among them, elements are selected that have characteristics typical for the entire group. These selected items are called selection units, and among them the units of analysis are selected. This method is most often called mechanical sampling. With such a sample, selection can be made after 10, 20, 50, etc. human. The interval between selections is called selection step(sampling step).
Quite popular among sociologists and statisticians is the method serial sampling. Here, the general population is divided according to a given attribute (sex, age, education, etc.) into homogeneous parts (series). Then the selection of respondents goes separately from each series. The number of respondents selected from the series is proportional to total number elements in it. From the general population, for example, containing 2000 people, where 300 people are machine tool adjusters, 700 are turners and millers, 1000 are assemblers, we select every tenth. Consequently, 30 adjusters, 70 turners and millers, and 100 assemblers are to be interviewed.
Sociologists often use the method nested sampling. As research units, not individual respondents are selected, but entire groups and collectives. For example, out of 30 student groups, in which 20 people are involved, 10 are selected, and a continuous survey is conducted in these groups. A clustered sample provides evidence-based sociological information if the groups are as similar as possible in terms of the most important characteristics, such as gender, age, types of education, etc.
Research also uses purposeful sampling, as a rule, using methods of spontaneous sampling, the main array and quota sampling. Method spontaneous sampling- This is a regular mail survey of viewers, readers of newspapers, magazines. Here it is impossible to determine in advance the structure of the array of respondents who will fill out and mail the questionnaires. The conclusions of such a study can be extended only to the surveyed population.
When conducting a pilot, or reconnaissance, research, the method is usually used main array. It is practiced when probing any control question. In such cases, up to 60-70% of the respondents included in the selected population are interviewed.
Method quota sampling often used in surveys public opinion. It is used in cases where, before the start of the study, there are statistical data on the control signs of the elements of the general population. For example, the level of qualification, education, etc. is taken as such a feature (parameter). Translated from Latin, the word "quota" means the share that falls on each. Hence the approach to the sample: it is necessary to determine what proportion of the respondents should be respondents with different levels of education and qualifications. The available data on a particular control trait act as a quota, and their numerical values- quota indicators. Respondents with this method are selected purposefully, in compliance with quota indicators. The number of characteristics, data on which are selected as quotas, usually does not exceed four, because with a larger number of indicators, the selection of respondents becomes practically impossible.
Determining the sample size
This is one of the most important questions in sampling theory. On the one hand, the sample size must be “statistically significant”, i.e. large enough to identify stable trends when analyzing the characteristics under study, on the other hand, it should be “economical”, i.e., in a sense, optimal. What is the optimality criterion? Such a criterion is the characteristics themselves or the control features of the object under study, more precisely, the dispersion of the elements of the general population according to the main features.
In the general case, the formula for calculating the size of the sample population has the form u = c2 / A2, where a2(sigma square) - variance of the controlled trait in the general population; D is the marginal sampling error, the value of which in sociological research is taken to be 5% (0.05). This means that the average value of a feature in the sample population will differ from its average value in the general population; no more than 5%.
As can be seen from the formula, the larger the variance, the larger the sample size. And accordingly, as the requirement for the accuracy of the survey data increases (reduction of the marginal error), an increase in the sample size is required.
The calculation according to the formula is always carried out according to some one attribute. However, in sociological research, a number of characteristics are studied simultaneously. The coincidence of the structures of the sample and the general population is also controlled simultaneously by several criteria. Therefore, the volume of the sample should be calculated according to the attribute, the variance of which is the largest.
Very often, when information about the characteristics of the general population is not available, the possibility of determining the size of the sample population using formulas is excluded. The practice of sociological research shows that compliance with the basic rules for selecting research units makes it possible to achieve a fairly high degree of representativeness with a sample of 1000-1200 people.
The reliability of the sample is related to such concepts as accuracy and representativeness. Sampling accuracy is a problem offset errors, that may arise due to non-compliance with the rules for the selection of study units. The degree of accuracy should be expressed by the degree of coincidence of the structures of the sample and the general population according to the indicators controlled by the researcher. An accurate and representative sample is called reliable.
IV. Working plan of sociological research
As important as the program and sampling are in themselves, nonetheless, without work plan it is impossible to conduct sociological research competently. Usually, the plan lays down the main procedural measures that must be carried out during the study. This allows you to determine with due accuracy the costs of time, effort, funds, the amount of work - scientific, organizational. The plan is created on the basis of certain rules, the essence of which is that all research and organizational and technical procedures and operations are grouped into four sections (blocks).
First section provides for the procedure for preparing, discussing, approving the program and tools for sociological research. This includes the issue of forming and preparing a group for collecting primary information (interviewers, questionnaires). In the same section, it is necessary to provide for a pilot (reconnaissance) study, which will show how the toolkit “works”. And if errors were made in any documents during their preparation, it is necessary to promptly make adjustments to both the tools and the research program. When the documents for work are completely ready, they are replicated and distributed to the questionnaires and interviewers.
Second section includes all organizational and methodological types of work, i.e. answers the questions: what needs to be done, where and when, in what time frame. It is important to provide for preliminary notification of the respondents about the goals, objectives and practical significance of sociological research, i.e. answer in advance questions that are usually asked by all respondents (interviewees). If questionnaires, interview forms are distributed and filled in groups under the guidance of the questionnaire, then it is necessary to provide for such a procedure in the plan.
Third section is usually devoted to planning operations related to the preparation of information collected in the "field". The plan should include how many data center specialists need to be involved in this painstaking procedure. During its implementation, researchers work together with programmers, computer operators, under whose control an array of information is formed for input into a computer. Before that, the researchers cull those questionnaires that do not contain answers to the key questions. They encode (encrypt) open questions. Encrypted questions (alternatives) are entered into the computer memory using special computer programs. The statistical information array is "digested" by electronic machines, and researchers receive summary tables of numbers, percentages - tabulagrams. There are different types of tabulagrams. In some, the answer is given only to one question posed, all the alternatives included in this question are revealed (yes, no, I don’t know). The answer is given in absolute numbers and percentages. In other tabulagrams, answers to a group of questions are immediately printed, and in order to decipher them, both the researcher's preparation for this work and time are required. Both methods have their advantages and disadvantages.
Fourth section- these are the types of work associated with the analysis of processing results. Having received the tabulagrams, the researchers prepare a preliminary, intermediate or final report on the conducted sociological research, draw conclusions, and formulate practical recommendations.
Sociology, unlike other social sciences, actively uses empirical methods: questionnaires, interviews, observation, experiment, analysis of statistical data and documents. Sociological research- this is a process consisting of logically consistent methodological, methodological and organizational and technical procedures, connected by a single goal - obtaining reliable data on the phenomenon under study for subsequent practical application.
There are three main types of sociological research: intelligence (probe, pilot), descriptive and analytical.
intelligence research- this is the simplest type of sociological analysis that allows you to solve limited problems. In fact, when using this type, there is a test of tools (methodological documents): questionnaires, questionnaires, cards, study of documents, etc.
The program of such a study is simplified, as is the toolkit. The surveyed populations are small - from 20 to 100 people.
Intelligence research, as a rule, precedes a deep study of the problem. In the course of it, goals, hypotheses, tasks, questions and their formulation are specified.
Descriptive research is a more complex type of sociological analysis. With its help, empirical information is studied, which gives a relatively holistic view of the studied social phenomenon. Object of analysis- a large social group, for example, the workforce of a large enterprise.
