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Teaching method with the help of special schemes. Methods and techniques in teaching

Teaching method- the joint activity of the teacher and students, aimed at achieving a specific learning goal. Didactic methods can be divided into three components: pedagogical and student teaching methods. Pedagogical methods refer to the actions of the teacher (teacher), student methods reflect the ways of learning from the point of view of students. special attention deserve teaching methods that imply a definition of the joint work of the teacher with the students. Teaching methods have objective and subjective sides. The objective side reflects the general basic essence of the method, and the subjective side reflects the manifestation of the skill and creativity of the teacher within the framework of the method and in accordance with its basic principles.

In modern didactics, there are a huge number of a wide variety of teaching methods. In this regard, it became necessary to classify them.

The most common of them is the classification of teaching methods according to the source of knowledge. This classification includes five methods.

1. practical method based on the acquisition of knowledge through laboratory experimental activities. The tasks of the teacher include setting the task and assisting students in conducting practical activities. An important stage of such training is the systematization and analysis of information obtained in the course of classes.

2. Visual method. The main role in the application of this method is assigned to the teacher. His tasks include explaining the material using illustrations, diagrams, tables, experiments, conducting experiments and various visual aids. Pupils in this method are given a passive role of perception and fixation of the received information.

3. Verbal method also involves active teaching activities. The functions of the teacher include the oral presentation of the material, according to a pre-thought-out scheme, in which they must be present: posing a question, researching and analyzing the content of this issue, summing up and conclusions.

Students should not only perceive and assimilate information, they can ask questions, express their point of view, put forward hypotheses, discuss, discuss certain opinions regarding the issue under study;

1) work with the book reflects the method of independent work of students, including reading, viewing, note-taking, analysis, systematization and other types of educational activities that are possible when working with educational literature.

2) video method - an innovative method of teaching using video material and an electronic teacher, used mainly as an additional method to strengthen knowledge or expand it. This method requires the student to have a high level of ability and motivation for self-learning.

Another type of classification proposed by M. N. Skatkin and I. Ya. Lerner is based on the division of teaching methods depending on the nature of the student's cognitive activity in mastering the material being studied.

This classification includes the following methods.

1. Explanatory-illustrative. One of the ways to transfer “ready-made” knowledge to students through any kind of didactic material. Students, in turn, must fix in memory and on paper the information received with immediate or subsequent comprehension, memorization and consolidation of the latter;

2. reproductive method involves, in addition to the perception of information, its practical use. The teacher offers various tasks and exercises, as well as artificially creates situations that require the application of the acquired knowledge in practice.

3. Problem presentation method is active on the part of the teacher. The teacher artificially creates a problem and clearly and in detail explains to the students the ways and means of solving it. The solution occurs in stages: understanding the problem, putting forward a hypothesis for its solution, practical experiment, analysis of the results. Pupils are assigned the role of observers who must trace the logic and interconnectedness of all the actions of the teacher, assimilate the basic principles and stages of problem solving.

4. Partial search (heuristic) method learning is based on the independent activity of students, aimed at processing information in order to identify contradictions and problems arising in accordance with them, as well as finding ways to solve these problems and analyzing the results in order to identify the degree of their truth. The teacher in this case plays the role of an assistant and mentor, he is obliged to teach students how to competently go through all the stages on the way to identifying and solving problems, as well as to provide assistance when students have various kinds of difficulties.

5. The research method is the most effective in terms of learning, but its implementation requires a highly qualified teacher. The teacher, together with the students, forms the problem and manages the independent research activities of the students. Students choose research methods themselves, knowledge is obtained by them in the process of research and solving related research tasks. Knowledge obtained in this way is deeply and firmly settled in the memory of a person. The creative activity inherent in this method helps to increase interest and motivation in the learning process.

Another classification of teaching methods, which has recently become widespread, has been developed by Yu. K. Babansky. He identified three main groups:

Methods of organizing and implementing educational and cognitive activities, methods of stimulating and motivating educational and cognitive activities, methods of monitoring and self-control of the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activities.

The methods included in the group of organization and implementation of educational and cognitive activities are numerous and quite diverse. They use all kinds of information sources: textbooks, lectures, visual aids, practical activities. Preference is given to a reasonable combination of theory and practice, knowledge is acquired both through the perception and comprehension of the proposed material, and in the process of research activities and analysis of its results. An important role is played by independent work, controlled by the teacher.

The methods of stimulating and motivating educational and cognitive activity are mainly aimed at awakening students' interest in the learning process. The activities developed using these methods are usually varied and emotional. Students are offered tasks in the form of situational forms, close to real life, for the solution of which a certain theoretical base is needed, thereby creating an idea of the applicability of the acquired knowledge in everyday or professional life. Students are convinced of the benefits of acquiring such knowledge and skills, which arouses interest and creates incentives for learning. A good effect is given by tasks of a competitive nature, where, trying to prove himself, a person strives to master the necessary knowledge and skills as best and thoroughly as possible.

Methods of control and self-control of the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activity are aimed at the formation of the student's consciousness and are based on the assessment of the final result of training. The learning process includes various types of control and self-control, according to which a conclusion is made about the effectiveness of the classes for each individual student and for the entire training group as a whole. Assessment plays a significant role in these methods as a stimulus for obtaining knowledge. Often, students are asked to evaluate their own work, and then compare this assessment with the assessment of the teacher, in this case, students are taught the ability to most objectively assess their level of knowledge and skills.

The existing classifications of teaching methods are not without drawbacks. In any educational process, in fact, a combination of elements of several methods is used at once, and speaking of the application of a particular method in a particular case, we mean its dominant position in relation to the others. Currently, in modern pedagogical science, several relatively independent teaching methods are distinguished: storytelling, conversation, lecture, discussion, work with a book, demonstration, illustration, video method, exercises, laboratory and practical methods, cognitive game, programmed learning methods, learning control, situational method.

Independence in this case means the presence of significant differences between the method and steel, features and properties inherent only to this method.

Forms, methods, techniques and teaching aids: characteristics of concepts. Various approaches to the classification of teaching methods in didactics: by the source of knowledge, by purpose, by the type of cognitive activity. Criteria for choosing teaching methods. The essence and content of the main teaching methods.

1. In the literature on pedagogy, the concepts of method and form of teaching are often confused. We give the following definitions:

The form- this is a historically established, stable and logically completed organization of the pedagogical process, which is characterized by systematicity and integrity, self-development, personal-activity character, constancy of the composition of participants, the presence of a certain mode of conduct. Form - the nature of the orientation of the activity. The form is based leading method.

Method- this is the means by which the teacher solves the tasks facing him in teaching students.

Forms of education are specific (lesson, homework, extracurricular activities, coursework, consultations, additional classes, forms of control, etc.) and common .

Let's look at some of the forms in more detail.

Since at school students spend 85-95% of their study time in the classroom, it is considered the main form of organization of the educational process. The class-lesson system has withstood the test of life for several centuries and, despite constant sharp criticism, has been preserved to this day almost all over the world. She has undeniable positive traits such as simple organizational structure, cost-effectiveness, ease of management. But at the same time, it has many negative aspects: insufficient consideration of individual differences, a strict organizational structure, which often creates a formal approach to the lesson.

Lesson - a collective form of education, which is characterized by a permanent composition of students, a certain scope of classes, strict regulation of educational work on the same educational material for all.

Lesson types:

1. lessons-lectures (practically, this is a monologue of the teacher on a given topic, although with the known skill of the teacher, such lessons take on the character of a conversation);

2. laboratory (practical) classes (such lessons are usually devoted to the development of skills and abilities);

3. knowledge testing and assessment lessons (tests, etc.);

4. combined lessons . Such lessons are conducted according to the scheme:

Repetition of what has been covered - students reproduce previously completed material, check homework, oral and written survey, etc.

Mastering new material. At this stage, the new material is presented by the teacher, or "extracted" in the process of independent work of students with literature.

Development of skills and abilities to apply knowledge in practice (most often - solving problems on new material);

Issuance of homework.

Extracurricular activities as a form of education were introduced in the late 60s - early 70s. in the process of another unsuccessful attempt to reform school education. These classes are designed to give a deeper study of the subject to everyone, although in practice, they are very often used to work with lagging students.

Excursions - a form of organization of training, in which educational work is carried out within the framework of direct acquaintance with the objects of study.

homework - a form of organization of learning, in which educational work is characterized by the absence of direct guidance from the teacher.

Extracurricular work: Olympiads, circles, etc., should contribute to the best development of individual abilities of students.
Teaching methods. The word "method" comes from the Greek methodos, which in literal translation into Russian means "the path of research, theory" and a way to achieve a goal or solve a specific problem.

Giving the definition of the method, didactic scientists focus on different aspects of this concept.

Yu. K. Babansky gave the following definition: "The teaching method is a method of ordered interconnected activities of the teacher and students, aimed at solving the problems of education"

Yes, according to N.V. Savina, "Teaching methods are ways of joint activity of the teacher and students aimed at solving learning problems."

T.A. Ilyin considers the teaching method as "a way of organizing the cognitive activity of students"

So, Teaching method- this is an ordered activity of the teacher and students, aimed at achieving a given learning goal. Teaching methods (didactic methods) are often understood as a set of ways, methods for achieving goals, solving educational problems.

Teaching methods:

1. Story

2. Conversation

3. Lecture

4. Educational discussion

5. Working with the book

6. Demo

7. Illustration

8. Video method

9. Exercise

10. Laboratory method

11. Practical method

12. Educational games

13. Learning control

14. Situational method

Techniques are distinguished in the structure of teaching methods.

Reception is an integral part or a separate side of the method. For example, in the method of organizing the work of students with a textbook and a book, the following techniques are distinguished: note-taking, drawing up a text plan, preparing abstracts, citing, annotating, reviewing, writing a dictionary of the topic covered, drawing up a schematic model of the text.

Individual techniques may be part of various methods.(So, the method of drawing up a schematic model can be an element of both the method of working with a textbook or book, when students make a model of the text they read, and an element of another method - the teacher's explanation of new material, when students make a schematic model (basic outline) of new lesson material).
One and the same method in some cases can act as an independent method, and in others - as a teaching method. For example, explanation is an independent teaching method. However, if it is only occasionally used by the teacher in the course of practical work to explain the causes of students' mistakes or to reveal the logic of solving a problem, then in this case the explanation acts only as a teaching technique that is part of the method of practical work.
Method and technique may be interchanged. For example, the teacher leads the presentation of new material by the method of explanation, during which, for greater clarity and better memorization, he draws the attention of students to the text or graphic material in the textbook. Such work with the textbook acts as a technique. If, however, the method of working with a textbook is used during the lesson, then an additional explanation by the teacher of a term no longer acts as a method, but only as a small additional technique.

Teaching aids (pedagogical aids) - all those materials with the help of which the teacher carries out a learning effect (learning process). The teaching aids include objects of material and spiritual culture, which are used in solving pedagogical problems. In the most general terms, these include:

activities: play, educational, labor;
pedagogical technique: speech, facial expressions, movement; facilities mass media, visual aids, works of art.

The teaching aids also include technical means learning, didactic materials etc.

In the traditional educational process, the means of teaching are:

printed editions: textbooks, teaching aids, directories; diskettes with educational information; whiteboards, posters; cinema - video films; teacher's word.

Technical teaching aids: educational electronic editions; computer teaching systems; audio, video educational materials and many others.

Classification of teaching methods- this is their system ordered according to a certain attribute.

By source of knowledge(traditional classification). The source of knowledge is taken as a common feature of the methods identified in it. Three such sources have long been known: practice, visibility . In the course of cultural progress, they were joined by another - book, and in recent decades - video combined with computer systems. This classification distinguishes five methods: practical (exercises, laboratory experiments, labor activities); visual (illustration, demonstration); verbal (story, conversation, lecture); work with the book; video method.

Classification of methods according to the type (nature) of cognitive activity. (I.Ya. Lerner, M.N. Skatkin).

Type of cognitive activity- this is the level of independence (tension) of cognitive activity that students achieve by working according to the training scheme proposed by the teacher. In this classification, the following methods are distinguished:

explanatory and illustrative(information-receptive) - ready-made knowledge, the teacher provides the perception of this knowledge, students fix the information in memory.
reproductive - knowledge in finished form, the teacher communicates and explains knowledge, students reproduce knowledge, repeated repetition.
problem statement- knowledge is acquired independently, the teacher poses a problem - children are looking for ways to solve it, based on the reasoning of students, strong knowledge about the subject appears;
partially - search (heuristic)- the problem is formulated, the teacher divides the problem into parts, and the students perform individual steps to solve it; the teacher manages the process, the knowledge gained is strong;
research- search activity of students to solve the problem, creative assimilation of knowledge, labor- and time-consuming.

If, for example, cognitive activity organized by a teacher leads only to memorization of ready-made knowledge and their subsequent unmistakable reproduction, which may be unconscious, then there is a rather low level of mental activity and the corresponding reproductive method of teaching. At a higher level of tension in the thinking of students, when knowledge is obtained as a result of their own creative cognitive work, there is a heuristic or even higher - a research method of teaching.

Classification of methods according to Yu.K. Babansky. He divided the whole variety of teaching methods into three main groups:

a) methods of organizing and implementing educational and cognitive activities: verbal, practical, visual, training, instruction.

b) methods of stimulation and motivation of educational and cognitive activity: presentation of educational requirements ( educational games, textbook, discussions);

c) methods of control and self-control over the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activity.

3. Criteria for choosing teaching methods.

The following regularity was established in didactics. The more aspects the choice of teaching methods was justified by the teacher (in perceptual, gnostic, logical, motivational, control and evaluation, etc.), the higher and more durable educational results will be achieved in the learning process, and in less time.

The main criterion for choosing a teaching method is its pedagogical effectiveness, i.e. the quantity and quality of acquired knowledge, which must be assessed taking into account the efforts, funds and time spent by the teacher and students.

The choice of teaching method also depends on the characteristics of the teacher himself as a specialist, scientist and teacher. Since there is no universal optimal method that could be used always and everywhere, each teacher independently chooses a teaching method, determines the specific area of its application. How better teacher knows his discipline, knows the pedagogical and psychological patterns of the learning process, the more likely he is to choose the most pedagogically effective teaching method.

When choosing and combining teaching methods, it is necessary to be guided by the following criteria:

× Compliance of methods with the principles of teaching.

× Compliance with the goals and objectives of training.

× Correspondence to the content of this topic.

× Compliance with learning opportunities for trainees: age, psychological; the level of preparedness (education, upbringing and development).

× Compliance with the existing conditions and the allotted training time.

× Compliance with the capabilities of assistive learning tools.

× Compliance with the capabilities of the teachers themselves.

These opportunities are determined by their previous experience, the level of perseverance, the specific features of the dominance of power, pedagogical abilities, as well as the personal qualities of teachers.

The essence and content of the main teaching methods.

1. Verbal methods. Verbal methods occupy a leading place in the system of teaching methods. There were periods when they were almost the only way to transfer knowledge. Progressive teachers (J.A. Komensky, K.D. Ushinsky and others) opposed the absolutization of their meaning, proved the need to supplement them with visual and practical methods. Currently, they are often called outdated, “inactive”. This group of methods must be approached objectively. Verbal methods make it possible to convey a large amount of information in the shortest possible time, pose problems for students and indicate ways to solve them. With the help of the word, the teacher can bring into the minds of children vivid pictures of the past, present and future of mankind. The word activates the imagination, memory, feelings of students.

Verbal methods are divided into the following kinds: story, explanation, conversation, discussion, lecture, work with a book.

1.1. Story. The storytelling method involves an oral narrative presentation of the content of the educational material. This method is applied at all stages of schooling. Only the nature of the story, its volume, duration changes.

According to the goals, several types of story are distinguished: story-introduction, story-exposition, story-conclusion. The purpose of the first is to prepare students for the perception of new educational material, which can be carried out by other methods, for example, by conversation. This type of story is characterized by relative brevity, brightness, emotionality of presentation, which makes it possible to arouse interest in a new topic, arouse the need for its active assimilation.

During such a story, the tasks of the activity are communicated in an accessible form.

students.

During the story-presentation, the teacher reveals the content of the new topic, carries out the presentation according to a certain logically developing plan, in a clear sequence, highlighting the main, essential, using illustrations and convincing examples. The story-conclusion is usually held at the end of the lesson. The teacher in it summarizes the main thoughts, draws conclusions and generalizations, gives assignments for further independent work on this topic.

During the application of the storytelling method, such methodological techniques, as: presentation of information, activation of attention, methods of accelerating memorization (mnemonic, associative), logical methods of comparison, comparison, highlighting the main, summarizing.

To the story, as a method of presenting new knowledge, a number of pedagogical requirements are usually presented:

The story should provide the ideological and moral orientation of teaching;

Include a sufficient number of vivid and convincing examples, facts proving the correctness of the put forward provisions;

Have a clear logic of presentation;

Be emotional;

Expressed in simple and accessible language;

Reflect the elements of personal assessment and the attitude of the teacher to the stated facts and events.

1.2. Explanation. An explanation should be understood as a verbal interpretation of regularities, essential properties of the object under study, individual concepts, phenomena.

Using the explain method requires:

Accurate and clear formulation of the task, the essence of the problem, the question;

Consistent disclosure of cause-and-effect relationships, argumentation and evidence;

Use of comparison, comparison, analogy;

Engaging vivid examples;

Impeccable logic of presentation.
Explanation as a teaching method is widely used in working with children of different age groups. However, in middle and senior school age, due to the complication of educational material and the increasing intellectual capabilities of students, the use of this method becomes more necessary than in working with younger students.
1.3. Conversation. Conversation (dialogical teaching method, in which the teacher, by setting a carefully thought-out system of questions, leads students to understand new material or checks their assimilation of what they have already studied.

The conversation is one of the oldest methods of didactic work. It was skillfully used by Socrates, on whose behalf the concept of “Socratic conversation” originated.

Depending on the specific tasks, the content of the educational material, the level of creative cognitive activity of students, the place of conversation in the didactic process, there are different types of conversations.

