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International trade - what is it? Definition, functions and types. Mandatory module "economics" course "economic theory"

International trade - this is a specific, separate sector of the state economy, associated with the sale of parts of the GNP in the world and national markets (national, partial, one country).

international trade - this is the sphere of international commodity-money relations, uniting foreign trade relations of national economies, this is the totality of foreign trade of all countries of the world (international, general, many countries).

Product is any tangible and transportable property moved across the border

Features of international trade in goods

    as a rule, it involves crossing the border of countries

    occupies 80% of the IEO and 25% of the world production of goods

    mediates virtually all other forms of MEO

    its development is driven by the development of the international movement of capital and international industrial cooperation

Commodity trade structure

1. By directions:

Export- sale of goods on the foreign market, providing for its export abroad.

Import- Import and purchase on the domestic market of goods produced abroad.

Re-export- export abroad of previously imported foreign goods that have not undergone any processing in the re-exporting country.

Reimport- Import from abroad of previously exported domestic goods that have not been processed there.

Counter trade- foreign trade operations that provide for in common agreements mutual obligations of exporters and importers to purchase goods from each other, the indispensable condition of which is the obligation of the exporter to accept certain goods of the buyer as payment for his delivery (for its full value or part) or to organize their purchase by a third party ( barter, trade and industrial offset deals)

Barter- an operation for the direct exchange of an agreed quantity of one commodity for another commodity without the use of a monetary form of payment, drawn up by a single agreement (contract), in which the valuation of goods (services) is carried out in order to create conditions for the equivalence of exchange

trade offset deal- unlike a barter transaction, it involves paying for mutual deliveries independently of each other

Industrial offset deal- assumes that one party supplies the second party with goods, services and (or) technologies used by the latter to create production facilities and produce finished products, after which the second party reimburses these supplies finished products, produced in the production facilities thus created or through the supply of similar products manufactured by third parties in the country

2. By object: raw materials, components, finished products, machinery and equipment

3. The nature: intersectoral, intrasectoral

4. International trade in services: essence, types, classification

Service

    an activity that is not embodied in a material product, but always manifests itself in some useful effect that its consumer receives

    a change in the position of an institutional unit that has occurred as a result of actions and mutual agreement with another institutional unit

Service features

    intangibility and invisibility

    immateriality, immateriality

    inability to store

    absence before the transaction

    continuity of production and consumption in time even with the involvement of intermediaries

    heterogeneity or variability in quality

Types of trade in services

(according to delivery and provision methods)

- cross-border trade- through cross-border flows, when neither the seller nor the buyer physically crosses the border (41%);

- consumption abroad- through the movement of the buyer to the country of the seller (20%, tourism, treatment, education abroad);

- movement of individuals- movement of the seller to the country of the buyer (1%);

- commercial presence- through the movement of a commercial organization to provide services to the country of the buyer, which is associated with FDI (38%).

WTO classification of services

160 types of services divided into 12 main sections

    Business services - 46 types

    Communication services (communication) - 25 types

    Construction and engineering services - 5 types

    Distribution (distribution) services - 5 types

    Educational services - 5 types

    Security services environment- 4 types

    Financial services - 17 types

    Health care and social services - 4 types

    Tourism and travel-related services - 4 types

    Recreational, cultural and sports services - 5 types

    Transport services - 33 types

    Lecture number 7. Topic: International trade: structure, dynamics, pricing.

    1. Concept international trade.

    2. Subjects of international trade.

    3. The structure of international trade.

    4. World prices and pricing.

    International trade is one of the forms of international economic relations, which was historically the first, and is the most developed today.

    International trade is the sphere of commodity-money relations, which is a combination of foreign trade of all countries of the world. In other words, international trade is the sphere of exchange of products of labor (goods and services) between sellers and buyers. different countries.

    Foreign trade is the exchange of goods and services between state-registered national economies. The term "foreign trade" applies only to a single country.

    International trade links national economies in single system world market. The latter has fundamental differences from domestic national markets:

    1) only competitive goods enter the world market;

    2) there are world prices based on international value;

    3) he's in more subject to monopolization (the dominance of TNCs);

    4) not economic, but political factors(for example, politics in the state, embargoes, etc.);

    5) settlements are carried out in a freely convertible currency and in international units of account.

    In the process of international trade, there are two directions of commodity flows - export and import.

    Export - the export of goods manufactured (produced and processed) in a given country.

    Re-export - export of goods previously imported from abroad, including goods sold at international auctions, commodity exchanges, etc.

    Import - the importation from abroad of goods, technologies for sale on the importer's domestic market, as well as the receipt of services for production and consumer purposes from a foreign importer.

    Re-import - re-import from abroad of previously exported national goods.