In a descriptive study, one or more methods of collecting empirical data may be applied. The combination of methods increases the reliability and completeness of information, allows you to draw deeper conclusions and substantiate recommendations.
The most serious type of sociological research is analytical research. It not only describes the elements of the phenomenon or process under study, but also allows you to find out the reasons underlying it. It studies the totality of many factors that justify a particular phenomenon. Analytical studies, as a rule, complete exploratory and descriptive studies, during which information was collected that gives a preliminary idea of certain elements of the social phenomenon or process being studied.
In a sociological study, three main stages can be distinguished:
1) development of the program and methods of research;
2) conducting an empirical study;
3) processing and analysis of data, drawing conclusions, drawing up a report.
All of these steps are extremely important and require special attention. The first stage will be discussed in detail in the next lecture. The second stage depends on the chosen type of sociological research and methods. Therefore, let us dwell in more detail on the stage of compiling a report on a sociological study.
The results of the analysis of the information obtained in the course of an empirical study are reflected, as a rule, in a report that contains data of interest to the customer. The structure of the report on the results of the study most often corresponds to the logic of the operationalization of the main concepts, but the sociologist, preparing this document, follows the path of deduction, gradually reducing sociological data into indicators. The number of sections in the report usually corresponds to the number of hypotheses formulated in the research program. Initially, a report is given on the main hypothesis.
As a rule, the first section of the report contains a brief rationale for the relevance of the social problem under study, a description of the parameters of the study (sample, methods of collecting information, number of participants, timing, etc.). The second section describes the object of study according to socio-demographic characteristics (sex, age, social status, etc.). Subsequent sections include a search for answers to the hypotheses put forward in the program.
Sections of the report can be divided into paragraphs if necessary. It is advisable to end each paragraph with conclusions. The conclusion of the report is best presented in the form of practical recommendations based on general conclusions. The report can be presented on 30-40 or 200-300 pages. It depends on the amount of material, goals and objectives of the study.
The appendix to the report contains methodological and methodological research documents: program, plan, tools, instructions, etc. In addition, tables, graphs, individual opinions, answers to open questions that were not included in the report are most often taken out in the appendix. This can be used in future research programs.
2. Program of sociological research
The program of sociological research is one of the most important sociological documents, which contains the methodological, methodological and procedural foundations of the study of a social object. A sociological research program can be viewed as a theory and methodology for a specific study of a particular empirical object or phenomenon, which is the theoretical and methodological basis for the procedures for all stages of research, collection, processing and analysis of information.
It performs three functions: methodological, methodological and organizational.
The methodological function of the program allows you to clearly define the issues under study, formulate the goals and objectives of the study, determine and conduct a preliminary analysis of the object and subject of the study, establish the relationship of this study to previously performed or parallel studies on this issue.
The methodological function of the program makes it possible to develop a general logical research plan, on the basis of which the research cycle is carried out: theory - facts - theory.
The organizational function ensures the development of a clear system of division of responsibilities between members of the research team, and allows for the effective dynamics of the research process.
The program of sociological research as a scientific document must meet a number of necessary requirements. It reflects a certain sequence, phasing of sociological research. Each stage - a relatively independent part of the cognitive process - is characterized by specific tasks, the solution of which is connected with the general goal of the study. All components of the program are logically connected, subordinate common sense search. The principle of strict phasing puts forward special requirements for the structure and content of the program.
The sociological research program consists of two main parts: methodological and procedural. Ideally, the program contains the following sections: problem statement, goals and objectives of the study, object and subject of study, interpretation of basic concepts, research methods, research plan.
The relationship between the problem and the problem situation depends on the type of research, on the scale and depth of the sociological study of the object. Determining the object of empirical research involves obtaining spatio-temporal and qualitative-quantitative indicators. In a real-life object, some property is distinguished, which is defined as its side, which is determined by the nature of the problem, thereby designating the subject of research. The subject means the boundaries in which a particular object is studied in this case. Next, you need to set the goals and objectives of the study.
Target focuses on the end result. Goals can be theoretical and applied. Theoretical - to give a description or explanation of the social program. Realization of the theoretical goal leads to an increase in scientific knowledge. Applied goals are aimed at developing practical recommendations for further scientific development.
Tasks- separate parts, research steps that contribute to the achievement of the goal. Setting goals means, to some extent, a plan of action to achieve the goal. Tasks formulate questions that must be answered in order to achieve the goal. Tasks can be basic and private. The main ones are a means of solving the main research questions. Private - to test side hypotheses, solve some methodological issues.
In order to use a single conceptual apparatus in the program of sociological research, the main concepts are defined, their empirical interpretation and operationalization, during which the elements of the main concept are detected according to strictly specified criteria that reflect the qualitative aspects of the subjects of research.
The whole process of logical analysis is reduced to the translation of theoretical, abstract concepts into operational ones, with the help of which tools are compiled for collecting empirical data.
A preliminary system analysis of an object is a modeling of the problem under study, dividing it into elements, detailing the problem situation. This allows you to more clearly present the subject of research.
An important place in the development of the research program is the formulation of hypotheses, which concretizes its main methodological tool.
Hypothesis- this is a probabilistic assumption about the causes of the phenomenon, the relationship between the studied social phenomena, the structure of the problem under study, possible approaches to solving social problems.
The hypothesis gives the direction of the research, influences the choice of research methods and the formulation of questions.
The study must confirm, reject or correct the hypothesis.
There are several types of hypotheses:
1) main and output;
2) basic and non-basic;
3) primary and secondary;
4) descriptive (an assumption about the properties of objects, about the nature of the relationship between individual elements) and explanatory (an assumption about the degree of closeness of connections and cause-and-effect dependencies in the studied social processes and phenomena).
Basic requirements for the formulation of hypotheses. Hypothesis:
1) should not contain concepts that have not received an empirical interpretation, otherwise it is unverifiable;
2) should not contradict previously established scientific facts;
3) should be simple;
4) should be verifiable at a given level of theoretical knowledge, methodological equipment and practical research capabilities.
The main difficulty in formulating hypotheses lies in the need to comply with their goals and objectives of the study, which contain clear and precise concepts.
The procedural part of the program of sociological research includes the methodology and technique of research, i.e., a description of the method of collecting, processing and analyzing information from sociological research.
Empirical studies are carried out on a sample population.
The type and method of determining the sample directly depends on the type of study, its goals and hypotheses.
The main requirement for samples in an analytical study, i.e., representativeness: the ability of a sample population to represent the main characteristics of the general population.
The sampling method is based on two principles: the relationship and interdependence of the qualitative characteristics of the object and the study, and the legitimacy of the conclusions as a whole when considering its part, which in its structure is a micromodel of the whole, i.e., the general population.
Depending on the specifics of the object, the choice of methods for collecting sociological information is carried out. The description of the methods of collecting information involves the justification of the chosen methods, the fixation of the main elements of the toolkit and the technical methods of working with them. The description of information processing methods implies an indication of how this will be done using application computer programs.
After drawing up the research program, the organization of the field research begins.
A program of sociological research is a document that organizes and directs in a certain sequence research activities, outlining ways to implement it. The preparation of a sociological research program requires high qualifications and time. The success of empirical sociological research largely depends on the quality of the program.
3. Methods of sociological research
Method- the main way of collecting, processing or analyzing data. Technique - a set of special techniques for the effective use of a particular method. Methodology- a concept that denotes a set of techniques associated with this method, including private operations, their sequence and relationship. Procedure- the sequence of all operations, the general system of actions and the method of organizing the study.