Heuristic conversation is widespread (from the word “eureka” (I find, open). During a heuristic conversation, the teacher, relying on the knowledge and practical experience that students have, leads them to understand and assimilate new knowledge, formulate rules and conclusions. To communicate new knowledge, communication conversations are used.If the conversation precedes the study of new material, it is called introductory or introductory.The purpose of such a conversation is to induce a state of readiness in students to learn new things.Reinforcing conversations are used after learning new material.During the conversation, questions can be addressed to one student (individual conversation) or students of the whole class (frontal conversation).One of the types of conversation is an interview.It can be conducted both with the class as a whole and with separate groups of students.It is especially useful to organize an interview in high school, when students show more independence in judgments, can pose problems questions, to express their opinion on certain topics put by the teacher for discussion. The success of the interviews largely depends on the correctness of the questions. Questions are asked by the teacher to the whole class so that all students prepare for the answer. Questions should be short, clear, meaningful, formulated in such a way as to awaken the student's thought. You should not put double, prompting questions or leading to guessing the answer. You should not formulate alternative questions that require unambiguous answers such as “yes” or “no”. In general, the conversation method has the following advantages:

Activates students;

Develops their memory and speech;

Makes students' knowledge open;

Has great educational power;

It is a good diagnostic tool.

Disadvantages of the conversation method:

Requires a lot of time;

Contains an element of risk (a student may give an incorrect answer, which is perceived by other students and recorded in their memory);

A store of knowledge is needed.
Discussion. Discussion as a teaching method is based on the exchange of views on a particular issue, and these views reflect the participants' own opinions or are based on the opinions of others. This method is advisable to use when students have a significant degree of maturity and independence of thinking, are able to argue, prove and substantiate their point of view. A well-conducted discussion has a great educational and educational value: it teaches a deeper understanding of the problem, the ability to defend one's position, and take into account the opinions of others.
Lecture. Lecture (a monologic way of presenting voluminous material.)

It is used, as a rule, in high school and takes up the entire or almost the entire lesson. The advantage of the lecture is the ability to ensure the completeness and integrity of the students' perception of the educational material in its logical mediations and relationships on the topic as a whole. The relevance of the use of lectures in modern conditions is increasing due to the use of block study of new educational material on topics or large sections.

A school lecture can also be used when repeating the material covered. Such lectures are called review lectures. They are held on one or more topics to summarize and systematize the studied material. Application of the lecture as a teaching method in conditions modern school allows you to significantly enhance the cognitive activity of students, involve them in an independent search for additional scientific information to solve problematic educational and cognitive tasks, perform thematic tasks, conduct independent experiments and experiments bordering on research activities. This explains the fact that in the senior classes the proportion of lectures has recently begun to increase.

Work with textbook and book is the most important teaching method. IN primary school work with the book is carried out mainly in the classroom under the guidance of a teacher. In the future, students are increasingly learning to work with the book on their own. There are a number of techniques for independent work with printed sources. The main ones are:

- note-taking - summary, a summary of what was read. Note-taking is conducted from the first (from oneself) or from the third person. Taking notes in the first person develops independent thinking better.

- Drafting a text plan. The plan can be simple or complex. For

drawing up a plan, after reading the text, it is necessary to break it into parts and

title each section.

- Thesis- a summary of the main ideas read.

- Citation- verbatim excerpt from the text. Be sure to indicate the imprint (author, title of work, place of publication, publisher, year of publication, page).

- Annotation- a summary of what was read

without losing essential meaning.

- Peer review- write a short review expressing your attitude about what you have read.

- Drawing up a certificate- information about something received after

searches. References are static, biographical, terminological, geographical, etc.

- Drawing up a formal-logical model(verbal-schematic representation of what was read).

- Compilation of a thematic thesaurus(an ordered complex of basic concepts by section, topic).

- Drawing up a matrix of ideas(comparative characteristics of homogeneous objects, phenomena in the works of different authors.

These are brief characteristics of the main types of verbal teaching methods. The second group according to this classification is visual teaching methods.

2. Visual methods. Visual teaching methods are understood as such methods in which the assimilation of educational material is significantly dependent on the visual aids and technical means used in the learning process. Visual methods are used in conjunction with verbal and practical teaching methods. Visual teaching methods can be conditionally divided into two large groups: the method of illustrations and the method of demonstrations.
illustration method involves showing students illustrative aids: posters, tables, pictures, maps, sketches on the board, etc. Demo Method usually associated with a demonstration of instruments, experiments, technical installations, films, filmstrips, etc. Such a division of visual aids into illustrative and demonstration ones is conditional. It does not exclude the possibility of classifying individual visual aids as both illustrative and demonstrative. (For example, showing illustrations through an epidiascope or overhead scope). The introduction of new technical means in the educational process (television, video recorders, computers) expands the possibilities of visual teaching methods.

When using visual teaching methods, it is necessary to observe a number of conditions :

a) the visualization used must be appropriate for the age of the students;

b) visibility should be used in moderation and should be shown

gradually and only at the appropriate moment of the lesson;

c) observation should be organized in such a way that all

students could clearly see the demonstrated object;

d) it is necessary to clearly highlight the main, essential when showing

illustrations;

e) think in detail about the explanations given during the demonstration

e) the displayed visibility must be exactly consistent with

g) involve the students themselves in finding the desired information in

visual aid or demonstration device.
3. Practical methods. Practical teaching methods are based on the practical activities of students. These methods form practical skills and abilities. Practices include exercises, laboratory and practical work.

Exercises . Exercises are understood as repeated (multiple) performance of a mental or practical action in order to master it or improve its quality. Exercises are used in the study of all subjects and at various stages of the educational process. The nature and methodology of the exercises depends on the characteristics of the subject, the specific material, the issue under study and the age of the students. Exercises by their nature are divided into oral, written, graphic and educational and labor. When performing each of them, students perform mental and practical work.

According to the degree of independence students when performing exercises distinguish:

a) exercises to reproduce the known in order to consolidate (reproducing exercises);

b) exercises on the application of knowledge in new conditions (training exercises);

If, when performing actions, the student speaks to himself or aloud, comments on upcoming operations, such exercises are called

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Introduction

1. Characteristics of active learning methods

2. Methods of problem-based learning

3. Interactive learning methods

4. Methods of "practical modeling" in the process of enhancing the mental activity of students

Introduction

The organization of training from the point of view of reproducing the acquired knowledge, which is currently prevailing in the teaching practice of secondary specialized educational institutions, constantly gravitates towards a methodology that reduces the preparation of a specialist to memorizing the knowledge that makes up the content of the academic discipline.

Such a technique is poorly oriented towards the development of his personality, capable of not only assimilating ready-made knowledge, but also creatively processing it.

With such an organization of the educational process, the activity of the student, i.e. actually educational activity is reduced to the process of mastering disciplinary knowledge. Indeed, there is a clear simplification of educational activity, reducing it to the student obtaining ready-made knowledge in the disciplines studied.

However, simplification does not make the very assimilation of sciences simple and accessible. On the contrary, such a technique complicates true assimilation, forcing the student to engage in something unnatural for a creative person - memorization, cramming "disciplinary knowledge" that is memorized in each discipline separately without a visible connection with each other and often without connection with the future profession. As for the development of the creative side of the personality, such training has a rather negative effect on it.

Ultimately, the type of organization of learning that prevails in the practice of secondary educational institutions implies the accumulation of a sum of knowledge supposedly sufficient for future activities from all academic disciplines that make up the total intellectual basis of the profession.

Thus, it is knowledge that is meant as the main result of learning, and not a person who is able to create, create new knowledge in his professional field, constantly learning in the process of activity on his own. It is clear that such an organization of learning needs to be reoriented: from its focus on memorizing ready-made knowledge, it is necessary to move on to the formation of personal new formations, the ability to learn creatively, processing scientific knowledge and social experience in relation to the needs of practice.

If so, then self-study, the teaching of academic disciplines should be based on methodological principle deIdimensional approach, in the implementation of which it is not the teacher who teaches, but the student himself learns in the process of his own activity.

The more active the cognitive activity of the student, the higher the efficiency of assimilation.

The role of the teacher in these conditions turns into the role of the organizer of the student's learning activities, and not the person who literally teaches him, transferring his knowledge in the course of teaching.

The teacher organizes the student's learning activity in such a way that he does not passively perceive and absorb the text of the educational material or the words of the teacher, but actively thinks, extracting the necessary scientific information from both sources.

Therefore, the teacher is the organizer of the student's educational activities both at the lecture, and in the process of independent work, and at practical and laboratory classes. Thanks to such an organization, the student acts not as a passive consumer of information, but as an active "getter" and producer of it.

Teaching methods that provide such learning activities are called active learning methods. “Active learning methods are those methods thatabout which allow organizing learning as a productive creative activity associated with the achievement of a socially valuable product in conditions of both joint and nindividual learning activities" -

Research problem: will be determined by the need to use active learning methods in the practice of training specialists and the insufficient development of their organizational support in the process of teaching in secondary schools.

This work puts purpose reveal the features of various active teaching methods in the learning process in secondary schools.

Research objectives:

1. Define and characterize the main methods of active learning.

2. Reflect the specifics of their application in the learning process in the secondary school.

Teaching methods: analysis of pedagogical literature on the problem under study, observation, analysis of pedagogical experience.

1. Characteristics of active learning methods

First of all, it is necessary to consider the classification of active methods from the point of view of psychology. They can be divided into the following groups of methods, the most interesting for use in the learning process. These methods are: problem-based learning and interactive (communicative) learning, practical modeling.

Let us briefly consider them in the psychological and pedagogical aspect in order to understand what explains their effectiveness in the formation of various types of thinking and thus in ensuring high learning outcomes.

2. Methods of problem-based learning

The quality of a student's learning activity is often assessed mainly by the presence of knowledge in his memory. And what is the degree of genuine assimilation of this knowledge by students, that is, the ability to apply them creatively in their daily activities? In most cases, this most important aspect of the matter is left for future practice: when life demands, then, they say, the graduate will show his ability to apply the acquired knowledge. During the study, only the degree of memorization is checked. This is mainly due to the inability to correlate theoretical knowledge and practical skills of students.

Meanwhile, the ability to apply the studied theory in practice is a necessary professional skill that should be formed in students in the process of development and learning.

In the field of education, thinking underlying cognitive activity acts as a process based on the need to have knowledge about the laws and patterns of the development of the world in order to use this knowledge for correct orientation in this world, for correct practical actions.

It is best to trace the connection between the student's learning and the functioning of his thinking through problem-based learning, which, unlike the so-called traditional (reporting, narrating, informing), constantly puts the student in a situation of a problem, the solution of which necessarily requires the work of thinking.

Putting a student in a problem situation is the creation of an intellectual difficulty for him, which he can cope with only with the help of thinking.

What opportunities for the development of students' thinking are contained in problem-based learning?

According to the research of the famous psychologist A.M. Matyushkin, in problem-based learning, the majority of students (more than 70%) cope with tasks of the highest, fifth level of difficulty (the tasks were divided into five levels of difficulty), and in traditional learning, only the most capable students (about 15% of the subjects) .

What makes problem-based learning more effective?

In the analysis of experimental data of foreign (A.I. Gebos, L. Sekeya) and domestic psychologists (AM Matyushkin, T.V. Kudryavtsev) and teachers (I.Ya. Lerner, N.G. Dairy, M.I. Makhmutov) It was concluded that the reasons for the higher efficiency of problem-based learning are, firstly, the greater intellectual activity of the student, caused by a cognitive need - the desire to find the desired unknown at all costs, without which he will not be able to solve the problem.

Secondly, knowledge is assimilated as certain general patterns or methods of action that allow them to be used in the future in solving a wide class of other problems, and not as an illustration of a particular case related to the pattern being studied, which, in traditional teaching, is usually reported to students in finished form.

How are the theoretical principles of the psychology of problem-based learning implemented in the methodological plan, that is, how are problem situations created for the student so that he has a need to solve an intellectual problem, a desire to think?

To get an answer to this question, it is necessary to familiarize yourself with such basic pedagogical concepts as a problematic task, a problematic question, a problematic task, problematicity as a principle of learning.

problem task is a didactic concept denoting an educational problem with clear conditions set by a teacher (lecturer) or identified and formulated by one of the trainees (students), and therefore received a limited search field (in contrast to a life problem that objectively arises before a person) and which became available for solution by all trainees (students).

problem question- this is a part of a problematic task or a separate educational question (question-problem), requiring an answer to it through thinking. The question that requires reproduction from memory is not a problem.

problematicthe task- this is an educational task compiled by a teacher, methodologist, author of a textbook in the form of a problematic task or a problematic issue (question-problem) in order to put trainees (students) in a problem situation.

Problematic as a principle of learning- this is a didactic principle that is just beginning to assert itself in the practical methodology of teaching (it is not yet in the theory of pedagogy). Its essence is as follows: when organizing the learning process, the content of the educational material is not presented to the trainees in a form ready for memorization, but is given as part of a problematic task as an unknown desired one. It can become known and assimilated by trainees only as a result of their own search mental activity to solve a problematic problem.

Thus, problematicity as a principle of learning not only requires (precisely - requires) to organize the content of acquired knowledge in a special way, but also dictates a special method of its assimilation - through the student's mental actions to search for this content.

3 . Interactive learning methods

Interactive is such training, which is based on the psychology of human relationships and interactions. In the activities of the teacher, the central place is occupied not by an individual student as an individual, but by a group of interacting students who, while discussing issues, argue and agree among themselves, stimulate and activate each other. When using interactive methods, the strongest influence on intellectual activity is the spirit of competition, rivalry, competitiveness, which manifests itself when people collectively seek the truth. In addition, there is such a psychological phenomenon as infection (not imitation, namely infection), and any thought expressed by a neighbor can involuntarily evoke its own, similar or close to the one expressed, or, conversely, completely opposite.

During such a lesson, much more activity and creativity is required from the teacher than when it takes place passively, in the form of a retelling of truths read in books or long known. Interactive methods will bring the greatest effect, not only teaching, but also educational, when the teacher will influence the discussion not only by expressing a scientifically reasoned point of view, but also by expressing his personal attitude to the problem, his worldview and moral position. The forms of participation of the teacher in the discussion of students can be very diverse, but in no case should they impose their opinion. The best way to do this is through finely calculated management of the course of discussions, through the posing of problematic issues that require productive thinking, a creative search for truth. The teacher expresses his point of view only in the order of drawing conclusions from the statements of students and a reasoned refutation of erroneous judgments. His position may coincide with the opinions of students, since they appeared as a result of leading questions from the teacher. Such techniques can not only direct the content, intellectual and cognitive side of the discussion of theoretical issues, but also design joint productive activities, thereby influencing the personal position of students, turning their learning activities into teaching and educational.

Thus, with interactive teaching methods, the joint learning activity of students, thanks to the participation of the teacher himself in discussions with them, as if on an equal footing, turns into a certain model of social communication of individuals in real creative (productive) activity, and not just an interaction of activities (teaching and learning). ). "Personal components of educational interactions in the course of joint learning activities, and not the knowledge acquired by students themselves, have a direct impact on their inner world and are the main carriers of the educational function of the educational situation" .

Interactive learning methods include the following:

1) heuristic conversation,

2) the method of discussion,

3) "brainstorming",

4) the "round table" method,

5) the "business game" method and some others used by individual teachers - enthusiasts of active teaching methods.

Let's briefly consider each of them.

Heuristic conversation. The method got its name from the teaching method “heuristics” dating back to Socrates (gr. - I find, open, search). The method in its ancient Greek version was a system of teaching based on the so-called Socratic conversations. In them, by skillfully formulated leading questions and examples, they encouraged the student to come to an independent correct answer to the question posed.

In this context, we are talking about a teaching method that is different from Socratic, but, of course, similar to it in one essential characteristic - the function of obtaining answers from students through the activation of their thinking through skillfully posed questions. By its psychological nature, heuristic conversation is collective thinking or conversation as a search for an answer to a problem. Therefore, in pedagogy, this method is considered to be a method of problem-based learning, along with the so-called problem-search conversation, from which heuristic conversation is psychologically no different. Pedagogy draws a formal-quantitative boundary between them: if in a heuristic conversation it is supposedly possible to touch on only one element of a topic, then in a problem-search conversation, a whole series of problem situations. However, this distinction does not stand up to scrutiny, because in practice, when the conversation really unfolds in the classroom, this invisible border between “only one” and “a whole series” of problems cannot be noticed: the conversation between the teacher and the audience turns into a conversation on many issues, related to the topic, that is, imperceptibly passes into the discussion. But this is a different method of learning, about which a little later.

It is necessary to pay attention to why heuristic conversation is not considered among the methods of problem-based learning, although it is based on a mental search for a solution to an educational problem. If in a conversation a mental search turns into a collective search, where there is an exchange of opinions, conjectures, assumptions, various options for intermediate solutions, when students seek the truth in interaction and mutual assistance, activating each other's thinking. That is why it is logical to consider it as a method of interactive learning.

The formulation of questions for the development of a conversation in a heuristic manner is subject to the same conditions that are observed when using problem-based learning methods. And the process of a detailed heuristic conversation, caused by a problematic situation, is nothing more than the implementation of one of the methods of interactive learning, which requires a special art of management from the teacher.

Discussion method is an overflowing heuristic conversation, or rather, a specially programmed free discussion of the theoretical issues of the curriculum, which usually begins with a question and unfolds at first as a heuristic conversation. The fact that it gradually turns into a discussion is the normal course of the lesson.

The discussion method is used in group forms of classes at discussion seminars, workshops, interviews to discuss the results (or progress and methods) of completing assignments in practical and laboratory classes, when students need to speak out. Sometimes lectures-discussions are also practiced, when the lecturer, in the course of presenting the material, addresses the audience with separate questions that require short and quick answers. A discussion in the full sense cannot unfold at a lecture, but a debatable question that prompted several different answers from the audience at once, without leading to the choice of the final, most correct one (since there was no discussion), already creates a psychological atmosphere of collective reflection and a willingness to listen carefully to reasoning lecturer answering this discussion question.

Brainstorming method as a teaching method has not yet managed to take root in the practice of university teaching. The very name of the method was born in the management system, as well as in the field of scientific research. It is especially widely used in economic management activities, management. What is the essence of the brainstorming method in its original sense, regardless of learning? It consists in finding the answer of specialists to a complex problem through intensive expressions of all kinds of ideas that come to mind, conjectures, assumptions, random analogies, as well as necessary and unnecessary associations spontaneously arising from those present. Then, from all this conglomerate of voiced opinions, random remarks, even abstract exclamation words, through careful analysis, the ideas that are most interesting in terms of their proximity and the intention of the organizer of the brainstorm are selected and used for further in-depth discussion on the merits of the issue. The golden rule of brainstorming is not to question or criticize anything said by the participants in the conversation, but to ensure complete freedom of expression of any ideas, even the absurd ones. Such psychological freedom allows you to behave uninhibitedly, not to be shy about “stupid thoughts”, not to be afraid to put yourself in an awkward position with an unsuccessful remark, to seem like a ridiculous fool, and so on. In such an environment, there is (especially when the participants get used to it) really intense "fermentation of minds", the most incredible, truly crazy ideas are born, many of which, however, are no good (at least for solving this problem), but suddenly there is what you need. This is what brainstorming is for. But this is used to find a good solution in management, scientific research.