    Accounting for export deliveries is carried out in FOB prices; accounting of import deliveries - in CIF prices. Indicators for assessing export-import deliveries have importance to determine the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of foreign and international trade, such as:

    Cost and physical volume (commodity turnover). The value of foreign trade is calculated for a certain period of time at current prices of the respective years using current exchange rates. There are nominal and real value of international trade. The nominal value of international trade is usually expressed in US dollars at current prices and is therefore highly dependent on the dynamics of the dollar exchange rate against other currencies. The real volume of international trade is the nominal volume converted into constant prices using a deflator. The physical volume of foreign trade is calculated at constant prices and allows making the necessary comparisons and determining its real dynamics. The above figures are calculated by all countries in national currencies and converted into US dollars for international comparison purposes;


    Commodity structure, which is the ratio of commodity groups in world exports. To date, there are over 20 million types of manufactured products for industrial and consumer purposes in the world, and the number of intermediate products reaches fantastic proportions. In addition, according to the World Trade Organization, there are more than 600 types of services;

    Geographic structure represents the distribution of trade flows between individual countries and their groups, allocated either on a territorial or organizational basis. Territorial geographic structure - data on the international trade of countries belonging to one part of the world, or to one group. Organizational geographical structure - data on international trade between countries belonging to separate integration and other trade and political groupings, or allocated to a specific group for one reason or another.

    International trade in goods (MTT), which appeared in ancient times and received additional impetus in connection with the formation of the world market, continues to be the leading form of international economic relations. It is a combination of exports and imports.

    EXPORT OF GOODS (from lat. exportare - to export) - the export of goods from a given country for their sale in foreign markets. The concept of export includes both the goods themselves exported abroad and a transaction, that is, an action aimed at selling them to a foreign counterparty. Export items are goods produced in the country and goods previously imported from abroad (re-export).

    Depending on the types of goods, there are several ways to export them. Raw and unprocessed foodstuffs are usually exported by specialized trading companies that pre-purchase goods from producers on their own behalf and from their own account. Manufacturers of industrial goods such as equipment, ships, rolling stock railways and other specialized products, as a rule, export either on the basis of direct contacts with the importer, or through a network of their representative offices and agency firms.

    The most common method of exporting consumer goods is through department stores. In cases where the supply of consumer goods is carried out in small quantities, mail-order sales by mailing catalogs are used. Firms that steadily orient production towards exports usually tend to organize their own sales network abroad, for which they create foreign branches and subsidiaries, which are divided into foreign wholesale offices, enterprises retail, repair enterprises, service points.

    In addition to manufacturers of export products, specialized foreign trade enterprises. They are divided into export-import firms and trading houses - enterprises that carry out foreign trade operations both from their own account and on a commission basis with the widest range of goods. In the first case, the firm first purchases goods from a national or foreign manufacturer, and then resells it on its own behalf. In the second case, trade is carried out at the expense and on behalf of the manufacturer or buyer. Export firms, unlike trading houses, are not of a universal nature, but specialize in the sale of a certain group of goods. The object of their trade is mainly consumer goods, mining, Agriculture, as well as "handicrafts. Agency firms, which are usually legal entity importing countries, carry out the sale of goods of a foreign company exclusively on a commission basis. They operate on the basis of long-term agreements (agency agreements) with a foreign exporter and allow the latter to avoid the mediation of firms and the costs of creating their own sales network. The firm receives a commission, which is usually charged to the seller in the amount of up to 10% of the value of the transaction.

    IMPORT OF GOODS (from lat. importare - to import) - the import of goods from abroad for their sale in the domestic market of the importing country. The imports of one country always match the exports of another country. Imports are goods of foreign origin, imported directly from the country of origin or the country of intermediary for the purpose of consumption or subsequent export from the country.

    Import structure material assets(visible import) is determined by the features natural conditions, the structure of the country's economy and its role in the international division of labor. Countries primarily import those types of mineral, agricultural raw materials and foodstuffs that, due to natural conditions, cannot produce themselves.

    In the imports of industrialized countries, the share of industrial goods, including machinery and equipment, is high, which is explained by the deepening of international specialization and cooperation in production. Developing countries, for which the import of machinery and equipment is extremely important for the industrialization of the economy, at the same time, due to the backwardness of agriculture, they are forced to import certain types of food.

    Imports, to a greater extent than exports, are subject to state influence, which is especially intensified during periods of worsening economic conditions on world markets and an aggravation of the problem of the balance of payments. Imports are subject to customs duties, quantitative restrictions, licensing systems and other non-tariff barriers. In the conditions of formation national economy and transferring it to market rails, the state uses the leverage of import restrictions to protect the interests of the national economy.