The following can be singled out as the main methods used in social empirical research.
Observation- purposeful perception of the phenomena of objective reality, during which the researcher gains knowledge about the external aspects, states and relations of the objects that are being studied. Forms and methods of fixing observation data can be different: an observation form or diary, a photo, film or television camera, and other technical means. A feature of observation as a method of collecting information is the ability to analyze versatile impressions about the object under study.
There is the possibility of fixing the nature of behavior, facial expressions, gestures, expression of emotions. There are two main types of observation: included and non-included.
If the behavior of people is studied by a sociologist as a member of a group, then he conducts participant observation. If a sociologist studies behavior from the outside, then he conducts uninvolved observation.
The main object of observation is both the behavior of individuals and social groups, and the conditions of their activity.
Experiment- a method, the purpose of which is to test certain hypotheses, the results of which have direct access to practice.
The logic of its implementation is to follow the direction, magnitude and stability of changes in the characteristics of interest to the researcher by choosing a certain experimental group (groups) and placing it in an unusual experimental situation (under the influence of a certain factor).
There are field and laboratory experiments, linear and parallel. When selecting participants in the experiment, methods of pairwise selection or structural identification, as well as random selection, are used.
The planning and logic of the experiment includes the following procedures:
1) the choice of the object used as the experimental and control groups;
2) selection of control, factor and neutral features;
3) determining the conditions of the experiment and creating an experimental situation;
4) formulating hypotheses and defining tasks;
5) the choice of indicators and a method for monitoring the progress of the experiment.
Document analysis one of the widely used and effective methods collection of primary information.
The purpose of the study is to search for indicators that indicate the presence in the document of a topic that is significant for analysis and reveal the content of textual information. The study of documents allows you to identify the trend and dynamics of changes and development of certain phenomena and processes.
The source of sociological information is usually text messages contained in protocols, reports, resolutions, decisions, publications, letters, etc.
A special role is played by social statistical information, which in most cases is used for the characteristics and specific historical development of the phenomenon or process under study.
An important feature of information is the aggregated nature, which means correlation with a certain group as a whole.
The selection of sources of information depends on the research program, and methods of specific or random selection may be used.
Distinguish:
1) external analysis of documents, in which the circumstances of the occurrence of documents are studied; their historical and social context;
2) internal analysis, during which the content of the document is studied, everything that the text of the source testifies to, and those objective processes and phenomena that the document reports about.
The study of documents is carried out by qualitative (traditional) or formalized qualitative and quantitative analysis (content analysis).
Survey- method of collecting sociological information - provides for:
1) oral or written address of the researcher to a certain set of people (respondents) with questions, the content of which represents the problem under study at the level of empirical indicators;
2) registration and statistical processing of the received answers, their theoretical interpretation.
In each case, the survey involves addressing the participant directly and is aimed at those aspects of the process that are little or not amenable to direct observation at all. This method of sociological research is the most popular and widespread.
The main types of survey, depending on the written or oral form of communication with respondents, are questionnaires and interviews. They are based on a set of questions that are offered to respondents and the answers to which form an array of primary data. Questions are asked to respondents through a questionnaire or a questionnaire.
Interview- a purposeful conversation, the purpose of which is to get answers to the questions provided for by the research program. The advantages of an interview over a questionnaire: the ability to take into account the level of culture of the respondent, his attitude to the topic of the survey and individual problems, expressed intonation, to flexibly change the wording of questions, taking into account the personality of the respondent and the content of previous answers, to put the necessary additional questions.
Despite some flexibility, the interview is conducted in accordance with a specific program and research plan, in which all the main questions and options for additional questions are recorded.
The following types of interviews can be distinguished:
2) according to the technique of conducting (free and standardized);
3) according to the procedure (intensive, focused).
Questionnaires are classified according to the content and design of the questions asked. Distinguish between open-ended questions, when respondents speak in free form. In a closed questionnaire, all answers are provided in advance. Semi-closed questionnaires combine both procedures.
There are three main stages in the preparation and conduct of a sociological survey.
At the first stage, the theoretical prerequisites for the survey are determined:
1) goals and objectives;
2) problem;
3) object and subject;
4) operational definition of initial theoretical concepts, finding empirical indicators.
During the second stage, the sample is justified, the following is determined:
1) the general population (those strata and groups of the population to which the results of the survey are supposed to be extended);
2) rules for the search and selection of respondents at the last stage of the sample.
At the third stage, the questionnaire (questionnaire) is substantiated:
2) substantiation of the questionnaire regarding the possibilities of the surveyed population as a source of the required information;
3) standardization of requirements and instructions for questionnaires and interviewers on organizing and conducting a survey, establishing contact with a respondent, registering answers;
4) provision of preliminary conditions for processing the results on a computer;
5) ensuring organizational requirements for the survey.
Depending on the source (carrier) of primary information, mass and specialized surveys are distinguished. In a mass survey, the main source of information is representatives of various social groups whose activities are directly related to the subject of analysis. Participants in mass surveys are called respondents.
In specialized surveys, the main source of information is competent persons whose professional or theoretical knowledge and life experience allow authoritative conclusions to be drawn.
The participants in such surveys are experts who are able to give a balanced assessment of the issues of interest to the researcher.
Hence, another widely used name in sociology for such surveys is the method of expert assessments.
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Introduction to sociological research 2.Methodology of sociological research: 2.1 Program of sociological research 2.2.Goals and objectives of sociological research 2.3.Object and subject of sociological research 2.4 System analysis of the object of study 2.5. Proposing and testing hypotheses 2.6 Sampling methods 2.7 Data interpretation 3.Methods of sociological research: 3.1. Analysis of existing data. Content analysis 3.2 Observation 3.3. Mass poll. Questionnaire and interview 3.4 Experiment 4. An example of a sociological study Conclusion List of used literature |
Introduction
In our time, humanity has become a rather highly developed community with a developed power structure, various social institutions. But before him, as before, there are various difficult and important problems. This may be, for example, an assessment of public opinion on a problem, etc. The question arises: how and in what way to resolve them? But for a rational solution of the tasks set, you need to have an idea about the problem, its cause. This is where sociological research comes into play.
Sociological research, like any other research in any discipline or science, plays a very important role. It allows the researcher to move forward in his research, confirming or refuting his conjectures and conjectures, collecting and evaluating information about the phenomenon under study.
Sociological research serves as a link between theoretical knowledge and reality. It helps to establish new patterns of development of society as a whole or any of its structural elements in particular.
With it, you can solve a very wide range of issues and tasks, analyzing the data obtained and giving specific recommendations to solve the problem.
Sociological research is one of the ways of developing and accumulating sociological knowledge, which consists in the conscious concentration of the efforts of an individual researcher on limited, more or less predetermined tasks.
At the moment, as an example of the use of sociological research, one can cite a public opinion poll on the distribution of citizens' preferences for candidates for the city duma. In principle, the voting process itself is a large state sociological study.
Thus, the role of sociological research in the process of studying society can hardly be overestimated, which is why it will be considered in this essay.
1. The concept of sociological research.
Sociological research- a system of logical consistent methodological and organizational-technological procedures, interconnected by a single goal: to obtain reliable objective data about the phenomenon under study.
Sociological research includes the following stages:
1. Preparatory: at this stage, the development of the research program takes place.
2. Main: includes the conduct of the study itself.
3. Final: processing, data analysis, as well as the formation of conclusions.
Research types:
1. intelligence research: a small, simplest study that has no a large number of respondents and a concise toolkit.