And how can this rather original method be used in secondary school? It must be said that the range of possibilities for its use in teaching is still extremely narrow, but the brainstorming method can be used when the goal is to convince students of the difficulty of solving some problem.

The round table method was borrowed by pedagogy from the field of politics and science. "Round tables" are usually organized to discuss some problem by representatives of different political and scientific directions. The exchange of views allows you to find some common ground so that in future work they can serve as a starting point for finding common conclusions - obtaining scientific truth or achieving political stability in society.

In teaching, the round table method is used to increase the efficiency of assimilation of theoretical problems by considering them in different scientific aspects, with the participation of specialists of various profiles, and so on. heuristic interactive training workshop

Business game method initially appeared not in the education system, but in the practical sphere of management. Now business games are used in the most various fields practices: in research work, in the process of design development, in the collective development of solutions in real production situations, as well as in military affairs. By the way, the prototype of the modern "business game" as a method of training is just military games, practiced since ancient times to train troops not in real situations of combat and war, but in situations of military games that simulate the conditions of battle, combat operations. Games in military affairs are "business games" where the commander is taught to manage troops, and the soldier is taught to manage himself in intense combat conditions.

In the professional training of specialists of various profiles, the business game is most often used to teach management activities.

The essence of the business game method as a teaching method lies in the educational modeling of situations of the activity that students are to be taught in order to teach future students on models, and not on real objects.

4. Methods of "practical modeling" in the process of enhancing the mental activity of students

As you know, the word "model" comes from the Latin word "modus", which means image, measure, method. The researchers note that the model acts as an intermediate link through which the practical and theoretical development of the object is mediated. Consideration of the main forms of development and stages of using models leads to general conclusion that in modern scientific knowledge there is a tendency to generalize the information contained in the term "model". Thus, the scope is constantly expanding and the variety of its forms is growing while maintaining a certain, unified common basis for all types and types of models.

In a number of works by foreign authors, the possibility of a general definition of the model is denied; having described the functions of the models, it is possible to determine how to use the model, but it is impossible to determine what the model is. Some explain this phenomenon by the fact that each phenomenon has an innumerable number of analogues, but only some of them that satisfy a number of requirements can be considered models. The main and most general requirement is the significant similarity and non-significance of the difference between the model and the original in terms of a specific cognitive task.

V.A. Stoff understands a model as a mentally represented or materially realizable system that, reflecting or reproducing the object of study, is able to replace it in such a way that its study gives us new information about this object.

In this definition, R.V. Gabdreev included four features:

a model is a mentally represented or materially realized system;

it reproduces or reflects the object of study;

it is capable of replacing the object;

its study provides new information about the object.

I.B. Novik, A.I. Uyomov explain modeling as the study of objects of educational and scientific knowledge on their models.

The learning process will be more effective if methods are used that will develop students' research skills and prepare them for independent creative work.

The side of the modeling method, concerning the learning activity of teaching, is analyzed in the works of S.I. Arkhangelsk. He considers models of scientific search and the educational process, which act as visually expressed and mentally represented starting systems of scientific and pedagogical search.

One of the most important requirements for the model, as V.T. Kuzdryavtsev, - its reproducibility - is carried out in the following way: the pedagogical system in a pedagogical college, which contributes to the formation of features contained in the optimal model of a professional's activity, performs the functions of teaching the basics of professional skills.

In reality, a variety of elements are subjected to modeling, which, in general, could represent almost the entire system of secondary specialized education: curricula, programs, educational activities of students, the activities of teachers, the personality and psychological qualities of specialists, their knowledge, skills, and the work of specialists in in general.

With the help of modeling, it is possible to obtain such information about the object under study that could not be obtained using other methods. The modeling process itself is especially valuable for the student, since the creation of a model contributes to the development of his creative activity.

It is well known that any work can be made attractive and interesting if there is an element of creativity in it. Of course, at the same time, the process of creativity must be understood broadly, it manifests itself in a person in any activity: these are ways of comprehending and processing educational material, methods of mental activity, the nature of the implementation of knowledge in certain production situations, that is, ways to solve professional tasks.

The whole life of a person, his labor activity is the solution of the tasks set before him by life, the process of labor, study. It is no coincidence that many scientists paid great attention to learning tasks and emphasized the role of tasks not so much in consolidating knowledge as in shaping the research style of mental activity.

Problem solving ensures the formation of skills to apply knowledge in new conditions and contributes to the most active accumulation and assimilation of knowledge. AND I. Lerner writes, "Cognitive tasks are intended only to supplement existing teaching aids and should be in an appropriate combination with all traditional means and elements of the educational process."

A.A. Golikov, Yu.N. Kushelev believe that with a skillful combination of various forms, methods of teaching, their complex application, conditions are created for the active assimilation of knowledge, the development of students' creative activity (18).

It is noted that setting goals is a necessary condition for the development of students' creative activity. Psychology asserts that any mental activity is a solution to a problem. In any task there is a question, the answer to which is not immediately found, you have to look for it yourself. Numerous studies conducted by psychologists and didactics have shown that the solution of search problems contributes to the development of creative activity and, therefore, the use of cognitive and practical tasks should take place not only in mathematics, physics, chemistry, but also in teaching humanities.

Psychological aspects of the application of tasks in teaching were studied by N.A. Menchinskaya, A.F. Esaulov. A.F. Esaulov believes that until recently there is almost no generalized and generally accepted definition of the very concept of “task”.

In the literature devoted to tasks, signs, tasks, its types, individual methods of solving are considered, a different meaning is put into the definition of the very concept of “task”. An interesting approach to this issue is available from the English scientist W.R. Reitman, who defines a problem as a system that has or is given a description of something, but it does not have anything that would satisfy this description.

Clarifying this definition, A.F. Esaulov notes that the task is an inconsistent or even contradictory ratio that causes the need for their transformation. The essence of the solution lies precisely in the search for overcoming the ways of such inconsistency, which for a whole class of problems can reach a pronounced contradiction. Here, the signs characteristic of the tasks are noted. With regard to the educational process, the following wording is appropriate: a task- this is a system that informs about a phenomenon, object, process, in which either only part of the information is clearly defined, and the rest is unknown, it can be found only on the basis of solving the problem, or the information is formulated in such a way that between individual concepts, provisions there are inconsistencies, contradictions that require the search for new knowledge, proof, transformation, agreement.

That definition draws attention to the fact that:

1) the constituent elements of the task are the given, the desired (unknown), the question (condition, requirement);

2) the most important sign of cognitive tasks is the presence of inconsistency, contradiction.

M.I. Makhmutov notes that the task is an objective phenomenon and turns into a subjective one only after the student realizes and perceives it. In this process, the student, relying on what he knows, conducts a further search and assimilation of new knowledge, methods and means of solving the problem. The task stimulates the thinking of students, brings their learning activities closer to scientific research, to a certain extent introduces them to the stages, methods, means of scientific knowledge and, of course, prepares students for their future practical activities.

It is well known that a student can often present the material he has read, but is not able to apply it in his work. To prevent such situations and organizations of active cognitive activity, various tasks are very useful, the process of solving which is characterized by high mental stress, independent search, evidence, and reasoning.

Solving problems maximally mobilizes and develops such mental operations as analysis and synthesis, abstraction, comparison, concretization, generalization, teaches students the correct application of these operations in their cognitive activity. This process brings emotional revival to the lesson, increases interest in this discipline.

However, the role and importance of tasks should not be overestimated. Problem solving gives positive results only when it is used in combination with other methods and means and when the teacher methodically correctly determines the place of the problem in the educational process.

L.G. Semushina, B.R. Borschanskaya, N.S. Podlesskaya believe that tasks can play a different role in learning. They are used for the purpose of: 1) more evidentiary explanation in the classroom of certain theoretical positions; 2) effective organization of the application of knowledge in practice and demonstration of the practical significance of theoretical provisions; 3) repetition, reproduction and consolidation of knowledge; 4) control and self-control of knowledge, skills; 5) formation of skills for the creative use of knowledge in new conditions; 6) organization of purposeful preparation of students for the next lecture, seminars, practical and other classes.

The tasks can be used at lectures, seminars, practical classes, consultations, during educational and industrial practice, and so on.

The use of cognitive tasks in the educational process requires taking into account the following features: 1) tasks in these disciplines were not used in secondary school, therefore school graduates are not prepared to solve such problems and the methods of solving them by university didactics have not been developed, students should be taught to solve problems; 2) tasks in social and humanitarian disciplines have their own specifics, which reflect the features, nature of social phenomena, features of the humanities.

A special type of organization of collective, cognitive activity is business educational games . The origins of the business game can be traced back to the magical rites of the ancients. The military game, which originated in the 17th century, can be considered the direct predecessor of the business game. The first business game, called the organizational and production test, was developed and carried out in Leningrad in 1932 by M.M. Birstein. However, for a number of reasons, the business game did not receive serious development and application at that time and was revived in the USA only in 1957, where it was carried out using a computer. Today, business games have become an integral part of most curricula and training programs (24).

Some define the game as a biological, historical, social phenomenon. The sphere of gaming activity covers large expanses of the material and ideal world: the real and the abstract, the known and the unknown, the simple and the complex, the past, the present and even the future.

A.V. Petrovsky notes that in our country, business games became an object of research and development in the 60s, and are currently being intensively used in many pedagogical colleges. Interest in them is due to those opportunities to achieve the goals of education and upbringing that cannot be provided by other, traditional or new forms and methods of education.

The specific features of socio-economic systems allow different approaches to the formation of simulation methods of active learning. One of them is method of analysis of specific situations. It is traditionally believed that the method of specific situations is that the teacher organizes problem situations when students solve a number of specific scientific, industrial, managerial and other tasks. In essence, the method of specific situations is a problematic presentation of knowledge with the subsequent organization of independent cognitive activity of students.

A requirement in learning is the collective adoption of a managerial decision in a given situation.

V.Ya. To intensify the lesson, Platov advises to form several competing groups, each of which develops its own version of the solution and then condemns them. During the discussion, it is also possible to organize a preliminary review, and public defense of decisions, and other ways to create and maintain the emotional tension of students.

Sometimes there are two most interesting methods of case analysis : the method of incident and the method of acting out the situation in roles. In the first case, “micro-situations”, service incidents, instructive stories are analyzed, in which the teacher succinctly sets out the essence of the problem, the conditions for its occurrence and attracts students to resolve it. Usually, these are illustrative examples from life, which are quickly absorbed by students and, as a rule, they improvise well in exams.

The use of the method of analysis of specific situations in the educational process allows the trainees to form the skills and abilities to solve professional problems. The effectiveness of a manager's work depends on the ability to manage people.

Accordingly, there is a need for teaching methods. Such methods are role-playing and simulation games.

In "role-playing" students perform their future duties. The difference is that students, playing the "main characters", make their own decisions. In such dramatizations, they have the opportunity to observe the reaction of their comrades to their words, deeds, and behavior. This method is aimed more at developing the skills of behavior in a team, the ability to analyze the nature of interpersonal relationships.

V.Ya. Platov notes that the main difference between simulation games and role-playing games is the absence of a model of the socio-economic environment; the work of specific executives and specialists is not modeled. The only thing left is the model of the environment. These games imitate some economic, legal, socio-psychological and other principles that determine the behavior of people and their interaction.

V.Ya. Platov highlights organizational and activity andGry, the leadership of which is usually represented by specialists from various fields, carrying different functions in the game. The task of the head of the researcher is to obtain a solution to the problem. The task of the leader - the organizer of the game - is to ensure the collective activity of the participants and their interpersonal and intergroup communication at all stages of solving the problem.

A.V. Petrovsky gives the following definition of a business game: “A business game is a form of recreating the subject and social content of a future professional activity. bness of a specialist, modeling those systems of relations, toaboutwhich are characteristic of this activity as a whole" (24).

In a business game, the characteristic features of the method of analyzing specific situations and role-playing games are synthesized. This makes it the most effective of the active learning methods, but also the most time-consuming to develop.

The first thing that distinguishes a business game from other methods of active learning is that its basis can only be a model of the socio-economic system as a whole, and not its individual elements.

The second fundamental difference is that in a business game the system being modeled is considered as dynamic. In the game, this manifests itself in the form of the so-called "chain of decisions". Based on the information received, the players develop a decision on the next control cycle that affects the object, and so on. In the intervals between the impacts of management decisions on the object, business communication and joint activities of the game participants are carried out. Thus, the presence of a "chain of decisions" is special, distinguishing the business game from all active learning methods (2).

In a business game, only the most typical, generalized professional situations are reproduced on a compressed time scale. The problems of modeling as a way of studying various objects of nature and society are now very widespread in science.

It is well known that modeling is widely used in scientific research. However, this method does not find such a wide and systematic application in teaching students. Modeling in combination with other methods makes it possible to give students more complete knowledge, provides a high scientific level and the creative nature of training specialists. Unfortunately, this method has not been sufficiently studied and the experience of its application has not been generalized. In addition, it requires a special experimental study.

List of used literature

1. Badmaev B. Ts. Methods of teaching psychology: Teaching method. allowance for teachers. and graduate students. M.: Tumanit, publishing house. center VLADOS, 1999.

2. Bashmakov M.I., Pozdnyakov S.P., Reznik N.A. Designing information environments // School technologies. - No. 5. -M., 2000.

3. Bespalko V.P., Tatur Yu.G. Systematic and methodological support of the educational process of training specialists: Textbook-method. allowance. -M.: Higher. school, 1989.

4. Bespalko. P. Programmed learning (didactic foundations). - M.: Higher. school, 1970.

5. Badmaev B. Ts. Psychology in the work of a teacher: In 2 books. M.: Tumanit, publishing house. center VLADOS, 2000.

6. Galperin P.Ya. To the doctrine of internalization // Introduction to psychology. -M., 1999.

7. Galperin P. Ya. Development of research on the formation of mental actions // Introduction to psychology. -M., 1999.

8. Galperin P.Ya. Psychology of thinking and the doctrine of the phased formation of mental actions // Introduction to psychology. -M., 1999.

9. Galperin P. Ya. Organization of mental activity and

the effectiveness of teaching // Introduction to psychology. -M., 1999.

10. Galperin P. Ya. On the psychological foundations of programmed learning // New research in ped. sciences. - Issue IV. -M., 1965.

11. Lerner I. Ya. Problem learning. - M., 1974.

12. Lyaudis V.Ya. Methods of teaching psychology. -M. , 1989.

13. Talyzina N.F. Theoretical problems of programmed learning. -M., 1969.

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Municipal autonomous educational institution

additional education

"Center of children's creativity"

r.p. Krasnye Baki, Nizhny Novgorod region.

abstract

"Pedagogy"

"Teaching methods"

Prepared

additional education teacher

Pogodina Nadezhda Yurievna

2014

Introduction 3

1. Teaching methods. 3-6

2. Observation. 6-7

3. Experiments and experimentation. 7-11

4. Modeling. 11-12

5. Game methods. 12-13

6. Verbal teaching method. 13-14

6. Basic concepts of didactics. 14-15

8. The principle of visibility. 15-17

Conclusion. 17-18

Bibliography. 19

Introduction.

When teaching, the teacher develops children to think, observe, act. In order to teach, we must find ways for the child to learn and achieve a certain level of knowledge, skills and abilities.

Teaching methods are methods that encourage students to think and practice in the process of mastering the educational material.

Learning in educational activities based on the assimilation of the content of educational subjects should be developed in accordance with its structure and features.This topic is relevant in pedagogy, since it implies the search for scientific foundations of education, which would recognize the individual capabilities of each child and their changes in the process of age development.

The main goal of learning isachieving optimal overall development of each child, the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities, the development of cognitive and creative abilities.

Teaching methods.

Success educational process largely depends on the teaching methods used.The teaching method is a system of consistent interrelated ways of work of the teacher and students, which are aimed at achieving didactic tasks.

There are several classifications of training:

1.Practice . Practical methods include exercises, illustrations, diagrams, educational games. The practical method is better than others for accustoming children to conscientious performance of the task. They form

the habit of careful organization of the labor process, including awareness of the goals of the upcoming work, analysis of the task and conditions for its solution, work plan, preparation of materials and tools, careful quality control of work, analysis of conclusions. Exercises are a systematic, organized, repeated execution of actions in order to master them or improve their quality. Without properly organized exercises, it is impossible to master educational and practical skills and abilities.

2. Visual - observation, demonstration.Thus, visual methods are used at all stages of the pedagogical process. Their role is to provide a comprehensive, figurative perception, to serve as a support for thinking.

The principle of visibility says: everything that is possible must be explained and shown to the child on objects, pictures, and visual samples. This is explained by the fact that the leading forms of thinking at this age are visual-effective and visual-figurative. The conceptual form of thinking in preschool age is manifested only in the simplest forms (visual-schematic thinking). Therefore, visual explanations are always more accessible. In kindergarten, various types of visualization are used:

natural (real objects, plants, animals),
picture and picture-dynamic (photos, drawings, paintings, filmstrips, etc.),
three-dimensional visibility (models, dummies),
audiovisual (films, video films),
graphic (diagrams, drawings), experimental (elementary experiments).

Requirements for visibility: should really reflect the surrounding reality, correspond to the level of development of children, be highly artistic in content and design.

3. Verbal - explanation, story, reading, conversation.

Verbal methods and techniques - their effectiveness largely depends on the culture of speech of the educator himself, on its imagery, emotional expressiveness, accessibility for children's understanding.

The form of education is a method of organization that is carried out in a certain order and mode. The main form of organizing the education of children in a preschool institution is classes. They are organized and conducted by the teacher in accordance with the program.

There are 3 forms of organization of training:

individual,
group, (with a subgroup),
frontal (with the whole group).

The individual form of organization of training contains many positive factors. The teacher has the opportunity to determine the task, content, methods and means of teaching according to the level of development of the child, taking into account the pace of assimilation of the material, the characteristics of mental processes, etc.