    The sum of exports and imports of goods is called turnover. The ratio (difference) between a country's exports and its imports is the BALANCE OF TRADE. If exports exceed imports, then a "trade surplus" is formed. If imports exceed exports, then there is a foreign trade deficit, or "negative trade balance." The latter suggests that the export of goods is insufficient to pay for the import of goods. This deficit is financed either by foreign loans (by getting into debt) or by reducing own assets (export of gold, foreign currency, sale of land, real estate, etc.).

    To analyze the dynamics of MTT, indicators of the cost and physical volume of foreign trade are used. The cost volume of foreign trade is calculated for a certain period of time at current prices of the analyzed years using current exchange rates. The physical volume of foreign trade is calculated at constant prices and allows making the necessary comparisons and determining its real dynamics.

    The following factors can influence international commodity flows: scientific and technological progress, which changes the structure of world trade; liberalization of international trade; economic integration; active activity of transnational and international corporations in the world market; global crises, etc.

    International trade is the exchange of goods and services between different countries, due to the development international division labor in the conditions of scientific and technological progress and the globalization of trade. According to another interpretation international trade- this is the total trade turnover of all countries of the world or a part of countries grouped into a sample according to some criterion (for example, the developed countries or countries of the same continent).

    International trade: aspects

    International trade is considered difficult economic category, therefore, must be considered in at least 3 different aspects:

    1. 1. Organizational-technical. This aspect considers the physical exchange of goods, focusing on Special attention problems of movement of goods between contractors and their crossing the borders of the state. The organizational and technical aspect is the object of study of such disciplines as international law and customs business.
    1. 2. Market. This aspect assumes that international trade is a combination of supply and demand, while demand is understood as total amount products that consumers are willing to buy at current prices, and under the offer - the volume of goods that producers are able to offer at current prices. Supply and demand materialize in counter flows - imports and exports. The market aspect of international trade is studied by such disciplines as management and.
    1. 3. Socio-economic aspect understands MT as a set public relations which have a number of features:

    - they are global in nature, that is, all the states of the world and economic groupings participate in them;

    - they are objective and universal, since they do not depend on the will of one specific consumer.

    International Trade Indicators

    There are a number of indicators that characterize international trade:

    1. 1. Worldwide turnover- the sum of foreign trade turnover of all countries. In its turn foreign trade turnover is the sum of imports and exports of one country. The world trade turnover is estimated in terms of volume and dynamics: the volume is measured in US dollars, and in addition, in physical units (tons, barrels), and chain and average annual growth indices are used to assess the dynamics.
    1. 2. Structure allows you to judge the share of the part of the turnover, selected depending on the classification criterion. General structure reflects the ratio of exports to imports, commodity shows the share of a particular product in the turnover. The commodity structure also shows the ratio between trade in goods and services (currently 4:1). Geographic the structure measures the share of one commodity flow - the part of the goods moving between the countries grouped on a territorial basis.
    1. 3. Elasticity coefficients exports and imports are indicators that characterize the dynamics of aggregate demand for and exports. The coefficient of elasticity is considered as the ratio of the volume of imports (exports) and its price. If demand is elastic (that is, the coefficient is greater than 1), the country increases its imports because the terms of trade are favorable. Elasticity indicators can be effectively used to evaluate both international and foreign trade.
    1. 4. Quotas. VTK (foreign trade) is calculated according to the following formula:

    GTC = ((Export + Import) / 2 * GDP) * 100%

    The VTC shows how dependent the internal is on the world, and characterizes its openness. The importance of imports for a country is determined by imported quota, which is the ratio of imports to GDP (according to the same principle, export quota).

    1. 5. Level specializations. Specialization characterizes the share of intra-industry trade in the total turnover (for example, trade in cars of a particular brand). Used for evaluation index specializations, which are denoted by the letter T. The value of the coefficient ranges from 0 to 1: than closer meaning to unity, the deeper the division of labor.
    1. 6. Trade balance. The fundamental indicator of a state's foreign trade is commercial balance is the difference between imports and exports. The trade balance is the defining element of the state's balance of payments.

    Benefits of participating in international trade

    The expediency of international trade is determined by two:

    • resources are unevenly distributed among states;
    • efficient production requires a combination of different resources and technologies.

    Therefore, a country entering into international trade relations can enjoy a number of advantages:

    • The level of employment is rising, which is a consequence of the growth of exports.
    • Businesses face the need to improve in order to remain competitive.
    • Export earnings are increasing, which can be further invested in industrial development.
    • There is an intensification production process: the workload of equipment is increasing, the efficiency of integrating innovative technologies is growing.