2. Descriptive research: A deeper kind of exploration with a greater community of people. Machine processing is applied.
3. Analytical study: the most complex and deep research. It is not only descriptive, it covers a large number of respondents. Usually considers the dynamics of the phenomenon.
2.Methodology of sociological research.
2.1 Program of sociological research.
Place and role of the program in sociological research. Sociological research begins with the development of its program. The results of the study largely depend on the scientific validity of this document. The program is a theoretical and methodological basis for the research procedures carried out by a sociologist (collection, processing and analysis of information) and includes:
Definition of the problem, object and subject of research;
Preliminary system analysis of the object of study;
Description of the purpose and objectives of the study;
Interpretation and operationalization of basic concepts;
Formulation of working hypotheses;
Definition of a strategic research plan;
Drawing up a sampling plan;
Description of data collection methods;
Description of the data analysis scheme.
Sometimes there are theoretical (methodological) and methodological (procedural) sections in the program. The first includes the components of the program, which begin with the formulation of the problem and end with the compilation of a sample plan, the second - a description of the methods of collecting, processing and analyzing data.
The program must answer two basic questions:
First, how to move from the initial theoretical propositions of sociology to research, how to "translate" them into means of research, methods of collecting, processing and analyzing material;
Secondly, how to rise again from the facts obtained, from the accumulated empirical material to theoretical generalizations, so that the study not only gives practical recommendations, but also serves as the basis for further development the theory itself.
2.2.Goals and objectives of sociological research
The goal is the general orientation of sociological research, which determines its nature and orientation (theoretical or applied). The research program should clearly answer the question: what problem and what result is this research focused on?
If the goals are not clear enough to scientists and representatives of organizations that have applied to them with a social order, then disagreements may arise based on the results of the study. In this regard, it is important that sociological research be of a complex nature, for which the program develops a system of basic and non-basic tasks.
Tasks - a set of specific targets aimed at analyzing and solving a problem.
The main tasks correspond to the purpose of the study. In theoretically oriented research, priority is given to scientific tasks, in practically oriented-applied.
Minor tasks are set to prepare future research, solve methodological issues, test side hypotheses that are not directly related to this problem.
With a theoretical or applied orientation of sociological research, it is expedient to solve non-basic tasks on the basis of the material obtained to find an answer to the central question, to analyze the same data, but from a different angle. It is possible that non-basic problems will not receive a complete solution, but they can help in posing a scientific problem in the preparation of a new study under a new program.
2.3.Object and subject of sociological research
The object of sociological research is a community of people, their activities organized with the help of social institutions, and the conditions in which this activity is carried out, or another phenomenon or process.
The object must be characterized by:
1. Clearly marked phenomena in terms of such parameters as:
a) industry affiliation;
b) professional affiliation;
c) age affiliation;
d) nationality.
2. Spatial limitation.
3. Functional orientation:
a) political orientation;
b) ethnic orientation;
c) production orientation.
4. Time limitation.
5. The possibilities of its quantitative measurement.
If the object of sociological research is independent of research and opposes it, then the subject of study, on the contrary, is shaped by research itself.
The subject of sociological research is the central question of the problem.
This is a construction created by thinking, existing only insofar as there is knowledge about the object, determined, on the one hand, by the object of study, on the other hand, by the conditions of study: tasks, knowledge and means of sociology.
The subject of research is considered to be that of the sides of the object that is directly subject to study, i.e. the most significant side object in terms of sociological theory and social practice. One and the same social object can correspond to several different subjects of research, each of which is determined by the content of which side of the object it reflects, for what purpose, for solving which problem it is chosen.
For example, when studying migration processes, the object of study is the population of various territorial units: a republic, a region, a district, a settlement. Migration is the movement of people from one place of residence to another. The purpose of the study is to optimize migration processes in a certain area. The task is to find the best ways of this optimization (for applied research) and to establish patterns of population migration (for theoretical research)
One and the same object can be described in different ways depending on the problem and purpose of sociological research. The choice of the means of fixing them (method of collecting and analyzing data) depends, in turn, on which elements and relationships will be identified in the object under study.
2.4. System analysis of the object of study.
One of the tasks of the initial stage of sociological research is to give a hypothetical detailed description of a social object as a system, that is, to describe it from the position system analysis. Thus, certain elements and connections characteristic of the object under study are fixed.
A social object is considered from two sides: as a part of the whole and as a whole consisting of parts. In the first case, it is characterized by external links, in the second, by internal ones.
The specificity of scientific research lies in the construction of a hypothetical model of an object as a set of its constituent elements and relationships. This model becomes a "substitute" of the object under study.
The result of a preliminary system analysis of the studied social object is the subject of research, which has the form of some hypothetical model, which can be represented as a diagram with a description of the elements and relationships of the object under study.
The system analysis of the object makes it possible to clarify the subject of research, highlight the basic concepts and give their interpretation, as well as put forward working hypotheses.
2.5. Nomination and testing of hypotheses.
A hypothesis in a sociological study is a scientifically based assumption about the structure of social objects, about the nature of the elements and relationships that form these objects, about the mechanism of their functioning and development.
A scientific hypothesis can be formulated only as a result of a preliminary analysis of the object under study.
hypothesis requirements. A scientifically substantiated hypothesis in sociology must meet a number of requirements.
1. It must comply with the initial principles of the theory of scientific knowledge. This requirement plays the role of a criterion for selecting scientific hypotheses and screening out unscientific ones, and excludes from science untenable hypotheses built on the basis of false theories.
2. Hypothesis explaining social facts in some area, as a rule, should not contradict theories, the truth of which for this area has already been proven. But a new hypothesis can sometimes contradict old theories and at the same time be quite admissible.
3. It is necessary that the hypothesis does not contradict known and verified facts. If among the known facts there is at least one with which the hypothesis does not agree, then it must be discarded or reformulated so as to cover the entire set of facts for the explanation of which it is proposed. But not always the contradiction of the known facts should be regarded as a sign of the inconsistency of the hypothesis.
4. The hypothesis must be available for verification in the process of sociological research. It is checked using a specially developed technique at the disposal of the researcher.
5. The hypothesis must be subjected to logical analysis, establishing its consistency. This is done not only through logical rules, but also through operational definitions. The latter make it possible to avoid arbitrariness in the interpretation of the empirical terms of the hypothesis.
In order to increase the confirmation of a hypothesis, one should strive to put forward a larger number of interrelated hypotheses and indicate for each hypothesis the largest possible number of empirical indicators of the variables included in it.
The first are assumptions about the structural and functional relationships of the object under study. They can also refer to the classification characteristics of a social object.
The second are assumptions about causal relationships in the object under study, requiring empirical experimental verification.
In the process of such testing, a distinction should be made between the main hypotheses and their consequences (inferential hypotheses).
2.6. Sampling methods.
Population- the totality of all possible social objects that are subject to study within the program of sociological research.
Sample or sample population- part of the objects of the general population, selected using special techniques to obtain information about the entire population as a whole.
1. Quota sampling frame.
This method involves at least four features by which respondents are identified.
Usually used for large populations.
2. Main Array Method.
Assumes a survey of 60-70% of the general population.
3. Nested sampling method.
The respondent is not a single individual, but a group.
This method will be representative if the composition of the groups is similar.