Group forms of training assume that classes are held with a subgroup of no more than 6 people. The basis for acquisition may be personal sympathies, the commonality of their interests, but, in no case, the coincidence in the levels of development. In each subgroup there should be children with different levels of development, then the "strong" ones will become "beacons" for those who are often referred to as lagging behind. To ensure such interaction of children in the educational process is the main function of the group form of education.

Frontal classes are also necessary in the conditions of a modern preschool institution. Their content may be an artistic activity. In these classes, the effect of “emotional influences of empathy” is important, which leads to an increase in mental activity, encourages the child to express himself.

Methods, content, organization of training sessions with preschool children are significantly dependent on the teacher's understanding of the principles of education and the ability to apply them in their activities.

By appointment - this is the acquisition of knowledge, the formation of skills and abilities, the application of knowledge, creative activity, consolidation of knowledge and testing of knowledge, skills and abilities.

Observation - this is a purposeful, systematic perception by the child of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, in which perception, thinking and speech actively interact. With the help of this method, the educator directs the child's perception to highlight the main, essential features in objects and phenomena, to establish cause-and-effect relationships and dependencies between objects and phenomena.
Different types of observation are used in teaching children:
I) recognizing nature, with the help of which knowledge is formed about the properties and qualities of objects and phenomena (shape, color, size, etc.);
2) for the change and transformation of objects (growth and development of plants and animals, observation of a fish, a cat with kittens, etc.) - gives knowledge about

processes objects of the surrounding world;

3) of a reproductive nature, when, on individual grounds, it is established

the state of the object, in part - a picture of the whole phenomenon.

Observations are: short-term and long-term. Short-term observations are fully included in classes and are carried out with handouts. Long-term observations are carried out in nature (for example, observation of the emergence and development of a seedling from a radish seed after 1-2 days, onions - 1-2 weeks, carrots - 3-4 weeks, etc. .d.

Even small children peer with interest at unfamiliar objects, try to embrace, feel, taste them. No means of visualization: neither the collection, nor the educational table, nor the screen is able to replace the observation of plants and animals in nature.

The demonstration method includes various techniques:

Display of objects (everything we can show) - children examine doll furniture and clothes, dishes, household items, tools, equipment for drawing, modeling, applications, etc.

Showing a sample is one of the techniques used in teaching visual activity, design. The sample could be

drawing, application, craft;

Demonstration of actions - used in the classes on the development of movements, must be accurate, expressive, divided into parts; may be complete or partial;

Demonstration of paintings, illustrations helps children to imagine those sides and

properties of the studied objects and phenomena that they cannot directly perceive.

Experiences and experimentation.

This is when a student acts on an object in order to gain knowledge of properties and relationships.Various experiments and experiments are carried out: demonstration (the teacher himself conducts the experiment and demonstrates it; children follow the progress and

results) and frontal (the objects of the experiment are in the hands of

children) - both teach children to observe, analyze, draw conclusions.

Children experience great joy, surprise and even delight from their own

small and big "discoveries" that make them feel

Satisfaction with the work done.

In the process of experimentation (independently or under the guidance of a teacher), children get the opportunity to satisfy their inherent curiosity (why? why? how? what will happen if ...?), to feel like a scientist, researcher, discoverer.

Experimentation acts as a teaching method if it is used to transfer new knowledge to children. At this age, the goal of the experiment is set in experimentation, to help children think over a plan for its implementation, and together with the children to implement necessary actions. Gradually involving children in predicting the results of their actions: "What happens if we blow on a dandelion?" It is necessary to teach children to select and find the necessary material and equipment, to perform the simplest actions, to see the result of the activity, thereby developing their own research activity of children. In the classroom, the teacher poses a problem and outlines the strategy and tactics for solving it, the solution itself will have to be found by the child.

The teacher poses a problem, but the children are looking for a method of solving it on their own (at this level, a collective search is allowed).

Experimental work causes in children interest in the study of nature, develops mental operations (analysis, synthesis, classification, generalization, etc.), stimulates the cognitive activity and curiosity of the child, activates the perception of educational material on familiarization with natural phenomena, with the basics of mathematical knowledge, with the ethical rules of life in society and etc.

Conducting experiments and experiments causes delight in children. Experience is fun and exciting, but at the same time, in each experience, the reason for the observed phenomenon is revealed, children are brought to a judgment, conclusion, their knowledge about the properties and qualities of objects, about their changes is refined. Each experience helps to find solutions to various problems and makes it possible to understand why everything happens this way and not otherwise, encourages an independent search for causes, methods of action, and manifestation of creativity.

By nature, a preschool child is oriented toward learning about the world around him and experimenting with objects and phenomena of reality. Already at a younger preschool age, learning about the world around him, he seeks not only to examine the object, but also to touch it with his hands, tongue, sniff, knock on it, etc. At an older age, many children think about such physical phenomena as water freezing in winter, sound propagation in air and water, different colors of objects in the surrounding reality and the ability to achieve the desired color “pass under the rainbow”, etc.

In everyday life, children often experiment with various substances themselves, trying to learn something new. They dismantle toys, watch objects falling into the water (sinking - not sinking), try with their tongue in hard frost metal objects, etc. But the danger of such “amateur activity” lies in the fact that the preschooler is not yet familiar with the laws of mixing substances, elementary safety rules. The experiment, specially organized by the teacher, is safe for the child and at the same time acquaints him with the various properties of the surrounding objects, with the laws of the life of nature and the need to take them into account in his own life. Initially, children learn to experiment in specially organized activities activities under the guidance of a teacher, then the necessary materials and equipment for the experiment are brought into the spatial-subject environment of the group for independent reproduction by the child, if it is safe for his health. In the process of experimentation, the child needs to answer not only the question like me I do it, but also to questions why I do it exactlyso, and not otherwise, whyI do what I want find out what to get as a result. Mastering the system of scientific concepts, experimental methods will allow the child to become the subject of learning, learn to learn, which is one of the aspects of preparing for school. However, the acquaintance of preschoolers with physical phenomena environment differs in content and methods from school education. In a preschool educational institution, the acquisition of knowledge about physical phenomena and methods of their cognition is based on a keen interest, curiosity of the child and is carried out in an exciting form without memorization, memorization and repetition of rules and laws.An experiment in kindergartenallows you to acquaint children with specific research methods, with various methods of measurement, with safety rules during the experiment. Children, first with the help of adults, and then on their own, go beyond the limits of knowledge and skills acquired in specially organized activities, and create New Product- a building, a fairy tale, air saturated with smells, etc. Thus, the experiment connects creative manifestations with the aesthetic development of the child.

The basis of the child's cognitive activity in experimentation is the contradictions between the existing knowledge, skills, acquired experience in achieving results by trial and error and new cognitive tasks, situations that have arisen in the process of setting the goal of experimentation and achieving it. The source of cognitive activity is the overcoming of this contradiction between the acquired experience, which allows the child to show independence and creative attitude when performing the task. The development of children's ability to experiment is a certain system, which includes demonstration experiments carried out by the teacher in specially organized activities, observations, laboratory work performed by children on their own in the spatial and object environment of the group (for example, gaining experience with magnets, various ways of measuring objects and etc.). Each fundamental natural science concept that we propose to introduce children to (temperature, time, liquid, gas, solid, gravity, movement, light, sound, etc.), is experimentally substantiated and clarified for the child in the process of observation, mental and real experimentation. As a result, we can conclude that the fundamental laws of nature are derived by the child on their own, as a result of setting up an experiment.

Thus, the acquaintance of preschoolers with the phenomena of inanimate nature (physical phenomena and laws) occupies a special place in the system of various knowledge about the world around, since the subject of acquaintance is present, regulates, exerts its influence and continuously affects the development of the child.

Generalization of many years of experience of teachers, analysis of methods and programs allows us to conclude that experimental and research activities have great opportunities for the comprehensive development of children: it develops their thinking, enriches knowledge, active and passive vocabulary, stimulates the desire to create, not destroy.

When experimenting with preschoolers, one should not forget that the main thing is not the acquisition of memorized knowledge by the child, but the formation of a careful, emotional attitude towards the world around him and the skills of environmentally competent behavior. There is no need to strive for children to memorize as many different names as possible. You can always do without the use of complex and incomprehensible terms for the child. It is much more important to instill in children a cognitive interest in objects of nature, the desire and ability to observe, experiment, understand that everything in the world is interconnected.

Modeling.

Modeling is a visual-practical method of teaching. The model is a generalized image of the essential properties of the modeled object (room plan, geographical map, globe, etc.)

The method of modeling lies in the fact that the child's thinking is developed with the help of special schemes, models that reproduce the hidden properties and connections of an object in a visual and accessible form for him.

The modeling method is based on the principle of substitution: the child replaces a real object with another object, its image, some conventional sign.

Initially, the ability to replace is formed in children in the game (a pebble becomes a candy, sand becomes a porridge for a doll, and he himself becomes a dad, a driver, an astronaut). The experience of substitution is also accumulated during the development of speech, in visual activity.

Modeling, carried out in the process of teaching and educating children, serves to develop their abilities, deepen their knowledge of the basics of science and the technology of processing materials. It contributes to the connection of theory with practice, the formation of practical skills, and is a means of expanding the horizons of children.Different types of models are used in preschool education. First of all, the subject, in which are reproduced design features, proportions, the relationship of parts of any objects. These can be technical toys that reflect the principle of the mechanism; building models.

Senior preschoolers have access to subject-schematic models in which essential features and relationships are expressed using substitute objects, graphic signs.

Game methods.

In order for a preschooler to unfold the plot of the game, to model this or that activity of adults, he must understand its meaning, motives, tasks and norms of relations that exist between adults. The child cannot do this on his own. Only the familiarization prepared by the teacher with the types of labor available to preschool children reveals to them the meaning of the labor relations of adults, the significance of the actions they perform. On this basis, a game arises, and the child, realizing the role he has taken, begins to delve deeper into the meaning, understand the motives and tasks of people's activities, as well as the meaning of his role and his actions.

Didactic games get along very well with teaching. The inclusion of didactic games and gaming moments makes the learning process interesting and entertaining, creates a cheerful working mood in children, and facilitates overcoming difficulties in mastering educational material. Diverse game actions, with the help of which this or that mental task is solved, support and enhance the interest of children in the subject. Play must be regarded as a powerful and indispensable lever for the child's mental development.

In the process of playing, children develop the habit of concentrating, thinking independently, developing attention, the desire for knowledge. Carried away, children do not notice that they are learning: they learn, remember new things, navigate in unusual situations, replenish the stock of ideas, concepts, develop imagination. Even the most passive children join the game with great desire, making every effort not to let down their playmates. During the game, children, as a rule, are very attentive, focused and disciplined. The game is one of the most important means of mental and moral education of children. A.S. Makarenko attached great importance to the game as an educational tool: “What a child is in the game, such in many respects he will be in work when he grows up. Therefore, the upbringing of the future figure takes place, first of all, in the game.

Verbal teaching methods.

The verbal teaching methods include a story, a lecture, a conversation, etc. The conversation method involves a conversation between a teacher and children. The conversation is organized with the help of a carefully thought-out system of questions that gradually leads children to assimilate a system of facts, a new concept or pattern. Conversations are possible during which students remember, systematize, generalize what they have previously learned, draw conclusions, and look for new examples of using the previously studied phenomenon in life. Any conversation forms an interest in knowledge, cultivates a taste for cognitive activity. Conversations can be different levels: some conversations are held after observing a narrow range of observed objects (for example, a conversation about migratory birds, about wintering animals in the forest, etc.), others that affect a wider range of phenomena (for example, conversations about seasons), to systematize children's knowledge about phenomena inanimate nature, about the life of plants, about animals, about the labor of people. In the first part of the conversation, in order to prepare children for generalization, the questions of the educator to the children are also included: “Which birds arrive first? How did we recognize rooks? Where did we see them? What did the rooks do on the field? What do rooks eat? When the teacher with the children finds out all this, he asks: “Why do rooks arrive earlier than other birds?” (Similarly, about other birds - starling, swallow, etc.) In the second part of the conversation, a question can be raised that requires generalization: “Why do not all birds arrive at the same time?”.Reliance on the experience of children and the logical sequence of questions provide great interest, active mental activity children.

The story is a verbal teaching method, the study of material that intelligibly and emotionally conveys new knowledge, facts, events.

There are several types of story: story-introduction, story-exposition, story-conclusion. The conditions for the effective use of the story are careful thought over of the plan, the choice of the most rational sequence for the disclosure of the topic, the successful selection of examples and illustrations, and the maintenance of the proper emotional tone of presentation.

Explanation - the interpretation of concepts, laws, rules with the widespread use of calculations, observations and experiments. The explanation can be scientific, business, analytical, evidentiary and technical.

Briefing is an explanation of the progress of upcoming work, methods of performing tasks, a safety warning. Instruction differs from explanation in practicality, concreteness and brevity. Briefing can be introductory, current and final.

According to the purpose of the conversation are:

Introductory or organizing;
Messages of new knowledge;
Synthesizing or fixing;
Control and correction.

Basic concepts of didactics.

Didactics is a branch of pedagogy aimed at studying and revealing the theoretical foundations of the organization of the learning process (patterns, principles, teaching methods), as well as searching for and developing new principles, strategies, methods, technologies and learning systems.

Learning Functions: The educational function is to equip children with a system of scientific knowledge, skills, and teach them how to use them in practice. Knowledge in pedagogy is defined as understanding, storing in memory and reproducing the facts of science, concepts, rules, laws, theories. Assimilated knowledge is characterized by completeness, awareness and effectiveness. This means that in the process of learning, children receive the necessary information on the basics of science and activities.
The developmental function of learning means that in the process of learning, assimilation of knowledge, the development of children occurs. This development occurs in all directions: the development of speech, thinking. Learning leads to development. We can say that any education develops due, first of all, to the content of education and, secondly, due to the fact that teaching is an activity. And the personality, as is known from psychology, develops in

the process of activity.

The educational function of teaching follows from its very content of forms and methods. It consists in the fact that in the process of learning moral and ethical ideas are formed, a system of views on the world, the ability to follow the norms of behavior in society, to comply with the laws adopted in it. However, education in the learning process is complicated by the merger external factors(family, microenvironment, etc.), which makes upbringing a more complex process. In the process of learning, the needs of the individual are also formed.

The principle of didactics is called a certain system of requirements for the learning process, the fulfillment of which ensures its necessary objectivity.

The age and mental characteristics of the child are “generalization of experience” or “intellectualization of affect”. In other words, the child tries to build his own behavior in accordance with certain rules and requirements.

The principle of visibility.

This principle plays an important role in teaching preschool children, since the thinking of a preschooler is visual-effective and visual-figurative. The use of various types of visualization - the observation of living objects, the examination of objects, paintings, illustrations, samples, the use of diagrams, etc. - contributes to the conscious perception of those phenomena and objects that an adult introduces children to. The principle of visibility corresponds to the basic forms of thinking of a preschooler.Visualization provides strong memorization.

Under the principles of learning is meant an objective regularitythe starting points that guide the teacher.

There are a number of principles:

The principle of developmental education is based on the doctrine of zones actual development, which assumes not only the previous result of the child's existing knowledge, but also the highest result achieved with the help of a teacher.
The principle of educational training involves filling the content of training with positive feelings, images that convey the characteristic features of a person's perception of the world around him.
The principle of accessibility in education meets the requirements for the age and developmental level of the child. The principle of accessibility requires that the volume and content of the material be within the power of children, correspond to the level of their mental development and the existing stock of knowledge, skills and abilities.

The principle of accessibility implies the fulfillment of the following conditions - didactic rules: a) follow in teaching from simple to complex; b) from easy to difficult; c) from the known to the unknown.

The principle of scientific character requires that the proposed material correspond to modern achievements of science. Those elementary knowledge about the world around which children receive in younger age, should not be rejected later, but should only be expanded and enriched.
The principle of systematicity and consistency is based on the development that established knowledge should be given constantly, but not in one form, but in a different one, and should become more complex from simple to complex, from understandable to incomprehensible.
The principle of consciousness, activity of children in the assimilation of knowledge.

Consciousness in learning is a positive attitude of children to learning activities, their understanding of the essence of the problems being studied, their conviction in the significance of the knowledge gained. The activity of children is their intense mental and practical activity in the learning process. Activity acts as a prerequisite, condition and result of the conscious assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities.

The principle of an individual approach to children is one of the main principles of pedagogy. The very problem of an individual approach is creative, but there are main points in the implementation of a differentiated approach to children - knowledge and understanding of children; love for children; the ability of the teacher to reflect and the ability to analyze. Children should always feel the support of the teacher.

Conclusion.

Thus, the following conclusions can be drawn: Education is a purposeful cognitive activity of children under the guidance of a teacher, the purpose of which is the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities by children, the development of cognitive and creative abilities.

Teaching methods are ways of joint activities of a teacher and children aimed at achieving their educational goals. Skills - to learn quickly and accurately, intuitively, visually or by ear to recognize (distinguish, guess) the studied objects of the animal and plant world. It is methodically correct, in compliance with all security measures, to check the processing of the objects under study with the aim of their comprehensive determination (study). To develop purposefulness, patience, endurance and objectivity when observing objects, processes and their subsequent evaluation. To master the methodology of research, bookmarking, conducting, completing, summarizing and concluding school experimentation.

The principles of learning are the basic provisions that determine the content, organizational forms and methods of the educational process in accordance with this

goals and rules.

The main principles of education are: the principle of scientific education, the principle of accessibility, the principle of consciousness and activity, the principle of visibility, the principle of systematic and consistent learning, the principle of the strength of knowledge acquisition, the principle of nurturing education, the principle of connection between theory and practice, and the principle of correspondence of training to age and

individual characteristics of children. D The teaching principles are generally accepted, they form the basis of the traditional system of education.

Persistence in learning potentially increases with age. This means that older children are capable of longer studies, but the extent to which this ability is realized depends largely on the attitudes and interests of the children.

Literature

Babansky Yu. K. Choice of teaching methods in secondary school. / M., 1981.
Dyachenko V.K. New didactics. M., TKVelby, Prospect Publishing House, 2001
Lerner I. Ya. Didactic foundations of teaching methods. M., 1981.
Okon V. Introduction to general didactics. M., 1990.
Podlasy I.P. Pedagogy. New course: Textbook for students. ped. universities: In 2 books. Book. 1. M.: VLADOS, 2005.
Repkin V.V., Repkina N.V. Teaching methods: theory and practice - Tomsk, 1997.
Slastenin V. A., Isaev I. F., Shiyanov E. N. General pedagogy: Proc. allowance for students. higher textbook institutions / Ed. V. A. Slastenina: At 2 pm M., 2002.
Modern didactics: theory and practice / Ed. I. Ya. Lerner, I. K. Zhuravlev. M., 2004.

Teaching methods(from other Greek μέθοδος - path) - the process of interaction between the teacher and students, as a result of which the transfer and assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities provided for by the content of training occurs. Reception of training (training reception)- short-term interaction between the teacher and students, aimed at the transfer and assimilation of specific knowledge, skills, skills.

According to the established tradition in domestic pedagogy, teaching methods are divided into three groups:

- Organization Methods and implementation of educational and cognitive activities:

1. Verbal, visual, practical (According to the source of the presentation of educational material).

2. Reproductive, explanatory and illustrative, search, research, problematic, etc. (according to the nature of educational and cognitive activity).

3. Inductive and deductive (according to the logic of presentation and perception of educational material);

- Control methods for the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activities: Oral, written checking and self-checking the effectiveness of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities;

- Incentive methods educational and cognitive activity: Certain encouragement in the formation of motivation, a sense of responsibility, obligations, interests in mastering knowledge, skills and abilities.

In the practice of teaching, there are other approaches to the definition of teaching methods, which are based on the degree of awareness of the perception of educational material: passive, active, interactive, heuristic and others. These definitions require further clarification, since the learning process cannot be passive and is not always a discovery (eureka) for students.

Passive Method

Passive learning method

Passive Method(Scheme 1) is a form of interaction between students and teachers, in which the teacher is the main actor and managing the course of the lesson, and students act as passive listeners, subordinate to the directives of the teacher. Communication between the teacher and students in passive lessons is carried out through surveys, independent, tests, tests, etc. From the point of view of modern pedagogical technologies and the effectiveness of students learning the educational material, the passive method is considered the most ineffective, but, despite this, it also has some pros. This is a relatively easy preparation for the lesson on the part of the teacher and the opportunity to present a relatively large amount of educational material in the limited time frame of the lesson. Given these advantages, many teachers prefer the passive method to other methods. It must be said that in some cases this approach works successfully in the hands of an experienced teacher, especially if students have clear goals aimed at a thorough study of the subject. Lecture is the most common type of passive lesson. This type of lesson is widespread in universities, where adults study, fully formed people with clear goals to deeply study the subject.

active method

Active learning method

active method(Scheme 2) is a form of interaction between students and the teacher, in which the teacher and students interact with each other during the lesson and the students here are not passive listeners, but active participants in the lesson. If in a passive lesson the teacher was the main actor and manager of the lesson, then here the teacher and students are on an equal footing. If passive methods implied an authoritarian style of interaction, then active methods more suggest a democratic style. Many between active and interactive methods put an equal sign, however, despite the generality, they have differences. Interactive methods can be seen as the most modern form of active methods.

interactive method

Interactive teaching method

interactive method(scheme 3). Interactive (“Inter” is mutual, “act” is to act) means to interact, to be in a conversation mode, a dialogue with someone. In other words, unlike active methods, interactive ones are focused on a wider interaction of students not only with the teacher, but also with each other and on the dominance of student activity in the learning process. The place of the teacher in interactive lessons is reduced to the direction of students' activities to achieve the goals of the lesson. The teacher also develops a lesson plan (usually, these are interactive exercises and assignments during which the student studies the material).
Therefore, the main components of interactive lessons are interactive exercises and tasks that are performed by students. An important difference between interactive exercises and tasks from the usual ones is that by doing them, students not only and not so much reinforce the already studied material, but learn new ones.

Literature

Alekhin A.N. General teaching methods at school. - K .: Radianska school, 1983. - 244 p.
Davydov VV Theory of developing education. - M.: INTOR, 1996. - 544 p.
Zagvyazinsky V.I. Learning Theory: Modern Interpretation: Textbook for High Schools. 3rd ed., rev. - M.: Academy, 2006. - 192 p.
Kraevsky V.V., Khutorskoy A.V. Fundamentals of education: Didactics and methodology. Proc. allowance for students. higher textbook establishments. - M.: Publishing Center "Academy", 2007. - 352 p.
Lyaudis V. Ya. Methods of teaching psychology: a textbook. 3rd ed., rev. and additional - M.: Publishing house of URAO, 2000. - 128 p.
Mikhailichenko O.V. Methods of teaching social disciplines in higher education: textbook. - Sumy: SumDPU, 2009. - 122 p.
Pedagogy: Proc. allowance for students ped. in-tov / Ed. Yu.K.Babansky. - 2nd ed., add. and reworked. - M.: Enlightenment, 1988. - S.385-409.

Pedagogical technologies
Heuristic learning
Interactive Approaches
multimedia learning
Schechter method
Model Kolb
The van Hiele model of geometry learning
Model Kolb in class
Active learning
Teacher
business game
Contour map
Lerner, Isaac Yakovlevich

Teaching methods and their classification

An essential component of pedagogical technologies are teaching methods - ways of orderly interconnected activities of the teacher and students. In the pedagogical literature there is no consensus on the role and definition of the concept of "teaching method". So, Yu.K. Babansky believes that "a method of teaching is a method of orderly interconnected activity of a teacher and students, aimed at solving the problems of education." T.A. Ilyina understands the teaching method as "a way of organizing the cognitive activity of students." In the history of didactics, various classifications of teaching methods have developed, the most common of which are:

according to the external signs of the activity of the teacher and students:

briefing;

demonstration;

exercises;

problem solving;

work with the book;

by source of knowledge:

verbal;

visual:
- demonstration of posters, diagrams, tables, diagrams, models;
  
  use of technical means;
  
  watching movies and TV programs;

practical:

practical tasks;

trainings;

business games;

analysis and resolution of conflict situations, etc.;

according to the degree of activity of students' cognitive activity:

explanatory;

illustrative;

problem;

partial search;

research;

according to the logic of the approach:

inductive;

deductive;

analytical;

synthetic.

Close to this classification is the classification of teaching methods, compiled according to the criterion of the degree of independence and creativity in the activities of students. Since the success of training to a decisive extent depends on the orientation and internal activity of the trainees, on the nature of their activity, it is precisely the nature of the activity, the degree of independence and creativity that should serve as an important criterion for choosing a method. In this classification, it is proposed to distinguish five teaching methods:

explanatory and illustrative method;

reproductive method;

method of problem presentation;

partial search, or heuristic, method;

research method.

In each of the subsequent methods, the degree of activity and independence in the activities of students increases. Explanatory-illustrative teaching method - a method in which students receive knowledge at a lecture, from educational or methodological literature, through an on-screen manual in a "ready" form. Perceiving and comprehending facts, assessments, conclusions, students remain within the framework of reproductive (reproducing) thinking. In high school, this method finds the widest application for transferring a large amount of information. Reproductive learning method - a method where the application of what has been learned is carried out on the basis of a pattern or rule. Here, the activity of trainees is algorithmic in nature, i.e. is carried out according to instructions, prescriptions, rules in situations similar to those shown in the sample. Method of problem presentation in teaching - a method in which, using a variety of sources and means, the teacher, before presenting the material, poses a problem, formulates a cognitive task, and then, revealing the system of evidence, comparing points of view, different approaches, shows a way to solve the problem. Students seem to become witnesses and accomplices of scientific research. Both in the past and in the present, this approach is widely used. Partially searchable , or heuristic, learning method consists in organizing an active search for a solution to the cognitive tasks put forward in training (or independently formulated), either under the guidance of a teacher, or on the basis of heuristic programs and instructions. The process of thinking acquires a productive character, but at the same time it is gradually directed and controlled by the teacher or the students themselves on the basis of work on programs (including computer ones) and teaching aids. - a method in which, after analyzing the material, setting problems and tasks, and a brief oral or written briefing, students independently study literature, sources, conduct observations and measurements, and perform other search activities. Initiative, independence, creative search are most fully manifested in research activities. Methods of educational work directly develop into methods of scientific research. Receptions and teaching aids

In the learning process, the method acts as an ordered way of the interconnected activities of the teacher and students to achieve certain educational goals, as a way of organizing the educational and cognitive activities of students. The application of each teaching method is usually accompanied by techniques and means. Wherein admission training acts only as an element, an integral part of the teaching method, and teaching aids (pedagogical aids) are all those materials with the help of which the teacher carries out a learning effect (learning process).

Pedagogical means did not immediately become an indispensable component of the pedagogical process. Long time traditional methods learning was based on the word, but "the era of chalk and conversation is over", due to the growth of information, the technologization of society, it becomes necessary to use other means of learning, such as technical ones. Pedagogical tools include:

educational and laboratory equipment;

educational and production equipment;

didactic technique;

teaching and visual aids;

technical training aids and automated training systems;

computer classes;

organizational and pedagogical means (curricula, exam tickets, task cards, study guides, etc.).

In world and domestic practice, many efforts have been made to classify teaching methods. Since the category method is universal, “multidimensional education”, has many features, they act as the basis for classifications. Various authors use different grounds for classifying teaching methods. Many classifications have been proposed, based on one or more features. Each of the authors gives arguments to substantiate his classification model. Let's consider some of them. 1. Classification of methods according to the source of transmission and the nature of the perception of information (E.Ya. Golant, E.I. Perovsky). The following signs and methods are distinguished: a) passive perception - they listen and watch (story, lecture, explanations; demonstration); b) active perception - work with a book, visual sources; laboratory method. 2. Classification of methods based on didactic tasks (M.A. Danilov, B.P. Esipov.). The classification is based on the sequence of acquiring knowledge at a particular stage (lesson): a) acquiring knowledge; b) formation of skills and abilities; c) application of acquired knowledge; d) creative activity; e) fastening; f) testing knowledge, skills and abilities. 3. Classification of methods by sources of information transfer and knowledge acquisition (N.M. Verzilin, D.O. Lordkinanidze, I.T. Ogorodnikov, etc.). The methods of this classification are: a) verbal - living word teachers, work with a book; b) practical - the study of the surrounding reality (observation, experiment, exercises). 4. Classification of methods according to the type (character) of cognitive activity (M.N. Skatkin, I.Ya. Lerner). The nature of cognitive activity reflects the level of independent activity of students. This classification is characterized by the following methods: a) explanatory-illustrative (information-reproductive); b) reproductive (boundaries of skill and creativity); c) problematic presentation of knowledge; d) partial search (heuristic); e) research. 5. Classification of methods, combining teaching methods and their corresponding teaching methods or binary (M.I. Makhmutov). This classification is represented by the following methods: a) teaching methods: information-reporting, explanatory, instructive-practical, explanatory-motivating, encouraging; b) teaching methods: executive, reproductive, productive and practical, partially exploratory, exploratory. 6. Classification of methods for organizing and implementing educational and cognitive activities; methods of its stimulation and motivation; methods of control and self-control (Yu.K. Babansky). This classification is represented by three groups of methods: a) methods of organizing and implementing educational and cognitive activities: verbal (story, lecture, seminar, conversation), visual (illustration, demonstration, etc.), practical (exercises, laboratory experiments, labor actions, etc.). .r.), reproductive and problem-search (from particular to general, from general to particular), methods of independent work and work under the guidance of a teacher; b) methods of stimulation and motivation of educational and cognitive activity: methods of stimulating and motivating interest in learning (the whole arsenal of methods for organizing and implementing educational activities is used for the purpose of psychological adjustment, motivation for learning), methods of stimulating and motivating duty and responsibility in learning; c) methods of control and self-control over the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activity: methods of oral control and self-control, methods of written control and self-control, methods of laboratory and practical control and self-control. 7. Classification of teaching methods, which combines the sources of knowledge, the level of cognitive activity and independence of students, as well as the logical path of educational modeling (V.F. Palamarchuk and V.I. Palamarchuk). 8. The classification of methods in combination with the forms of cooperation in teaching was proposed by the German didact L. Klinberg. a) Monological methods: - lecture; - story; - demonstration. b) Forms of cooperation: - individual; - group; - frontal; - collective. c) Dialogue methods: - conversations. 9. The classification of methods by K. Sosnitsky (Poland) suggests the existence of two teaching methods: a) artificial (school); b) natural (occasional). These methods correspond to two teaching methods: a) presenting; b) search. 10. The classification (typology) of teaching methods, set out in the “Introduction to General Didactics” by V. Okon (Poland), is represented by four groups: with a book); b) methods of self-acquisition of knowledge, called problem methods, based on creative cognitive activity in the course of problem solving: - the classical problem method (according to Dewey), modified for the Polish education system, it contains four important points: creating a problem situation; formation of problems and hypotheses for their solution; ordering and application of the results obtained in new problems of a theoretical and practical nature; - the method of chance (England and the USA) is relatively simple and is based on a small group of students considering a description of a case: students formulating questions to explain this case, searching for an answer, a number of possible solutions, comparing solutions, detecting errors in reasoning, etc.; - the situational method is based on introducing students to a difficult situation, the task is to understand and make the right decision, to foresee the consequences of this decision, to find others possible solutions; - idea bank is a brainstorming method; based on the group formation of ideas for solving a problem, testing, evaluating and choosing the right ideas; - micro-teaching - a method of creative teaching of complex practical activities, used mainly in pedagogical universities; for example, a fragment of a school lesson is recorded on a video recorder, and then a group analysis and evaluation of this fragment is carried out; - didactic games - the use of game moments in the educational process serves the process of cognition, teaches respect for accepted norms, promotes cooperation, accustoms both to win and to lose. These include: staged fun, i.e. games, simulation games, business games (they are not widely used in Polish schools); c) evaluative methods, also called exhibiting with the dominance of emotional and artistic activity: - impressive methods; - expressive methods; - practical methods; - teaching methods; d) practical methods (methods for the implementation of creative tasks), characterized by the predominance of practical and technical activities that change the world around us and create new forms of it: they are associated with the performance of various types of work (for example, wood, glass, growing plants and animals, making fabrics and etc.), the development of work models (drawing), the formation of approaches to the solution and the choice of the best options, the construction of the model and verification of its functioning, the design of specified parameters, individual and group assessment of the task. The basis of such a typology of methods is V. Okon's idea of the constant development of the creative foundations of the individual through the structuring of the taught knowledge and teaching methods. “The information that a person needs is always intended for some purpose, namely, for understanding the structure of reality, the structure of the world of nature, society and culture that surrounds us. Structural thinking is such thinking that unites the elements of this world known to us. If, thanks to a successful teaching method, these structures fit into the consciousness of a young person, then each of the elements in these structures has its own place and is associated with other structures. Thus, a kind of hierarchy is formed in the student's mind - from the simplest structures of the most general nature to complex ones. Understanding the basic structures that take place in animate and inanimate nature, in society, in technology and art, can contribute to creative activity based on the knowledge of new structures, the selection of elements and the establishment of links between them. 11. Based on the fact that a holistic pedagogical process is provided by a single classification of methods, which in a generalized form includes all other classification characteristics of B.T. Likhachev calls a number of classifications, as it were, constituting a classification as a classification. He takes the following as its basis: - Classification according to the correspondence of teaching methods to the logic of socio-historical development. - Classification according to the correspondence of teaching methods to the specifics of the studied material and forms of thinking. - Classification of teaching methods according to their role and significance in the development of essential forces, mental processes, spiritual and creative activity. - Classification of teaching methods according to their compliance with the age characteristics of children. - Classification of teaching methods according to the methods of transmitting and receiving information. - Classification of teaching methods according to the degree of effectiveness of their ideological and educational impact, "influence on the formation of children's consciousness, internal motives" and incentives for behavior. - Classification of teaching methods according to the main stages of the educational and cognitive process (methods of the stage of perception - primary assimilation; methods of the stage of assimilation - reproduction; methods of the stage of educational and creative expression). In the classifications identified by B.T. Likhachev, preference is given to the latter as scientific and practical, synthesizing in a generalized form the characteristics of teaching methods of all other classifications. Two or three dozen more could be added to the series of named classifications of teaching methods. All of them are not without flaws, and at the same time have many positive aspects. There are no universal classifications and cannot be. The educational process is a dynamic construction, this should be understood. In a living pedagogical process, methods also develop and take on new properties. Combining them into groups according to a rigid scheme is not justified, as this hinders the improvement of the educational process. Apparently, one should follow the path of their universal combination and application in order to achieve high degree adequacy of the educational tasks being solved. At each stage of the educational process, some methods occupy a dominant position, others - a subordinate position. Some methods are more effective, while others are less effective in solving educational problems. We also note that the non-inclusion of at least one of the methods, even in its subordinate position, in solving the problems of the lesson significantly reduces its effectiveness. Perhaps this is comparable to the absence of at least one of the components, even in a very small dose, in the composition medicinal product(this reduces or even changes its medicinal properties). The methods used in the educational process also perform their functions. These include: teaching, developing, educating, encouraging (motivational), control and correctional functions. Knowing the functionality of certain methods allows you to consciously apply them.

Concepts of a method, reception and means of training. Classification of teaching methods. Choice of teaching methods

The success of the educational process largely depends on the teaching methods used.

Teaching methods these are ways of joint activity of the teacher and students aimed at achieving their educational goals. There are other definitions of teaching methods.

Teaching methods are the methods of work of the teacher and students, with the help of which the assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities is achieved, as well as the formation of their worldview and the development of cognitive forces (M. A. Danilov, B. P. Esipov).

Teaching methods are ways of interconnected activities of teachers and students in the implementation of the tasks of education, upbringing and development ( Yu. K. Babansky).

Teaching methods are ways of teaching the teacher and organizing the educational and cognitive activity of students to solve various didactic tasks aimed at mastering the material being studied ( I. F. Kharlamov).

Teaching methods are a system of consistent, interconnected actions of a teacher and students that ensure the assimilation of the content of education, the development of mental strength and abilities of students, their mastery of the means of self-education and self-learning (G. M. Kodzhaspirova).

Despite the various definitions given to this concept by didactics, the common thing is that most authors tend to consider the teaching method as a way for the teacher and students to work together to organize learning activities. If we are talking only about the activities of the teacher, then it is appropriate to talk about teaching methods, if only about the activities of students, then about teaching methods.

Reflecting the dual nature of the learning process, methods are one of the mechanisms, ways to implement pedagogically appropriate interaction between the teacher and students. The essence of teaching methods is considered as a holistic system of methods, in a complex providing a pedagogically expedient organization of educational and cognitive activity of students.

Thus, the concept of a teaching method reflects in the relationship the methods and specifics of the teaching work of the teacher and the learning activities of students to achieve learning goals.

Widespread concepts in didactics are also the concepts of "reception of learning" and "rule of learning".