4. Serial sampling method.
With this method, the general population is divided into homogeneous parts, from which the unit of analysis is proportionally selected (elements of the sample or surveyed population: there can be both individuals and groups).
5. Mechanical sampling method.
From general list of the general population, the required number of respondents is selected at regular intervals.
6. Solid method.
Used for small populations.
2.7 Interpretation of data.
After the results of the study, observation and measurement data are obtained, a theoretical interpretation of the empirical data is carried out. The "language of observations" is, as it were, translated into the "language of theory" - action, the opposite that was carried out before the study.
Such an interpretation is carried out in the process of theoretical generalization of empirical data and assessment of the validity of the put forward hypotheses.
3.Methods of sociological research.
3.1. Analysis of existing documents. Content analysis
A significant part of the information necessary for the researcher in his work is contained in documentary sources. In sociology, their study as a stage of sociological research is called the analysis of existing data, or secondary analysis data.
A complete understanding of the content of documentary sources in many cases makes it possible to obtain information sufficient to solve a problem or to deepen the analysis of a problem. Thus, when formulating a research problem and hypotheses, a sociologist turns to the analysis of such written documents as scientific publications, reports on previous research, various statistical and departmental publications.
In sociology, a document is a specially created object for the transmission and storage of information.
There are various classifications of documents:
1. From the point of view of the intended purpose, there are:
a) target documents: chosen by the sociologist himself;
b) cash documents: available.
2. According to the degree of personification:
a) personal: statements, letters, characteristics, etc.;
b) impersonal: for example, statistical data.
3. Depending on the status of the source:
a) official
b) informal.
4. According to the source of information:
a) primary: compiled on the basis of direct observation or survey;
b) secondary: processing, generalization, description made on the basis of primary sources.
It is the analysis of documents that provides initial information and allows you to accurately and purposefully use other research methods.
Of particular interest to sociologists are the summary data of the results of specialized census and sample surveys conducted by central statistical organizations and departmental research organizations.
Recently, statistical reference books have begun to appear in Russia and abroad, which include indicators of satisfaction with various spheres of human life, environmental conditions, and other subjective indicators.
In sociology, there are two groups of methods for analyzing document information:
1. Traditional.
2. Formalized.
The first is understood as mental operations aimed at analyzing primary data in documents from the point of view of research of interest. It has a drawback - subjectivity.
The essence of the second is that the researcher translates the quantitative indicators of textual information.
Traditional Techniques for Document Analysis.
Documentary sources carry unique and diverse information about social phenomena and processes. It is important to find methods that would allow extracting the required information with sufficient reliability. These methods include all the variety of mental operations aimed at interpreting the content of documents in accordance with the purpose of the study.
Traditional analysis is the adaptation of the content of the document to the research task, based on intuitive understanding, generalization of the content and rationale for the conclusions drawn.
It is necessary to make an assessment of the quality of documents, which includes:
1. Finding out the conditions, goals and reasons for creating a document.
In other words, the factors of reliability of a documentary source in relation to the objectives of the study are clarified. Establishing the completeness and reliability of the source in relation to the objectives of the study are the main parameters for its assessment before the start of the study.
Quantitative analysis (content analysis).
The most significant limitation associated with the use of traditional methods of analyzing documents such as newspapers and similar sources is the possibility of subjective influences on the results of the analysis, i.e., the influence of the researcher’s attitudes, his interests, and the prevailing stereotypes about the subject of analysis. This shortcoming is overcome by methods of formalized analysis, which are based on statistical accounting of various objective characteristics of the text. For example, the frequency of publications in the newspaper of materials on a particular topic, the number of lines allocated by the editors to individual topics, headings, authors, the frequency of mentioning problems, terms, names, geographical names, etc.
Content analysis is a method of studying messages created in various areas of social communication and recorded in the form of a written text on paper or recorded on any other physical media.
The analysis is based on uniform standardized rules for searching, recording and calculating quantitative indicators of the studied characteristics of the text.
Its essence lies in finding and using for calculation such features of the document that would reflect certain essential aspects of its content.
Content analysis should be used in the presence of large text arrays with a clear structure, determined by the communicative intentions of the authors of the text.
3.2 Observation.
Observation in sociology-method collecting information by direct study of a social phenomenon in its natural conditions.
There are a number of features of this method:
1. Communication of the observer with the object of observation.
2. The observer is not devoid of a human trait - the emotionality of perception.
3. Difficulty of repeated observation.
Depending on the degree of standardization of the observation technique, two main varieties of this method can be distinguished.
A standardized observation technique presupposes the existence of a pre-detailed list of events, signs to be observed; determination of conditions and situations of observation; instructions for observers; uniform codifiers for recording observed phenomena.
Unstandardized (unstructured) observation. In this case, the researcher determines only the general directions of observation, according to which the results are recorded in a free form directly in the process of observation or later from memory.
Forms and methods of fixing the results of the observer - forms and observation diaries, photo, film, video and radio equipment.
Depending on the role of the observer in the situation under study, there are 4 types of observation:
1. Full participation of the observer in the situation: involves the inclusion of the observer in the group under study as a full member of it. The role of the observer is unknown to the members of the group.
2. The participant of the situation as an observer: characterized by the inclusion of the observer in the group, but it is understood that all participants are clear about his role as a researcher.
3. The observer as a participant: means that the observer is primarily a researcher and, interacting with participants in the social process, does not pretend to be a real participant in it.
4. Fully observer: the researcher performs only the function of an observer, without interacting with the participants in the situation, remaining out of their field of vision.
observation procedure. The process of studying a social phenomenon by observation can be conditionally represented as the following sequence of steps:
Formulation of the problem, description of the object of observation, definition of tasks;
Determination of units of observation and indicators of the studied aspects of behavior;
Development of a language and a system of concepts in terms of which the results of observation will be described; definition of sampling procedures with situations where it is possible to make a selection from a set of observations;
Preparation of technical documents for fixing the observed phenomenon (cards, protocol forms, coding forms, etc.);
Recording the results of observations;
Data analysis and interpretation;
Preparation of a report and conclusions based on the results of the study.
Advantages and disadvantages of the observation method. The main advantage is that it makes it possible to capture the details of this phenomenon, its versatility.
The flexibility of the method is another quality that is of no small importance in the study of social phenomena.
And finally, cheapness is a common attribute inherent in this method.
Among the shortcomings, first of all, it should be noted the qualitative nature of the conclusions that can be obtained as a result of observation. The method can rarely be applied to the observation of large populations. However, the biggest drawback is associated with the possibility of introducing a certain amount of subjectivity into the essence of the method and less than in other cases, the possibility of broad generalization of the results of the study.
3.3. Mass poll. Questionnaire and interview
The researcher turns to this method when, in order to solve the task, he needs to obtain information about the sphere of people's consciousness: about their opinions, motives for behavior, assessments of the surrounding reality, about life plans, goals, orientations, awareness, etc.
In all such cases, it is people, participants in the studied social processes, who act as a unique source of information that cannot be replaced by any other. However, the survey method can also provide information about people's behavior, various factual information.
The essence of the survey method is reduced to the communication of the researcher directly or indirectly through his representative with a set of people (respondents) in the form of a question-answer dialogue. The peculiarity of this communication is that, on the one hand, it must meet the strict requirements of the scientific procedure, and on the other hand, it must proceed from the fact that the source of information is ordinary participants in the processes under study, who are aware of these processes within the framework of everyday life experience.