Reception training this an integral part or a separate aspect of the teaching method, i.e., a particular concept in relation to the general concept of "method". The boundaries between the concepts of "method" and "reception" are very mobile and changeable. Each teaching method consists of separate elements (parts, techniques). With the help of the technique, the pedagogical or educational task is not completely solved, but only its stage, some part of it.

Teaching methods and methodological techniques can change places, replace each other in specific pedagogical situations. The same methodological techniques can be used in different methods. Conversely, the same method for different teachers may include different techniques.

In some situations, the method acts as an independent way of solving a pedagogical problem, in others as a technique that has a particular purpose. For example, if a teacher communicates new knowledge by verbal method (explanation, story, conversation), during which he sometimes demonstrates visual aids, then their demonstration acts as a technique. If the visual aid is the object of study, students receive basic knowledge on the basis of its consideration, then verbal explanations act as a technique, and demonstration as a teaching method.

Thus, the method includes a number of tricks, but it is not a simple sum of them. Techniques determine the originality of the methods of work of the teacher and students, give an individual character to their activities.

learning rule this normative prescription or indication of how to act in the best way in order to implement the method of activity corresponding to the method. In other words, learning rule (didactic rule) this is a specific indication of how to act in a typical pedagogical situation of the learning process.

The rule acts as a descriptive, normative model of reception, and the system of rules for solving a specific problem is already a normative-descriptive model of the method.

The teaching method is a historical category. The level of development of productive forces and the nature of production relations influence the goals, content, and means of the pedagogical process. As they change, so do teaching methods.

In the early stages of social development, the transfer of social experience to the younger generations was carried out spontaneously in the process of joint activities of children and adults. By observing and repeating certain actions, mainly labor actions, of adults, children mastered them in the course of direct participation in the life of the social group of which they were members.

Teaching methods based on imitation prevailed. Imitating adults, children mastered the methods and techniques of getting food, getting fire, making clothes, etc. It was based on reproductive method learning (“do as I do”). This is the oldest teaching method. , from which all others have evolved.

As the volume of accumulated knowledge expanded, the actions mastered by man became more complex, simple imitation could not provide a sufficient level of assimilation of cultural experience. Since the establishment of schools, there have been verbal methods learning. The teacher with the help of the word conveyed the finished information to the children who learned it. With the advent of writing, and then printing, it became possible to express, accumulate and transmit knowledge in sign form. The word becomes the main carrier of information, and learning from books is a massive way of interaction between teacher and student.

The books were used in different ways. In the medieval school, students mechanically memorized texts, mainly of religious content. So arose dogmatic, or catechism, method learning. A more perfect form of it is associated with the formulation of questions and the presentation of ready-made answers.

In the era of great discoveries and inventions, verbal methods are gradually losing their meaning. the only way transfer of knowledge to students. Society needed people who not only knew the laws of nature, but also knew how to use them in their activities. The learning process organically included such methods as observation, experiment, independent work, the exercise aimed at the development of independence, activity, consciousness, initiative of the child. Development receive visual methods training, as well as methods that help to put into practice the acquired knowledge.

At the turn of the XIX and XX centuries. took an important place heuristic method as a variant of the verbal one, which more fully took into account the needs and interests of the child, the development of his independence. "Book" methods of study were opposed to "natural" methods, i.e., learning in the course of direct contact with reality. Interest was aroused by the concept of "learning through activity" using practical methods learning. The main place in the learning process was given to manual labor, various kinds of practical exercises, as well as the work of students with literature, during which the children formed the skills of independent work, using their own experience. Approved partially-search, research methods.

Over time, more and more widespread methods problem learning based on the advancement of the problem and on the independent movement of students to knowledge. Gradually, society is increasingly beginning to realize that the child needs not only education, the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities, but also the development of his abilities and individual characteristics. Distribution receive methods developmental learning. The widespread introduction of technology in the educational process, the computerization of education leads to the emergence of new methods.

The American educator K. Kerr identifies four "revolutions in the field of teaching methods." In the early stages of the development of human society, the main teachers of children were parents. The first revolution took place when they were replaced by professional teachers. The second revolution is connected with the replacement of the spoken word with the written one. The third revolution led to the introduction of the printed word into education, and the fourth is aimed at partial automation and computerization of education.

The search for methods to improve the learning process remains constant. However, regardless of the role different periods The development of education was assigned to one or another teaching method, none of them, being used exclusively by itself, does not provide the desired results. No teaching method is universal. In the educational process, a variety of teaching methods should be used.

Characteristics of teaching methods, their pedagogical capabilities. Conditions for the application of methods and means of training. Methods and means of developing education.

In modern pedagogical practice, a large number of teaching methods are used. In their selection, the teacher faces significant difficulties. In this regard, there is a need for a classification that helps to identify the general and special, essential and random in teaching methods, and thereby contributes to their expedient and more effective use.

unified classification teaching methods does not exist. This is due to the fact that different authors base the division of teaching methods into groups and subgroups on different features, separate aspects of the learning process.

Consider the most common classification of teaching methods.

Classification of teaching methods by student activity level (Golant E. Ya.). This is one of the early classifications of teaching methods. According to this classification, teaching methods are divided into passive and active, depending on the degree of involvement of the student in learning activities. TO passive include methods in which students only listen and look ( story, lecture, explanation, tour, demonstration, observation), to active methods that organize independent work of students ( laboratory method, practical method, work with a book).

Classification of teaching methods by source of knowledge (Verzilin N.M., Perovsky E.I., Lordkipanidze D.O.)

There are three sources of knowledge: word, visualization, practice. Accordingly, allocate verbal methods(the source of knowledge is the spoken or printed word); visual methods(sources of knowledge are observed objects, phenomena, visual aids); practical methods(knowledge and skills are formed in the process of performing practical actions).

Verbal methods occupy a central place in the system of teaching methods. These include story, explanation, conversation, discussion, lecture, work with a book.

The second group according to this classification is visual teaching methods, in which the assimilation of educational material is significantly dependent on the visual aids used, diagrams, tables, drawings, models, instruments, and technical means. Visual methods are conditionally divided into two groups: demonstration method and illustration method.

Practical teaching methods are based on the practical activities of students. The main purpose of this group of methods is the formation of practical skills and abilities. Practices include exercises, practical And laboratory works.

This classification has become quite widespread, which is obviously due to its simplicity.

Classification of teaching methods for didactic purpose (Danilov M.A., Esipov B.P.).

In this classification, the following teaching methods are distinguished:

- methods of acquiring new knowledge;

- methods of formation of skills and abilities;

- methods of application of knowledge;

- methods of consolidating and testing knowledge, skills, skills.

The learning objectives serve as a criterion for dividing methods into groups according to this classification. This criterion reflects the activity of the teacher to achieve the learning goal. For example, if the goal is to acquaint students with something, then in order to achieve it, the teacher will obviously use verbal, visual and other methods available to him, and to consolidate, he will offer students to complete oral or written assignments.

With such a classification of methods, the gap between their individual groups is eliminated to a certain extent; the activity of the teacher is directed to the solution of didactic problems.

Classification of teaching methods by the nature of the cognitive activity of students (Lerner I. Ya., Skatkin M. N.).

According to this classification, teaching methods are divided depending on the nature of the cognitive activity of students in the assimilation of the studied material. The nature of cognitive activity is the level of mental activity of students.

There are the following methods:

- explanatory and illustrative (information-receptive);

- reproductive;

- problem statement;

- partial search (heuristic);

- research.

Essence explanatory and illustrative method consists in the fact that the teacher communicates the finished information by various means, and the students perceive it, realize it and fix it in memory. The teacher communicates information using the spoken word (story, conversation, explanation, lecture), printed word (textbook, additional aids), visual aids (tables, diagrams, pictures, films and filmstrips), practical demonstration of methods of activity (showing experience, work on the machine, the method of solving the problem, etc.).

The cognitive activity of students is reduced to memorization (which may be unconscious) of ready-made knowledge. There is a rather low level of mental activity here.

reproductive method assumes that the teacher communicates, explains the knowledge in a finished form, and the students learn them and can reproduce, repeat the method of activity on the instructions of the teacher. The criterion for assimilation is the correct reproduction (reproduction) of knowledge.

The main advantage of this method, as well as the explanatory and illustrative method discussed above, is economy. This method provides the ability to transfer a significant amount of knowledge and skills in the shortest possible time and with little effort. The strength of knowledge due to the possibility of repeated repetition can be significant.

Both of these methods are characterized by the fact that they enrich knowledge, skills, form special mental operations, but do not guarantee the development of students' creative abilities. This goal is achieved by other methods, in particular the method of problem presentation.

Problem presentation method is transitional from performing to creative activity. The essence of the method of problem presentation is that the teacher poses a problem and solves it himself, thereby showing the train of thought in the process of cognition. At the same time, students follow the logic of presentation, mastering the stages of solving integral problems.

At the same time, they not only perceive, comprehend and memorize ready-made knowledge, conclusions, but also follow the logic of evidence, the movement of the teacher’s thought or the means replacing it (cinema, television, books, etc.). And although students with this method of teaching are not participants, but only observers of the course of reflection, they learn to resolve cognitive difficulties.

A higher level of cognitive activity brings partially exploratory (heuristic) method.

The method is called partly exploratory because students independently solve a complex educational problem not from beginning to end, but only partially. The teacher guides the students through the individual search steps. Part of the knowledge is communicated by the teacher, and part of the knowledge is obtained by the students on their own, answering the questions posed or solving problematic tasks. Learning activities develops according to the scheme: teacher - students - teacher - students, etc.

Thus, the essence of the partially search method of teaching is that:

Not all knowledge is offered to students in finished form, they partially need to be obtained independently;

The activity of the teacher is operational management problem solving process.

One of the modifications of this method is the heuristic conversation.

Research method of teaching provides for the creative assimilation of knowledge by students.

Its essence is as follows:

The teacher together with the students formulates the problem;

Students independently resolve it;

The teacher provides assistance only when there are difficulties in solving the problem.

Thus, the research method is used not only to generalize knowledge, but mainly so that the student learns to acquire knowledge, investigate an object or phenomenon, draw conclusions and apply the acquired knowledge and skills in life. Its essence is reduced to the organization of the search, creative activity of students to solve new problems for them.

The main disadvantage of this method of teaching is that it requires a significant amount of time and a high level of pedagogical qualification of the teacher.

Classification of teaching methods based on a holistic approach to the learning process (Babansky Yu.K.).

According to this classification, teaching methods are divided into three groups:

1) methods of organization and implementation of educational and cognitive activities;

2) methods of stimulation and motivation of educational and cognitive activity;

3) methods of control and self-control over the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activity.

First group includes the following methods:

Perceptual (transmission and perception educational information through the senses)

Verbal (lecture, story, conversation, etc.);

Visual (demonstration, illustration);

Practical (experiments, exercises, assignments);

Logical, that is, the organization and implementation of logical operations (inductive, deductive, analogies, etc.);

Gnostic (research, problem-search, reproductive);

Self-management of educational activities (independent work with a book, instruments, etc.).

To the second group methods include:

Methods of forming interest in learning (cognitive games, educational discussions, creating problem situations, etc.);

Methods of formation of duty and responsibility in teaching (encouragement, approval, censure, etc.).

To the third group various methods of oral, written and machine testing of knowledge, skills and abilities, as well as methods of self-control over the effectiveness of one's own educational and cognitive activity are assigned.

Binary classification of teaching methods based on on the combination of methods of activity of the teacher and students (Makhmutov M.I.).

The basis binary And polynomial classifications of teaching methods are based on two or more common features.

Binary classification of teaching methods by M. Makhmutov includes two groups of methods:

1) teaching methods (informative-communicating; explanatory; instructive-practical; explanatory-motivating; encouraging);

2) teaching methods (executive; reproductive; productive and practical; partially exploratory; exploratory).

classification, based on four signs (logical-content, source, procedural and organizational-managerial), suggested by S. G. Shapovalenko.

There are other classifications of teaching methods.

As you can see, at present there is no single view on the problem of classifying teaching methods, and any of the considered classifications has both advantages and disadvantages that must be taken into account at the selection stage and in the process of implementing specific teaching methods. The presence of different points of view on the problem of classifying teaching methods reflects the objective, real versatility of teaching methods, the natural process of differentiation and integration of knowledge about them.

Let us dwell in more detail on the individual teaching methods included in various classifications.

Story. This is a monologue, sequential presentation of the material in a descriptive or narrative form. The story is used to communicate factual information that requires imagery and consistency of presentation. The story is used at all stages of learning, only the tasks of presentation, the style and volume of the story change.

The greatest developmental effect is given by the story when teaching younger students who are prone to figurative thinking. The developing meaning of the story is that it brings mental processes into a state of activity: imagination, thinking, memory, emotional experiences. Influencing the feelings of a person, the story helps to understand and assimilate the meaning of the moral assessments and norms of behavior contained in it.

According to the goals are distinguished:

- introduction story, the purpose of which is to prepare students for the study of new material;

- storytelling used to express intended content;

- story-conclusion Summarizes the material learned.

Certain requirements are imposed on the story as a teaching method: the story must ensure the achievement of didactic goals; contain true facts; have a clear logic; the presentation should be demonstrative, figurative, emotional, taking into account the age characteristics of the trainees.

In its pure form, the story is used relatively rarely. It is often used in combination with other teaching methods. illustration, discussion, conversation.

If with the help of the story it is not possible to provide a clear and precise understanding of certain provisions, then the method of explanation is used.

Explanation this is an interpretation of patterns, essential properties of the object under study, individual concepts, phenomena. The explanation is characterized by an evidentiary form of presentation, based on the use of logically connected inferences that establish the basis for the truth of this judgment. Explanation is most often used in the study theoretical material various sciences. As a teaching method, explanation is widely used in working with people of different age groups.

There are certain requirements for the explanation: an accurate and clear statement of the essence of the problem; consistent disclosure of cause-and-effect relationships, argumentation and evidence; the use of comparison, analogy, comparison; impeccable logic of presentation.

In many cases, explanation is combined with observations, with questions asked by both trainer and trainee, and can develop into a conversation.

Conversation a dialogical method of teaching, in which the teacher, by posing a system of questions, leads students to understand new material or checks their assimilation of what they have already studied. Conversation as a teaching method can be applied to solve any didactic task. Distinguish individual conversations(questions addressed to one student) , group conversations(questions are addressed to a specific group) and frontal(questions are addressed to everyone).

Depending on the tasks that the teacher sets in the learning process, the content of the educational material, the level of creative cognitive activity of students, the place of conversation in the didactic process, various types of conversations are distinguished:

- introductory, or introductory, conversations. Conducted before learning new material for updating previously acquired knowledge and ascertaining the degree of readiness of students for knowledge, inclusion in the upcoming educational and cognitive activities;

- conversations messages of new knowledge. There are catechetical(reproducing answers in the wording that was given in the textbook or teacher); Socratic(assuming reflection) and heuristic(inclusion of students in the process of active search for new knowledge, formulation of conclusions);

- synthesizing, or reinforcing, conversations. They serve to generalize and systematize the knowledge that students have and how to apply it in non-standard situations;

- control and correctional conversations. They are used for diagnostic purposes, as well as to clarify, supplement with new information the knowledge that students have.

One type of conversation is interview, which can be carried out with an individual or a group of people.

When conducting a conversation, it is important to correctly formulate and ask questions. They should be short, clear, meaningful; have a logical connection with each other; reveal in the aggregate the essence of the issue under study; promote the assimilation of knowledge in the system.

In terms of content and form, questions should correspond to the level of development of students (too easy and very difficult questions do not stimulate active cognitive activity, a serious attitude to knowledge). Do not ask double, prompting questions containing ready-made answers; formulate alternative questions that allow answers such as "yes" or "no".

Conversation as a teaching method has undoubted dignity:

Activates the educational and cognitive activity of students;

Develops them speech, memory, thinking;

Has great educational power;

It is a good diagnostic tool, helps to control students' knowledge.

However, this method has limitations:

Requires a lot of time;

If students do not have a certain stock of ideas and concepts, then the conversation is ineffective.

In addition, the conversation does not provide practical skills; contains an element of risk (the student may give an incorrect answer, which is perceived by others and recorded in their memory).

Lecture This is a monologic way of presenting voluminous material. It differs from other verbal methods of presenting the material by a more rigorous structure; abundance of reported information; the logic of the presentation of the material; systemic nature of knowledge coverage.

Distinguish popular science And academic lectures. Popular science lectures are used to popularize knowledge. Academic lectures are used in the upper grades of secondary school, in secondary specialized and higher educational institutions. Lectures are devoted to major and fundamentally important sections of the curriculum. They differ in their construction, methods of presentation of the material. The lecture can be used to summarize, repeat the material covered.

The logical center of the lecture is some theoretical generalization related to the field of scientific knowledge. Specific facts that form the basis conversations or story, here serve only as an illustration or as a starting point.

The relevance of using lectures in modern conditions is increasing due to the use of block study of new material on topics or large sections.

Educational discussion as a teaching method based on the exchange of views on a particular problem. Moreover, these views reflect either the own opinions of the participants in the discussion, or are based on the opinions of other people. The main function of the educational discussion is the stimulation of cognitive interest. With the help of the discussion, its participants acquire new knowledge, strengthen their own opinions, learn to defend their position, and take into account the views of others.

It is advisable to use this method if students have the necessary knowledge on the topic of the upcoming discussion, have a significant degree of maturity and independence of thinking, and are able to argue, prove and substantiate their point of view. Therefore, it is necessary to prepare students for the discussion in advance, both in terms of content and in formal terms.

Work with textbook and book one of the most important teaching methods. The main advantage of this method is the opportunity for the student to repeatedly refer to educational information at a pace that is accessible to him and at a convenient time. When using programmed educational books, which, in addition to educational information, also contain control information, the issues of control, correction, diagnostics of knowledge and skills are effectively solved.

Work with the book can be organized under the direct supervision of the teacher (teacher) and in the form of independent work of the student with the text. This method implements two tasks: students learn educational material and gain experience in working with texts, master various techniques for working with printed sources.

Let us dwell on some methods of independent work with texts.

note-taking a short note, a summary of the content of what was read. Distinguish continuous, selective, complete, brief note-taking. You can take notes from the first (on your own) or third person. Note-taking in the first person is preferable, as in this case independence develops better. thinking.

Thesis a summary of the main ideas in a certain sequence.

Referencing a review of a number of sources on the topic with their own assessment of their content and form.