Thus, the survey implements the cognitive interaction of two various levels public consciousness: scientific, the bearer of which is the researcher, and everyday, practical, the bearer of which is the respondent.
Methodological principles of questionnaire design. The content of the questions, their wording, sequence and relationship in the structure of the questionnaire must meet two requirements.
1. Questions should be necessary and sufficient to provide empirical testing of research hypotheses, to solve its cognitive tasks. This requirement is ensured at the stage of empirical interpretation of concepts through the development of a set of indicators and a corresponding list of units of the required information.
In other words, for each question of the questionnaire, its cognitive task, its sought-after information must be determined.
2. It is necessary to take into account the socio-psychological characteristics of the respondents, acting as a source of information. This means that the author of the questionnaire must take into account the awareness of the respondents about the subject of the survey, the specifics of their language, communication traditions, ideas about prestige and self-esteem, etc.
IN practical work When designing a questionnaire, both requirements are often suppressed and must be taken into account in a complex and interrelated manner.
Starting to develop a questionnaire, a sociologist solves a problem of a different level - how to formulate a question in order to obtain the required information?
Types of questions. Depending on the purpose for which questions are asked, they are divided into meaningful and functional.
Functional questions solve various tasks of managing the course of the survey, its psychological atmosphere, and logical rigor. The main types of such questions are: questions-filters, control questions, contact questions.
The need for filter questions arises when the required information can be obtained not from the entire population of respondents, but only from some part of it.
The purpose of control questions is to find out the stability or consistency of the answers of the respondent, which he gives on the same topic, problem.
Contact questions serve to establish contact with the respondent, to create positive motivation for the survey. They may not be directly related to the topic of the survey, but allow the respondent to speak on the topic that is most relevant and close to him.
Depending on what is asked, there are:
1. Fact questions. Their goal is to obtain information about social phenomena or features that can be uniquely identified. (This could be age, gender, etc.).
2. Questions about knowledge. The purpose of these questions is to obtain information indicating that the respondent is informed. The answers help to more accurately identify the structure of attitudes and interests, indicate the degree of inclusion of the individual in the team.
3. Questions about opinion. The answers to these questions most often contain estimates. Opinions are less stable than knowledge. They are more dependent on the situation and often depend on personal experiences and moods. The formulation of opinions is determined by the way the individual is included in the process of social development, his political activity.
4. Questions about motives. Study of motives social behavior makes high demands on the technique of surveying and constructing indicators. It is easier for respondents to talk about facts, behavior, situations than to judge the motives of behavior. This is due to the fact that the assessment (or justification) of actions in the past is difficult.
According to the filling technique, there are:
1. Open questions. They give the respondent the opportunity to independently formulate an answer that reflects the uniqueness of individual consciousness, language, style, stock of information, range of associations.
2. Closed questions. They assume the presence of ready-made answers that the sociologist develops before the start of the survey, based on his initial ideas about the content of the question and on the data of the pilot study.
Questioning.
Questionnaire- a type of survey in which the respondent independently fills out the questionnaire.
Questionnaire- Questionnaire, self-filled by the respondent according to the rules.
According to the number of respondents, there are:
1. Group survey.
2. Individual survey.
According to the venue, there are:
1. Questioning at home.
2. Questioning at work.
3. Questioning in target audiences.
According to the method of distribution of questionnaires:
1. Distribution questionnaire: distributed to respondents by the questionnaire itself.
2. Postal questionnaire: sent by mail.
3. Press questionnaire: published in the press.
The main advantage of group surveys is related to the organizational accessibility and efficiency of the survey. Questionnaires are filled out in the presence of the questionnaire and returned to him immediately after filling. This form of survey provides almost 100% return and short data collection times.
When using individual questionnaires using a distributing questionnaire, the questionnaire either hands the questionnaire to the respondent, agreeing on the return date at the next meeting, or, having explained the rules for filling out and the purpose of the survey, waits for the questionnaire to be completed.
Postal survey is a fairly popular method of interviewing large populations of people.
Its weaknesses are the low percentage of return without the use of special techniques (about 30%), the uncontrollable situation of filling out questionnaires and the difficulties associated with these features in substantiating the representativeness of the sample of the target population.
The publication of a questionnaire in newspapers or magazines is actively used in journalistic practice, however, the cognitive possibilities of this type of survey are limited due to the problem of returning completed questionnaires.
Interview. As a method of collecting information, the interview is largely devoid of the above disadvantages, but the price for this is a relatively high cost.
Interview- a conversation conducted according to a certain plan, involving direct contact between the interviewer and the respondent, and the answers are recorded either by the interviewer or on some kind of information carrier (for example, a voice recorder).
There are several types of interviews, depending on how standardized the situation of the conversation is.
Standardized interview with closed questions is used to interview a large population of people (several hundreds or thousands), when the content structure of the problem is defined.
Standardized An interview with open-ended questions gives the respondent more autonomy in formulating answers and requires the interviewer to register them as detailed and accurate as possible.
Directed (focused) interview. The plan of such an interview provides only a list of questions that should be considered during the conversation. But the sequence and wording of the questions may vary depending on the specific situation.
Free interview involves the preliminary development of approximate main directions of the conversation with the respondent. The wording of the questions and their sequence are formed during the interview and are determined by the individual characteristics of the interviewee.
3.4 Experiment.
sociological experiment- a way to obtain information about the quantitative and qualitative change in the activity and behavior of a social object as a result of the impact on it of some manageable and controllable factors.
In sociology, an economic experiment means the direct influence of specific economic conditions on people's consciousness.
classical experiment model. It can be reduced to studying the effect of an independent variable (for example, the performance of a presidential candidate) on the dependent variable (an individual's vote in an election). The purpose of the experiment is to test the hypothesis about the presence or absence of influence of the independent variable on the dependent one.
Of fundamental importance in such a model is the question of the selection of experimental and control groups. The main task of the researcher is to achieve maximum similarity before the experiment (because it is impossible to achieve complete identity) of these two groups. The term "similarity" is understood here in a statistical sense, i.e., the units of the general population from which groups are selected should have the same chances of falling into the first group and into the second. This selection process is often referred to as randomization. Randomization aims to eliminate systematic biases and errors that may arise from experimental exposure to non-equivalent groups.
Internal and external validity. The problem of internal validity refers to the possibility that the conclusions that the researcher makes on the basis of experimental results may not reflect the essence of what happened during the experiment itself.
The sources of this problem can be:
Influence of events in the past on the results of the experiment;
Changing the participants themselves in the experiment during the experiment;
The impact of the testing process and repetition of testing on people's behavior;
The influence of the instrument used during the experiment, including the experimenter himself;
Incomparability of the experimental and control groups.
External validity refers to the possibility of generalization, distribution of the conclusions of the experiment to real objects. Even if the results are internally substantiated, is it possible to transfer the conclusions obtained in the experimental groups to real social objects and processes?
There are many examples when the results of experiments turn out to be unacceptable at all or not fully acceptable for the phenomenon under study.
Laboratory experiment suggests that the researcher creates an artificial environment (for example, in a laboratory) for conducting it, which allows him to more carefully control the environment in which the studied groups are placed. The artificiality of the environment lies in the fact that the object of observation is transferred from its normal environment in an environment that helps achieve a high degree of accuracy in observing his behavior. In sociology, one of the most difficult problems associated with laboratory experimentation relates to the external validity of the experimental results.
Field experiment. It is characterized by the most natural situation - it can be a classroom, a production environment.
natural experiment. It is understood as such an experiment in which the researcher does not select and prepare an independent variable in advance, does not influence the experimental group with it. The researcher assigns himself the role of an observer and a fixer of the processes that independently occur in the studied sphere of life.
Results social experiment are reflected in the report, which contains the following three sections:
4. An example of a sociological study.
In order to give an example of a sociological study, a hypothetical problem was taken: what determines the productivity of workers, that is, what motivates them to work with interest.
The object of the study was a group of students (because studying is also a kind of work, and after it the majority will obviously go to work) of 20 people.
The subject of the study was the learning process (labor productivity) of these people.
The purpose of this study was to find ways to increase motivation, increase labor productivity (improve learning outcomes).
The task was to find ways to achieve a specific goal, as well as to identify the dependence of motivation and labor productivity on various factors.
Questioning was chosen as a method of sociological research. Respondents were given questionnaires that looked like this:
QUESTIONNAIRE
1. Good chances of promotion
2. Good earnings
3. Performance related pay
4. Recognition and approval of a job well done
5. Work that allows you to realize your abilities
6. Complex and difficult work
7. A job that allows you to think and act independently
8. High degree of responsibility
9. Interesting work
10. Work that requires creativity
11. Work without great tension and stress
12. Convenient location of the work place
13. Sufficient information about what is generally happening in the company
14. Significant additional benefits
15. Fair distribution of workloads
What factors would you like to add to the proposed list?
After completing the questionnaires were collected in order to process the results, which are presented in the form of an average score for each factor in the following table (Table 1), with the factors arranged in descending order of the average score.
Table 1
Average scores of factors contributing to the increase in labor productivity
|
1. Work without great tension and stress 2. Good earnings 3. Interesting work 4. Good chances of promotion 5. Recognition and approval of a job well done 6. Convenient location of the work place 7. Sufficient information about what is generally happening in the company 8. Significant additional benefits 9. Performance related pay 10. Fair distribution of workloads 11. Work that requires creativity 12. Work that allows you to realize your abilities 13. High degree of responsibility 14. A job that allows you to think and act independently 15. Difficult and difficult work |
As a result of the survey, it can be seen that the most powerful motivator for highly productive work is work without great tension and stress, which is explained by the fact that all respondents actually still did not work and do not want to start their labor activity from work abounding in stress and tension (a vivid example is attitude to learning - all students want a test or an automatic exam with a minimum of effort).
The second place in our hit parade was taken by a factor called good earnings, which is not surprising - what kind of person (especially a student) will refuse extra money.
In third place is such a factor as interesting job. Of course, who likes a boring and monotonous job, and how can we talk about increasing productivity here?
Due to the obvious absence of workaholics in the group, the factor "difficult and difficult work" took only the last place.
Among the added factors, one can distinguish such as the possibility of parallel or additional work in another organization, the provision of official transport and the provision of a personal secretary (secretary).
This work does not claim to be a full-fledged sociological study, as it has a number of significant shortcomings. This is, firstly, that the survey was not conducted in a specific situation where there was a problem related to labor productivity (among students, from their point of view, such a problem does not arise at all), i.e. there was no specific problem situation, in connection with which it was It was decided not to draw specific conclusions for their application in practice.
Ideally, it would be advisable to conduct such a study at an enterprise where there is a problem with labor productivity.
Conclusion
So, the main principles in the preparation and conduct of sociological research have been described above. Its main goals and objectives are outlined, the concepts of the object and subject of sociological research are given, and methods for sampling respondents from the general population are given.
Depending on the tasks and conditions for conducting a sociological study, various methods were identified, where their positive and negative sides were also mentioned, the difficulties in implementing the recommendations for conducting, etc.
Sociological research is considered as an important and integral part of sociology, as one of the main ways of developing sociological knowledge, knowledge about society, its structural units and the processes taking place in it.
Sociological research also plays an important role in the study and resolution of problems that arise in social, industrial and other spheres of human activity.
I think that the above material, despite its small volume, made it possible to find out what sociological research is, why it is necessary, to get acquainted with its basics.
Bibliography
1. Baskov A., Benker G. Modern sociological theory., - M. - 1996
Applied sociological research (PSI) - direct collection, processing and analysis of primary sociological information. Its main goal is to obtain facts that constitute the empirical basis of sociology or have an independent applied value. Applied sociological research is always carried out according to certain rules. Stages conducting PSI.
1. Preliminary: drawing up a program and schedule of the PSI of planned research documents.
2. Field: preparation research group, preparation of the research field, aerobatics, field research.
3. Ordering, processing and analysis of the received information.
4. Preparation of final documents, which reflect the results of the PSI and methods for obtaining them.
Types of sociological research. Depending on the goals of the PSI, they are divided into intelligence, descriptive and analytical.
Intelligence research (pilot) used as a preliminary stage of large-scale research. It covers small study populations and is based on a simplified program and methodology. A kind of pilot study is an express survey (the so-called probing of public opinion).
Descriptive research It is used in the case of a study of a large community of people with diverse characteristics. Such a study is carried out according to the developed program and on the basis of methodologically tested tools.
Analytical study- the deepest type of sociological analysis, which aims not only to describe the phenomenon under study, but also to identify the reasons underlying it.
Based on the frequency of studies, they are divided into point and repeated types:
§ spot study (one-time) gives information about the state of the object of analysis, about the quantitative characteristics of the phenomenon or process at the time of its study;
§ re-study, carried out sequentially at certain intervals, based on a single program and tools, gives an idea of the dynamics of the object under study;
§ panel study- a special kind of repetition. A panel study involves the repeated study of the same group of people at certain intervals. Continuous and prompt receipt of data on the phenomena and processes taking place in society is called social monitoring.
The study of social processes by the methods of applied sociology begins with the development of a research program. The effectiveness of all subsequent work of a sociologist depends on the quality of the program, its scientific level.
PSI Program- this is a theoretical document that sets out the methodological, methodological and organizational principles, techniques, means of studying a particular social object. The requirements for the PSI object are as follows:
1. a clear designation of the phenomenon according to the following parameters - professional (industry) affiliation, spatial limitation, functional orientation;
2. a certain time limitation;
3. the possibility of its quantitative measurements;
PSI subject - these are those aspects (properties, relationships) of the object of study that express the problem under study in the most complete form and are subject to study.
Within the same object of study there can be several subjects of study.
For example, within the framework of a particular school group (object of research), the subject of research can be: the discipline of students, the socio-psychological microclimate in the classroom, the socio-political activity of schoolchildren, their civic positions, and a number of other characteristics. It happens otherwise: the object of study is formulated more narrowly - the leisure of adolescents living in a given locality. Then the subject of the study will be: the tendency of adolescents to bad habits(smoking, drunkenness, drug addiction), sexual promiscuity of schoolchildren and other phenomena associated with the behavior of representatives of this social group during leisure. There are cases when the object and subject of research coincide. For example, the object of research is sports teams participating in a competition. The subject of research is all the essential aspects of their activities related to sports.
Refinement of the boundaries of the object and, to a certain extent, the subject of the study is carried out in parallel with the calculation (justification) of the study sample. With its help, the scope (volume) of the work of the sociological group is determined in advance in order to minimize the costs of conducting research.