Drawing up a text plan after reading the text, it is necessary to break it into parts and title each of them. The plan can be simple or complex.

Citation verbatim excerpt from the text.

When quoting, the following conditions must be met:

a) quote should be correct, without distorting the meaning;

b) an accurate record of the imprint is required (author, title of work, place of publication, publisher, year of publication, page).

Annotation a short, convoluted summary of the content read without losing the essential meaning.

Peer review writing a review, i.e. a brief review expressing your attitude about what you read.

Compiling a reference. Help information about something obtained after searching. References are biographical, statistical, geographical, terminological, etc.

Drawing up a formal-logical model verbal-schematic representation of what was read.

Compilation of a thematic thesaurus an ordered complex of basic concepts on a topic, section, entire discipline.

Drawing up a matrix of ideas (grid of ideas, repertory grid) compilation in the form of a table of comparative characteristics of homogeneous objects, phenomena in the works of different authors.

Pictographic entry wordless image.

These are the basic techniques for independent work with printed sources. It has been established that the possession of various methods of working with texts increases the productivity of cognitive work, saves time on mastering the content of the material. The transition from one method of working with text to another changes the mode of operation of the brain, which prevents its rapid fatigue.

Demonstration as a teaching method, it involves the demonstration of experiments, technical installations, television programs, videos, filmstrips, code-positives, computer programs, etc. The demonstration method serves primarily to reveal the dynamics of the phenomena being studied, but is also used to familiarize oneself with the appearance of an object, its internal structure. This method is most effective when students themselves study objects, processes and phenomena, perform the necessary measurements, establish dependencies, due to which an active cognitive process is carried out, their horizons expand, and a sensory-empirical basis of knowledge is created.

Didactic value has a demonstration of real objects, phenomena or processes occurring in natural conditions. But such a demonstration is not always possible. In this case, either a demonstration of natural objects in an artificial environment (animals in a zoo) or a demonstration of artificially created objects in a natural environment (reduced copies of mechanisms) is used.

Three-dimensional models play an important role in the study of all subjects, as they allow you to get acquainted with the design, the principles of operation of mechanisms (the operation of an internal combustion engine, a blast furnace). Many modern models make it possible to carry out direct measurements, determine technical or technological characteristics. At the same time, it is important to choose the right objects for demonstration, to skillfully direct students' attention to the essential aspects of the phenomena being demonstrated.

Closely related to the method demonstrations method illustrations . Sometimes these methods are identified, not singled out as independent.

The illustration method involves showing objects, processes and phenomena in their symbolic image using posters, maps, portraits, photographs, drawings, diagrams, reproductions, flat models, etc. Recently, the practice of visualization has been enriched with a number of new means (multicolor maps with plastic coating, albums, atlases, etc.).

The methods of demonstration and illustration are closely related. Demonstration, as a rule, is used when students should perceive the process or phenomenon as a whole. When it is required to realize the essence of the phenomenon, the relationship between its components, resort to illustrations.

When using these methods, certain requirements must be met:

Use visibility in moderation;

Coordinate the demonstrated visibility with the content of the material;

The visualization used should be appropriate for the age of the trainees;

The demonstrated object should be clearly visible to all students;

It is necessary to clearly highlight the main, essential in the demonstrated object.

A special group consists of teaching methods, the main purpose of which is the formation of practical skills and abilities. This group of methods includes exercises, practical And laboratory methods.

The exercise multiple (repeated) performance of educational actions (mental or practical) in order to master them or improve their quality.

Distinguish oral, written, graphic And educational and labor exercises.

oral exercises contribute to the development of a culture of speech, logical thinking, memory, attention, cognitive abilities of students.

Main purpose written exercises consists in consolidating knowledge, developing the necessary skills and abilities to apply them.

Closely adjacent to written graphic exercises. Their use helps to better perceive, comprehend and remember educational material; promotes the development of spatial imagination. Graphic exercises include work on drawing up graphs, drawings, diagrams, technological maps, sketches, etc.

A special group is educational and labor exercises, the purpose of which is the application of theoretical knowledge in labor activity. They contribute to mastering the skills of handling tools, laboratory equipment (instruments, measuring equipment), develop design and technical skills.

Any exercises, depending on the degree of independence of students, can be worn reproducing, training or creative character.

To activate the educational process, the conscious fulfillment of educational tasks are used commented exercises. Their essence lies in the fact that students comment on the actions performed, as a result of which they are better understood and assimilated.

For exercises to be effective, they must meet a number of requirements. These include the conscious approach of students to the exercise; knowledge of the rules for performing actions; compliance with the didactic sequence in the implementation of exercises; accounting for the results achieved; distribution of repetitions in time.

laboratory method based on student self-direction experiments, experiments using instruments, tools, i.e., using special equipment. Work can be done individually or in groups. Students are required to be more active and independent than during a demonstration, where they act as passive observers, and not participants and performers of research.

The laboratory method not only ensures the acquisition of knowledge by students, but also contributes to the formation of practical skills, which, of course, is its merit. But the laboratory method requires special, often expensive equipment, and its use is associated with significant energy and time costs.

Practical Methods these are teaching methods aimed at applying the acquired knowledge to solving practical problems. They perform the functions of deepening knowledge, skills, control and correction, stimulate cognitive activity, contribute to the formation of such qualities as economy, economy, organizational skills, etc.

Some authors distinguish in a special group active And intensive teaching methods . Scientists and practitioners began to pay close attention to these teaching methods in the 60s. of the twentieth century, and this was due to the search for ways to activate students in the learning process. The cognitive activity of students is expressed in a steady interest in knowledge, in a variety of independent learning activities. The traditional teaching technology, aimed at ensuring that the student listens, remembers, and reproduces what the teacher said, poorly develops the student's cognitive activity.

Active learning methods These are such teaching methods in which the student's activity is productive, creative, and exploratory in nature. Active learning methods include didactic games, case analysis, problem solving, learning by algorithm, brainstorming, out-of-context operations with concepts and etc.

Intensive learning methods are used to organize training in a short time with long one-time sessions (“immersion method”). These methods are used in teaching business, marketing, a foreign language, in practical psychology and pedagogy.

Let's look at some of these methods.

Method of didactic games. Didactic (educational) games as a teaching method became very popular in the second half of the 20th century. Some scholars classify them as practical teaching methods, while others classify them as a separate group. There are grounds for singling out didactic games as a separate group: firstly, by absorbing elements of visual, verbal, and practical methods, they go beyond them; secondly, they have features inherent only to them.

Didactic game this is such a collective, purposeful learning activity, when each participant and the team as a whole are united by the solution of the main task and orient their behavior towards winning.

The purpose of didactic games is training, development and education of students. A didactic game is an active educational activity in simulation modeling of the studied phenomena, processes, systems. The game in a simplified form reproduces, simulates the reality and operations of participants imitating real actions.

Didactic games as a teaching method contain great potential for activation learning process.

Brain attack (brainstorming) a teaching method aimed at activating thought processes by jointly searching for a solution to a difficult problem. This method was proposed by the American psychologist A. Osborne. Its essence is that the participants put forward their ideas, proposals on the problem. All ideas, even the most unexpected ones, are accepted and undergo a group examination and are discussed. This method teaches a culture of joint discussion of ideas, overcoming stereotypes and patterns in thinking; reveals the creative potential of man.

Algorithm training as a teaching method is used in the technology of programmed learning. An algorithm in pedagogy is understood as an instruction to perform strictly sequential actions with educational material, which guarantees the solution of educational problems at a high level. (For more details, see the lecture "Teaching Technologies".)

Currently, directions in pedagogy are being actively developed that use the hidden capabilities of students: suggestopedia And cyberneticosuggestopedia (G. Lazanov, V. V. Petrusinsky) training by means of suggestion; hypnopaedia sleep learning; pharmacopedia pharmaceutical education. Certain results have been achieved in their application in the process of studying foreign languages and some special disciplines.

Teaching methods are applied in unity with certain teaching aids.

Means of education ( didactic means) these are sources of knowledge acquisition, skills formation.

The concept of "means of learning" is used in wide And narrow sense. When this concept is used in narrow sense teaching aids are educational and visual aids, demonstration devices, technical means, etc. broad sense suggests that learning means is understood as everything that contributes to the achievement of the goals of education, i.e., the entire set of methods, forms, content, as well as special teaching aids.

Learning tools are designed to facilitate direct and indirect knowledge of the world. They, like methods, perform teaching, educational and developmental functions, and also serve to stimulate, manage and control the educational and cognitive activity of students.

There is no strict classification of teaching aids in science. Some scholars subdivide teaching aids into the means used by the teacher to effectively achieve the goals of education (visual aids, technical means), and the individual means of students (school textbooks, notebooks, stationery, etc.). The number of didactic tools includes those that are associated with both the activities of the teacher and the trainees (sports equipment, classrooms, computers, etc.).

Often, sensory modality is used as the basis for the classification of didactic means.

In this case, didactic means are divided into:

- visual (visual), which include tables, maps, natural objects, etc.;

- auditory (auditory) radio, tape recorders, musical instruments etc.;

- audiovisual (visual-auditory) sound film, television, etc.

Polish didact V. Window proposed a classification in which learning tools are arranged in order of increasing ability to replace the actions of the teacher and automate the actions of the student. He singled out simple and complex means.

Simple means:

Verbal (textbooks and other texts);

Visual (real objects, models, paintings, etc.).

Complex tools:

Mechanical visual devices (diascope, microscope, overhead projector, etc.);

Audio media (player, tape recorder, radio);

Audiovisual (sound film, television, video);

Means that automate the learning process (linguistic classrooms, computers, information systems, telecommunication networks).

Didactic tools become a valuable element of the learning process if they are used in close connection with the other components of this process.

Choice of Methods educational activities and teaching aids depends on many objective and subjective reasons, namely:

Regularities and the principles of training arising from them;

General goals of education, upbringing and human development;

Specific educational tasks;

The level of motivation for learning;

Features of the methodology of teaching a particular academic discipline;

The time allotted for the study of a particular material;

Quantity and complexity of educational material;

The level of preparedness of students;

Age and individual characteristics of students;

Formation of students' learning skills;

Type and structure of the lesson;

Number of students;

student interest;

Relationships between the teacher and students that have developed in the process of educational work (cooperation or authoritarianism);

Logistics, availability of equipment, visual aids, technical means;

Features of the personality of the teacher, his qualifications.

Taking into account the complex of these circumstances and conditions, the teacher decides on the choice of a specific teaching method or their combination for conducting a lesson.

Test questions:

1. Define methods, techniques and learning tools

2. List the main classifications of teaching methods

3. Expand the classification of teaching methods according to the nature of the cognitive activity of students (Lerner I. Ya., Skatkin M. N.)

4. What are the conditions for the application of teaching methods and tools?

3. Pedagogy methods

Like any science, pedagogy is characterized not only by its own subject, but also by a specific set of methods. It is necessary to distinguish, firstly, methods of training and education , with the help of which the management of the pedagogical process is carried out, pedagogical goals are realized, and secondly, proper research methods, those. methods of obtaining the pedagogical knowledge itself, which makes it possible to develop these goals and the means to achieve them.

Methods of scientific and pedagogical research - these are ways of obtaining information in order to establish patterns, relationships, dependencies and build scientific theories.

Empirical Research Methods aimed at the accumulation of pedagogical facts, their selection, analysis, synthesis, quantitative processing: this is observation, survey methods, the study of products and the process of activity of students and teachers, documentation and archival materials; compilation of monographic characteristics.

Theoretical Level Methods: selection and classification of material, study, analysis and synthesis of scientific literature on the topic of research, modeling, content analysis, etc.

Observation - this is a purposeful, relatively long-term, organized according to a special program, perception of the pedagogical process, its individual types, aspects in natural conditions.

Observation can be continuous or selective. Selectivity can be determined in relation to the subjects of activity (when the lesson is not observed for all students of the class, but only, for example, for "excellent students") or in relation to the content of the activity and forms of its organization (for example, explaining new material or exercising control) .

Based on the observations, an expert assessment can be given. Their results must be recorded. They are recorded in special protocols or diaries of observations, where the names of the observed (observed), date, time and purpose are noted. The data obtained are subjected to quantitative and qualitative processing.

The main specific feature of observation is that it does not affect the object of study, does not cause phenomena of interest to it, but waits for their natural expression. This, on the one hand, is an advantage of the observation method (since it allows recording the natural behavior of a person), and on the other hand, it creates certain difficulties for the researcher (since he is forced to wait until he can observe the phenomenon of interest to him, and therefore, he must stay indefinitely In standby"). Another disadvantage of this method is that its results are influenced by the personal characteristics (attitudes, interests, mental states) of the researcher.

Observation requires a special, predetermined plan, which includes the following steps:

determination of the purpose and objectives of observation (why to observe);

choice of object, subject and situation (what to observe);

choice of observation method (how to observe);

choice of registration methods (how to keep records);

processing and interpretation of the received information (what is the result).

Types of observation: direct And indirect.

direct observation characterized by direct observation of the process and, in turn, is divided into two types (included and non-included).

With the included observation, the researcher acts as a direct organizer of educational or educational work, activities and communication of students, which allows him to penetrate deeper into the essence of the phenomena being studied.

With non-included observation, the researcher is outside the object under study. With the help of non-participant observation, the facts of open behavior are recorded.

At indirect observation the researcher learns about the features of the studied through other persons.

To obtain the most objective data, observation should be carried out in compliance with certain rules: have a goal, a program, be carried out systematically and for a long time. Recording the process and results of observation should be continuous, thorough and detailed.

Survey Methods : interviewing and questioning.

An interview is a method of oral conversation according to a program compiled by the researcher.

Types of interview:

1) non-standardized (informal), in which the researcher, thinking through the questions in advance, can change them, clarify them during the conversation, depending on the circumstances;

2) a standardized interview, when the researcher asks the subject to formulate the answers precisely in a certain sequence. The results of such an interview are quite accurate and easier to record. However, this type of interview does not sufficiently take into account the diversity of life situations;

3) a semi-standardized interview includes precisely formulated questions that can be changed.

Questionnaire – a method that is widely used in pedagogy.

Questionnaire - a written survey, which is a set of accurately selected questions.

The method has age restrictions, as it cannot be applied to those who do not have reading and writing skills. Therefore, questioning in the practice of the educational process is used starting from the middle level of a comprehensive school.

One of its main advantages is the massive nature of the collection of information. An open questionnaire contains questions without accompanying ready-made answers. The closed-type questionnaire is constructed in such a way that for each question the respondent is asked to choose one of the answer options (often the choice is “yes” or “no” answers). A mixed questionnaire contains elements of both types.

In pedagogical practice, up to 30-40 minutes are allotted for questioning. The order of the questions is most often determined by the method of random numbers. The data obtained are subjected to quantitative and qualitative processing. However, when processing closed questionnaires, a qualitative analysis is practically impossible, since if the choices are similar (“yes” or “no”) for different people, the reasons for such choices remain unclear and cannot be compared.

The main requirements that the survey must meet are the representativeness and homogeneity of the sample.

Sample representativeness – this property of the sample population to represent the main characteristics of the general aggregates.

General population - it is the whole population, or that part of it, which the sociologist intends to study.

Sample population (sample) is a part of the studied population or a set of people whom the sociologist interviews.

The questionnaire method implies the possibility of using the principle of anonymity, which may affect the degree of frankness in the answers (for example, a questionnaire that reveals the attitude of students to academic subjects and teachers).

The questionnaire can also be designed to receive material relating to other people (for example, a survey of teachers or parents about the peculiarities of children's education).

Sociometry - a method of scientific research that allows, on the basis of surveys or fixation of behavior, to reveal the structure of relationships; is used to study the structure of groups and collectives, organizational and communicative properties of the individual.

Based on the sociometric diagnostic procedure, founded by J. Moreno, in the practice of education, one can determine the informal leader of a group, class, teaching staff, status hierarchy in a group, group cohesion, etc.

Each individual in the group has a sociometric status, which can be determined by analyzing the sum of preferences and rejections received from other members.

The totality of all statuses defines status hierarchy in a group:

Sociometric stars - the highest status members of the group, having the maximum number of positive choices with a small number of negative choices. These are the people to whom the sympathy of the majority, or at least many, of the members of the group is directed.

High-status, middle-status and low-status members of the group, determined by the number of positive elections and do not have a large number negative choices. There are groups in which there are no sociometric stars, but only high-, medium-, low-status members.

Isolated - subjects that do not have any choices, both positive and negative. The position of an isolated person in a group is one of the most unfavorable, since it indicates that other members of the group are completely indifferent to this individual.

Outcasts - those members of the group who have a large number of negative choices and a small number of preferences.

Neglected or outcasts – group members who do not have a single positive choice in the presence of negative ones.

An example of a sociometric technique . Each group member is given a list of the group and a questionnaire with instructions and two criteria for emotional content such as:

With whom from the group do you communicate or would like to communicate in your free time

Who in the group do you communicate with least often or least of all would like to communicate in your free time

Results processing:

According to the questionnaires, a sociometric matrix is filled in according to the criterion of emotional attraction.

The number of positive ("+") choices for each member of the group is counted. It is equal to the number of "+" choices in each column of the matrix.

The number of positive ("+") points for each participant is calculated. For the first choice, the subject is assigned 2 points, for the second - 1 point, for all subsequent choices - 0.5 points each.

The number of rejections ("-" choices) for each participant is counted.

The number of points for rejections (“-” points) for each participant is calculated (points are assigned in the same way as points for positive choices, only with a “-” sign).

If the application of the five listed criteria for an unambiguous determination of the status is not enough, then the participant's serial number in the alphabetical list is used as an additional number. So, for example, if two or more members have the same values, then the member with the lower rank in the group list takes the higher position.

A sociogram is being built. It is a graphic representation of emotional (usually) connections between group members. On the diagram, the members of the group are symbolically (ciphers), their choices and the direction of these choices (arrows) are indicated.

the value of the indicator of emotional cohesion of the group is determined: C = N B /(N(N - 1)), where C is the emotional cohesion of the group; N B is the number of mutual elections in the group; N is the number of group members; N(N - 1) is the total possible number of mutual choices in the group.

Pedagogical experiment - scientifically delivered experience in the field of educational or educational work in order to identify the interdependence between the studied phenomena.

The main difference between an experiment and an observation is that the experimenter acts on the object under study in accordance with the hypothesis of the study.

The study of pedagogical phenomena is carried out in specially created controlled conditions. The pedagogical experiment offers active intervention in the educational process.