Population- this is a set (set) of all elements of the objects of study, limited by the natural territorial-temporal framework and the research program, and sampling set - this is a part of the elements, extracted in a certain way from the whole and intended for direct study (observation). The sample of the study, as part of the object of study, should be similar to the object as a whole in terms of basic socio-demographic or other significant features. The sample (or sample population) is a reduced copy (model) of the object of study (general population). Sociologists believe that there is no need, for example, when studying the attitude of the population of a particular city to the problems under study, to interview all the inhabitants of this settlement. It is enough to interview a part, but this part should be similar to the whole (in terms of gender, age, education, social status and other parameters important for the problem under study). Census data, static reports, lists of employees of the surveyed organization, house books, electoral lists, personnel department files and other documents that a sociologist can access are used as the sampling frame.
Types samples in applied sociological research:
1. empirical- used in the practice of small-scale studies.
It is divided into types: a) spontaneous sampling (selection of the "first comer"); b) a quota sample (a “model” is created that proportionally reproduces the general population according to the main, most significant features).
2. Probabilistic(random selection) - methods of probability theory are used.
The main types of probabilistic sampling:
a) simple probabilistic sampling (simple random selection) - when, for example, cards with the numbers of respondents are selected according to the "lot" principle;
b) systematic probabilistic sampling (for example, every fifth or hundredth);
c) serial (nesting) - when nests are selected (workshops, brigades, student groups, other divisions of the general population), sometimes polar in terms of the studied qualities (advanced - lagging behind, smokers - non-smokers, etc.).
Samples are regionalized if the selection is preceded by a division of the general population into parts (for example, schools or hospitals in an area can be divided into urban and rural, “prosperous” and “unfavorable”). Sometimes multi-stage samples are distinguished (at the first stage - selection, for example, by districts, at the second - by enterprises, at the third - by workshops, sections). A special type of multi-stage sampling is multi-phase selection, when a smaller subsample is separated from the selected sample.
The main requirement for any sample is its representativeness, i.e., the ability of the sample to reflect the characteristics of the general population. Any sample deviates to a greater or lesser extent from the general population. The degree of this deviation is called sampling error.
There are two types of errors:
1. random errors - associated with statistical errors (depending on the dynamics of the characteristics under study) and unforeseen violations of the information collection procedure (procedural errors made during the registration of characteristics);
2. systematic errors - arising from the incomplete objectivity of the sample of the general population (lack of
3. information about the general population, the selection of the most “convenient” elements of the general population for research), as well as due to the inconsistency of the sample with the goals and objectives of the study.
There is the following rough estimate of the results of a sample study. Increased reliability of the study allows a sampling error of up to 3%, ordinary - up to 3-10% (confidence interval of distributions at the level of 0.03-0.1), approximate - from 10 to 20%, approximate - from 20 to 40%, and estimated - more than 40%.
The representativeness of the sample is assessed on the basis of a preliminary calculation and analysis of possible errors. There are mathematical formulas for calculating the marginal sampling error. These formulas, based on the law of large numbers, are applicable, as a rule, only when major studies over large areas, covering the population of a country or region.
When conducting sociological research in small groups, the sample is determined mainly by empirical methods in the process of collecting information (surveys are conducted until stable results are obtained). When studying, for example, the problems of schoolchildren, taking into account the comparative homogeneity of the units of observation, the calculation of the sample can be carried out during the period of collecting information simultaneously with the coordination of the objects of study. Thus, if we interview all high school students of the same school and compare the results for each class separately, we can see that the distribution of answers differs little. This means that we could confine ourselves to interviewing one or two or three classes (if the purpose and objectives of the study allow).
The representativeness of the sample can be determined in another way. Interrogate first the expected number of respondents (for example, 50% of the total). Then the collected array of questionnaires was divided into two parts according to a statistically random principle. Having processed each part separately and found that the discrepancy in the answers is insignificant, we can come to the conclusion that it is possible in subsequent studies to reduce the sample size by half.
Other methods are also used. For example, different questionnaires used in one study include 2-3 blocks of the same (control) questions.
Then, starting, say, with the first questionnaire, the sample size is gradually reduced after each new survey, paying attention to the degree of distortion of answers to control questions. They should be small, within acceptable limits.
These and other similar techniques are imperfect, but they help the future sociologist to gain some experience in checking the representativeness of the collected information.
Purpose and objectives of the study
The purpose of the study is the final result of scientific research.
aim sociological research may be the acquisition of new knowledge about the object of study, its structure, interaction with other objects. The purpose of the study is often forecasts of the main directions of development of the studied phenomena or processes.
Often in sociological research reports, one can find incorrect definitions of the purpose of the research, for example, such: “Research on the state of discipline in the work team” or “Study of the causes of staff turnover”. These examples set out, rather, the objectives of the study, rather than its purpose. The goal of applied research will not be the research process itself, but what follows it. In other words, the goal statement should answer the question: “Why is the study being conducted, what benefits are expected to be received after its completion?” The goal is specified by the objectives of the study.
For example, when studying the value orientations of students, the purpose of the study can be: to determine the conditions and factors for creating a favorable socio-educational space at the university, actively contributing to the formation of students' civic position, determining their attitude to current events, understanding their place in society; develop proposals for evaluating the work of personnel responsible for conducting educational work.
Tasksresearch- these are the actions that are planned to be taken to achieve the goal; These are a kind of steps that you need to go through in order to achieve the final result. “Study...”, “compile...”, “analyze...” - these words often begin the formulation of research objectives.
If the purpose of the study is expressed in one or several sentences, then the tasks are often set out on dozens of pages, there can be many of them within the framework of one study.
Research tasks are of various types: basic (main, most significant) and non-basic (private, derivative, additional). The first include those that are directly aimed at achieving the goal of the study. The purpose of the latter is concretization, clarification of the main tasks. Obtaining side, secondary conclusions.
For example, when studying the value orientations of students, the objectives of the study can be:
Find out the hierarchy of the main value orientations of modern youth,
Find out which social institutions, in the opinion of young people themselves, are fundamental in the formation of a civic position before entering a university. Find out which social institutions, structural divisions and public organizations of the university are fundamental in the formation of a civic position while studying at a university, and also determine whether there is a relationship between the presence of a formed one's own position and the level of trust in various social institutions and structures of the university (rector's office, dean's offices , faculty, public associations(Belarusian Republican Youth Union, trade unions, etc.), curators, workers of the psychological service, workers of the ideological and educational service, etc.).
Research objectives in the process of their development should be consistent (coordinated) with the hypotheses.
Research hypotheses
Hypothesesresearch- this is a reasonable assumption about the structure of social objects, the mechanism of their internal dynamics, interaction with external factors or other objects, as well as trends and main directions (prospects) of development. In fact, the study is a test of the hypothesis put forward. Hypotheses can be classified:
§ according to the degree of generality of assumptions - hypotheses-foundations and hypotheses-consequences;
§ according to the degree of development and validity - primary and secondary;
§ from the point of view of the objectives of the study - basic and non-basic.
Requirements for formulated hypotheses:
§ hypotheses must correspond to the goals and objectives of the study;
§ rely on well-known sociological theories, the truth of which has been proven;
§ do not contradict proven, scientifically confirmed empirical facts;
§ be based on representative information;
§ be checked by methods and means that do not go beyond the capabilities of the sociological laboratory.
For example, when studying the value orientations of students, the research hypothesis may be: a preliminary analysis of previously conducted local sociological studies allows us to make an assumption: the reason for the weak motivation for the formation of a personality of a modern student with fundamental values lies in the insufficient ideological and educational work of the teaching staff and structural divisions.