Types of experiment:

1) laboratory, which is carried out in specially created conditions and allows you to accurately record the nature of the impact on the subjects and their responses;

2) a natural experiment conducted under normal conditions of educational work, when the subjects do not know that they are taking part in the experiment.

The introduction of the experiment allows you to check the effectiveness of curricula, programs for educational and educational work, forms and methods of education and training, etc.

The experiment usually consists of the following steps:

1) theoretical- formulation of the problem, definition of the goal, object, subject, tasks and hypothesis, which can be tested experimentally;

2) methodical- development of a methodology for studying the plan, program, methods for processing the data received;

3) actual experiment– creation of experimental situations, observation, control and correction of experimental impact;

4) analytical– quantitative and qualitative analysis, interpretation of the obtained data, formulation of conclusions and practical recommendations.

To establish the general patterns of development, the experiment is carried out on large samples. And then the obligatory observance of the general, identical conditions for its implementation becomes extremely important (the wording of the instruction, the appearance and placement of the stimulus material, the time for the construction of buildings, etc.).

The results of the experiment, as well as during observation, are recorded in special protocols, where, in addition to information about each subject (last name, first name, age, etc.), his reactions (emotional and behavioral), verbatim speech statements, and time to complete tasks are recorded.

A properly designed experiment allows you to test hypotheses about causal relationships and relationships, not limited to ascertaining the correlation between variables.

Allocate traditional and factorial types of plans for the experiment. In the traditional one, only one independent variable is assumed to change, and in the factorial one, several. In the second option, it becomes possible to assess the interaction of factors - changes in the nature of the influence of one of the variables depending on the value of the other. In this case, analysis of variance is used for statistical processing of the experimental results.

If the area under study is relatively unknown and there is no system of hypotheses, then a pilot experiment is used, the results of which can help clarify the direction of further analysis.

When planning and conducting an experiment, it is necessary to take into account the socio-psychological effects that affect its course and results. The most notable effects include:

Audience effect . It is determined by the fact that the presence of the public, even passive, in itself affects the rate of learning of the subject or the performance of the proposed task. Usually, the presence of spectators at the initial stages of training rather confuses the subject, and at the stage of the implementation of an already mastered action (or an action that requires physical effort), on the contrary, facilitates its implementation. This effect must be taken into account in psychological and pedagogical research and in pedagogical practice, since training, as a rule, takes place in a group form.

boomerang effect. It consists in the fact that with some influences of the source of information on individuals or a group, a result is obtained that is the opposite of the expected one.. As a rule, this is observed if:

undermined the credibility of the source of information;

transmitted information long time has a monotonous character that does not correspond to changed conditions;

the subject transmitting information causes hostility in those who perceive it.

In pedagogical practice, this effect can be observed in relation to "teacher - student" and negatively affect the assimilation of educational material by students.

3. First impression effect . It is expressed in the fact that often when perceiving a person, his appearance and character, the first impression is given the greatest importance and subsequent information about this person, if it contradicts him, can be ignored, and the observed manifestations that do not fit into the created image are considered as random and uncharacteristic. The first impression effect is very close in content to the halo effect.

4. halo effect . It acts as a distribution of the general evaluative impression of a person on the perception of his actions and personal qualities. It is observed, as a rule, in conditions of lack of information about a person. In other words, the first impression of a person determines his subsequent perception and evaluation, passing into the mind of the perceiver only that which corresponds to the first impression, and filtering out the contradictory. When forming the first impression, the halo effect can act as:

"halo positive"- positive evaluative bias, i.е. if the first impression of a person as a whole is favorable, then all his behavior is overestimated in positive side, positive moments are exaggerated, and negative ones are underestimated or ignored;

"halo negative"- negative evaluative bias, i.е. if the first impression of a person was formed as unfavorable, then even his positive qualities and actions are later not noticed or underestimated against the background of hypertrophied attention to shortcomings.

The effect of the first impression and the halo effect must be taken into account by the organizers of experimental studies and especially teachers, since they, due to the specifics professional activity must constantly assess the level of students' learning, a rigid assessment can be a traumatic factor. Overcoming these effects (as well as many others, by the way) requires a certain amount of work from the teacher, primarily a constant reflexive analysis of one's own activity.

5. Hawthorne effect . Says that if the subjects know the hypothesis accepted by the experimenter, then it is likely that they will involuntarily or intentionally behave in accordance with the experimenter's expectations. In general, mere participation in an experiment has such an impact on the subjects that they often behave in the way that the experimenters expect them to. To reduce the Hawthorne effect, it is enough to keep the subjects in the dark about the accepted hypotheses and give them instructions in as emotionally neutral a tone as possible.

6. Pygmalion effect (Rosenthal effect). Associated with the experimenter's expectations. When he is deeply convinced that the reactions of the subjects will change, then, even with his desire to maintain objectivity, there is a high probability of unwitting transmission of these expectations to the subjects, and this may affect their behavior. The American psychologist Rosenthal called this phenomenon, which consists in the fact that the experimenter, firmly convinced of the validity of his assumptions, involuntarily acts in such a way that he receives confirmation from him.

Modeling method , which is based on the creation of models of the object of study.

A special role in the development of science is played by mathematical models, the significance of which in research is increasingly expanding. In pedagogical research, objective models of objects and subjects of scientific research are distinguished: models of the process of education and upbringing, a school lesson, university forms and methods of education and upbringing, control and assessment of knowledge, skills and abilities, a model of a student of a certain level of performance, etc.

Examining school records (personal files of students, medical records, class journals, student diaries, minutes of meetings, meetings) equips the researcher with some objective data characterizing the actual practice of organizing the educational process.

Theoretical methods are associated with literature study : the works of the classics on questions of human knowledge in general and pedagogy in particular; general and special works on pedagogy; historical and pedagogical works and documents of the periodical pedagogical press; fiction about school, education, teacher; reference pedagogical literature, textbooks and manuals on pedagogy and related sciences.

The study of the literature makes it possible to find out which aspects of the problem have already been sufficiently well studied, on which scientific discussions are ongoing, what is outdated, and what issues have not yet been resolved.

Working with literature involves the use of methods such as:

compiling a bibliography - a list of sources selected for work in connection with the problem under study;

abstracting - a concise presentation of the main content of one or more works on a general topic;

note-taking - keeping more detailed records, the basis of which is the selection of the main ideas and provisions of the work;

annotation - a brief record of the general content of a book or article;

citation is a verbatim record of expressions, factual and numerical data contained in a literary source.

Mathematical and statistical methods in pedagogy, they are used to process the data obtained by the methods of survey and experiment, as well as to establish quantitative dependencies between the studied phenomena. They help to evaluate the results of the experiment, increase the reliability of the conclusions, and provide grounds for theoretical generalizations.

Examples of such statistical methods are:

factor analysis;

cluster analysis;

dispersion analysis;

regression analysis;

latent structural analysis;

multidimensional scaling, etc.

Factor analysis is to identify and interpret factors. A factor is a generalized variable that allows you to collapse some of the information, i.e. present it in a convenient way. For example, the factor theory of personality identifies a number of generalized characteristics of behavior, which in this case are called personality traits.

cluster analysis allows you to highlight the leading feature and the hierarchy of feature relationships.

Analysis of variance - a static method used to study one or more simultaneously acting and independent variables for the variability of an observed trait. Its peculiarity is that the observed feature can only be quantitative, while the explanatory features can be both quantitative and qualitative.

Regression analysis allows you to identify a quantitative (numerical) dependence of the average value of changes in the resultant sign (explained) on changes in one or more signs (explanatory variables). As a rule, this type of analysis is used when it is required to find out how much the average value of one attribute changes when another attribute changes by one.

Latent structural analysis is a set of analytical and statistical procedures for identifying hidden variables (features), as well as the internal structure of relationships between them. It makes it possible to explore the manifestations of complex interrelations of directly unobservable characteristics of psychological and pedagogical phenomena. Latent analysis can become the basis for modeling these relationships.

Multidimensional scaling provides a visual assessment of the similarity or difference between some objects described by a large number of various variables. These differences are represented as the distance between the estimated objects in a multidimensional space.

The most common in pedagogy are also: grouping, ranking, scaling, etc.

grouping – association by essential features of the units of the object under study into homogeneous aggregates. The grouping procedure is preceded by a thorough analysis of the problem under study. In the course of this analysis, the basis of the grouping is determined, i.e. the main features, semantic units, etc., according to which the studied population is divided into homogeneous groups. The selected groups can be easily compared, compared, and therefore, it is possible to analyze one or another psychological and pedagogical statement more deeply.

The scientific validity of the grouping also depends on the observance of the basic principles of the grouping in the process of its implementation: the division of heterogeneous phenomena into homogeneous ones; finding common and similar phenomena; determination of features by which types should be distinguished; determination of the transition interval from one type to another.

The following types of grouping are used in pedagogical research:

1) grouping by simple summation

homogeneous features , due to which the absolute numbers of their manifestation in the studied population are determined;

2) ranging, i.e. grouping of the studied units of the population, depending on the increase or decrease of the studied trait;

3)scaling - grouping based on logically distinguished features using a pre-developed ordinal or interval scale. Scaling makes it possible to streamline, quantify, determine the lowest and highest levels of the phenomenon under study;

tabulation – construction of statistical tables.

The results of statistical work, in addition to tables, are often displayed graphically in the form of a diagram, figures, etc. The main methods of graphic representation of statistical quantities are: the method of points, the method of straight lines and the method of rectangles. They are simple and accessible to every researcher. The technique of their use is drawing coordinate axes, setting the scale and issuing the designation of segments (points) on the horizontal and vertical axes.

With the help of statistical methods, the average values of the obtained indicators are determined: arithmetic mean; median - an indicator of the middle of the series; the degree of dispersion - dispersion, or standard deviation, coefficient of variation, etc. For these calculations, there are appropriate formulas, reference tables are used. The results processed using these methods make it possible to show quantitative dependence in the form of graphs, charts, tables.

3. The relationship between the concepts of "pedagogical technology" and "methods of teaching and education"

Defining the concept of "pedagogical technology", we used the terms: method, technique, method, means. The same terms are used when they define the methodology of teaching a particular subject or the methodology of educational work. However, these concepts are different.

Under methodology usually understood a set of methods and means of carrying out pedagogical activities in the process of training and education. At the same time, methodology is a pedagogical science that studies 1) patterns, content, methods and means of teaching a particular academic subject (private methodology); 2) features of the organization of the educational process in various educational institutions (methods of educational work). However, m methodology studies a variety of methods (techniques) and means of the pedagogical process, without building them in a certain logic, according to a certain algorithm.

Technology different from the methodology algorithmic and focus on a specific diagnosable result. In passing, we note that pedagogical technology is not reduced to an algorithm as an exact reproduction of actions, since it takes into account and allows certain limits creativity of teachers and pupils.

There are other approaches to distinguish between the concepts under consideration. The methodology reveals more teacher activity system in the classroom or in extracurricular educational work (what and in what sequence to present, what means to use, how to organize the various stages of the lesson, etc.). Technology, along with the activities of the teacher, describes the activities of the students themselves. In addition, the methods are soft, recommendatory in nature, and technologies more strictly prescribe a certain sequence of actions for students and the teacher, a deviation from which may hinder the achievement of planned results. Technology makes it possible to reproduce them, while methods are much more difficult to reproduce. They are largely based on intuition, tradition, personal qualities of the teacher. Technology is always scientifically substantiated, based on certain philosophical, psychological or pedagogical theories that do not depend on the personality of the teacher.

The question of which of these concepts is broader - pedagogical technology or methodology, is debatable. We must agree with N.I. Zaprudsky that this question cannot be answered unambiguously. Within the framework of technology, the teacher can use local author's methods and, conversely, within the framework of the author's methodology, he can use elements of known technologies.

4. Classification of pedagogical technologies

Exist different grounds for the classification of pedagogical technologies. Thus, it is possible to group technologies according to the level of application, according to the philosophical basis, according to the leading factor of mental development, according to the concept of assimilation, according to organizational forms, according to the approach to the child, according to the prevailing method, according to the category of students, according to the nature of the content and structure, according to the direction of modernization of the existing traditional systems (G.K. Selevko, G.D. Levites and others), according to the degree of generalization, according to the level of subjectivity of the performer (S.S. Kashlev), according to the type of organization and management of cognitive activity (V.P. Bespalko). Let us name some of the most important classifications from the point of view of a teacher-practitioner.

By level of application allocate general pedagogical, particular methodological and local technologies. General pedagogical technology characterize a holistic pedagogical process (pedagogical system) in a given region, educational institution. Private methodical(subject or educational) technology characterizes the totality of goals, content, methods and means of activity of the teacher and students within the framework of one subject or direction of education. Local (narrow-subject, modular) technology characterizes individual parts of the educational process, the process of solving individual didactic or educational tasks.

According to the degree of generalization macrotechnologies are singled out, which determine the philosophy, strategy of the pedagogical process, and microtechnologies - the tactics of pedagogical interaction, its specific techniques. Examples of macrotechnologies are the technology of collective creative activity, the system of developing education, Information Technology etc., microtechnologies - discussion technology, game-journey, etc.

By the nature of the content and structure technologies are: teaching and educating, secular and religious, general educational and professionally oriented, humanitarian and technocratic, as well as monotechnologies, polytechnologies (complex) and penetrating technologies. For example, in monotechnologies the entire educational process is built on any one dominant, priority idea or concept. IN integrated technologies use elements of various monotechnologies. Technologies, the elements of which are most often included in other technologies and at the same time play the role of catalysts, are called penetrating.

By the level of subjectivity of the performer pedagogical technologies can be classified into production (reproductive), social (problem) and humanitarian (creative). At the same time, under industrial or reproductive technology refers to algorithmic technology that can be fully reproduced, regardless of the identity of the user. These, for example, include technologies for programmed learning, modular learning, university education. Social(problem technology) involves taking into account the identity of the user. Social technologies are: project-based learning technology, cooperative learning technology, Dalton technology, etc. Humanitarian or creative technologies are own technologies created by a teacher in the course of professional activity.

The basis of the classification by type of organization and management of cognitive activity the nature of the interaction between the teacher and the student. This interaction, according to V.P. Safe, maybe open(uncontrolled and uncorrected activity of students); cyclical(with control, self-control and mutual control); scattered(frontal) or directional ( individual); manual(verbal) or automated(using training aids). The combination of these features defines different types of technologies (training systems):

1) classical lecture teaching (open, scattered, manual);

2) learning with the help of audiovisual technical means (open-loop, scattered, automated);

3) "consultant" system (open, directed, automated);

4) learning with the help of a textbook (open-loop, directed, automated);

5) the system of "small groups" (cyclic, scattered, manual);

6) computer learning (cyclic, scattered, automated);

7) "tutor" system (cyclic, directed, manual);

8) " software training» (cyclic, directed, automated).

In practice, there are usually various combinations of these monotechnologies: modern traditional learning, programmed learning, group and differentiated learning methods, etc.

In the direction of upgrading the existing traditional system distinguish the following groups of technologies:

but ) technologies based on the humanization and democratization of pedagogical relations characterized by the priority of personal relationships, individual approach, democratic nature of management, humanistic orientation of the content, procedural orientation. These include: pedagogy (technologies) of cooperation, humane-personal technology of Sh.A. Amonashvili and others.

b) technologies based on the activation and intensification of students' activities. This, for example, gaming technology, problem-based learning technology, learning technology based on circuit and sign models (reference signals) V.F. Shatalova, project-based learning technology, etc.

in) technologies based on the effectiveness of the organization and management of the learning process. Examples are: programmed learning technology, differentiated learning technologies, learning individualization technologies, advanced learning technology (S.N. Lysenkova), technologies based on collective learning methods, information and computer technologies.

G) pedagogical technologies based on methodological improvement and didactic reconstruction of educational material: technology of consolidation of didactic units (P.M. Erdniev), technology "Dialogue of cultures" (V.S. Bibler, S.Yu. Kurganov), pedagogical system "Ecology and dialectics" (L.V. Tarasov), etc.;

e) p nature-like, using the methods of folk pedagogy, based on the natural processes of child development: L.N. Tolstoy, the pedagogical system of M. Montessori and others.

e) alternativetechnology: Waldorf pedagogy, technology of free labor S. Frenet and others.

With all the variety of pedagogical technologies in each of them, the following classification characteristics can be distinguished:

Application level;

Philosophical basis;

Goals and orientations;

The main factor in personality development

Scientific concept of knowledge acquisition;

The position of the child in the pedagogical process;

Features of the content of education (orientation to personal structures, volume and character, etc.);

The prevailing method of education or upbringing;

Forms of the pedagogical process;

Management of the pedagogical process (diagnostics, planning, etc.);

Analyzing pedagogical technology, attention should also be paid to its software and methodological support: curricula and programs, teaching aids, didactic materials, visual aids and technical teaching aids; diagnostic toolkit.

Teaching method with the help of special schemes. Methods and techniques in teaching

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List of used literature

1. Badmaev B. Ts. Methods of teaching psychology: Teaching method. allowance for teachers. and graduate students. M.: Tumanit, publishing house. center VLADOS, 1999.

2. Bashmakov M.I., Pozdnyakov S.P., Reznik N.A. Designing information environments // School technologies. - No. 5. -M., 2000.

3. Bespalko V.P., Tatur Yu.G. Systematic and methodological support of the educational process of training specialists: Textbook-method. allowance. -M.: Higher. school, 1989.

4. Bespalko. P. Programmed learning (didactic foundations). - M.: Higher. school, 1970.

5. Badmaev B. Ts. Psychology in the work of a teacher: In 2 books. M.: Tumanit, publishing house. center VLADOS, 2000.

6. Galperin P.Ya. To the doctrine of internalization // Introduction to psychology. -M., 1999.

7. Galperin P. Ya. Development of research on the formation of mental actions // Introduction to psychology. -M., 1999.

8. Galperin P.Ya. Psychology of thinking and the doctrine of the phased formation of mental actions // Introduction to psychology. -M., 1999.

9. Galperin P. Ya. Organization of mental activity and

the effectiveness of teaching // Introduction to psychology. -M., 1999.

10. Galperin P. Ya. On the psychological foundations of programmed learning // New research in ped. sciences. - Issue IV. -M., 1965.

11. Lerner I. Ya. Problem learning. - M., 1974.

12. Lyaudis V.Ya. Methods of teaching psychology. -M. , 1989.

13. Talyzina N.F. Theoretical problems of programmed learning. -M., 1969.

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