    Regulation of international trade

    The regulation of international trade can be classified into state regulation And regulation through international agreements. In turn, the methods of state regulation can be divided into tariff And non-tariff:

    Tariff methods are reduced to the application of duties - taxes that are paid for the transport of goods across the border. The purpose of imposing duties is to restrict imports and reduce competition from foreign manufacturers. Export duties are used much less frequently than import duties. According to the method of calculating fees, they are divided into ad valorem(that is, calculated as a percentage of the delivery amount) and specific(charged as a fixed amount).

    are of great importance for international trade. international agreements defining the basic rules and principles of MT. The most famous agreements are:

    • GATT(General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade). GATT requires countries to act on the basis of the MFN (Most Favored Nation) principle. GATT clauses guarantee equality and non-discrimination to participants in international trade.
    • WTO ( World trade Organization) is the "successor" of GATT. The WTO retained all the provisions of the GATT, supplementing them with conditions for ensuring free trade through liberalization. The WTO is not part of the UN, which allows it to pursue an independent policy.

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    international trade - this is the exchange of goods and services between sellers and buyers of different countries, mediated by the exchange of currencies. From the point of view of a separate national economy, international trade takes the form foreign trade - a set of exchange transactions in goods and services separate country with other countries of the world.

    International trade consists of two basic counter flows: export export and sale of goods (provision of services) abroad and import - purchases and imports of goods (receipt of services) from abroad. Special varieties of import and export are re-export and re-import. Re-export - this is the export of goods previously imported from abroad that have not been processed in this country, as well as goods sold at international auctions, commodity exchanges, etc. Reimport - this is the import from abroad of goods previously exported from the country without any processing in the foreign country.

    Objects international trade is goods (end products for industrial and non-industrial purposes, semi-finished products, raw materials, fuel, etc.) and services (business, financial, computer, information, transport, tourism, etc.).

    Subjects international trade are:

    Direct buyers and sellers of goods and services, which are represented by states, legal entities and individuals;

    Resellers - firms and institutions that contribute to the acceleration of the sale of goods;

    International and intergovernmental organizations that form the institutional environment and provide economic and legal regulation of trade.

    Methods of international trade

    IN international practice there are two main methods of implementation export-import operations - trade without intermediaries And trade through intermediaries. Each of the methods has its own advantages and disadvantages.

    The direct conclusion of a transaction between the seller and the buyer allows you to save on the payment for the services of an intermediary, reduces the risk of losses from possible dishonesty or incompetence. Direct contacts can contribute to a better orientation of sellers to the changing requirements of buyers and to make the necessary changes in the characteristics of the product, etc. networks, the maintenance of lawyers for the preparation of agreements, transportation and customs formalities, etc. If the costs of direct trade exceed the benefits from it, it is advisable to resort to the services of intermediaries.

    Resellers can be both legal and individuals, on a commercial basis, they search for foreign partners, prepare documentation for signing contracts, provide credit and financial services, transport, store, insure goods, after-sales service, etc. reducing distribution costs increases the profitability of foreign economic operations. Typically, specialized intermediaries are more responsive to changes market conditions, which also improves trading efficiency.

    In the practice of international trade, there are the following types intermediary operations:

    - dealerships, in which the intermediary trading company buys the goods from the manufacturer reselling them, acting on its own behalf and at its own expense, and bears all the risks of loss or destruction of the goods; sale of goods under dealer agreements is carried out distributors;

    - Commission, in which the reseller sells and buys goods on his own behalf, but at the expense and on behalf of the guarantor, in an agreement with which the technical and commercial terms of the sale and purchase are specified and the amount of the commission is determined;

    - agency, in which the intermediary acts on behalf of the principal and at his expense; agent-representatives carry out marketing research, advertising and PR campaigns, organize business contacts with importers, government and other organizations on which the placement of orders depends; agent-attorneys have the right, on the basis of a commission agreement, to conclude transactions on behalf of the principal;

    - brokerage, for which trading companies or individuals bring sellers and buyers together, coordinate their proposals, conclude transactions at the expense of the principal, acting on his behalf, and on his own.

    A special place among international trade intermediaries is occupied by institutional intermediaries - commodity exchanges, auctions and tenders.

    International commodity exchanges are permanent wholesale markets where the sale and purchase of homogeneous goods with clear and stable quality characteristics corresponding to the unified standardization system. In terms of legal form, most exchanges are joint-stock companies closed type. Based on the range of goods, exchanges are divided into universal And specialized. The largest in terms of volume of transactions are universal exchanges, where a wide range of various goods is bought and sold. For example, on the Chicago Board of Trade (more than 40% of the volume of US agreements) they trade wheat, corn, oats, soybeans, soybean oil, gold, securities. On specialized exchanges, goods of a narrow range are bought and sold, for example, on the London Metal Exchange, non-ferrous metals are traded - copper, aluminum, nickel, etc.

    The sale of exchange goods is mainly carried out without their delivery to the exchange, according to samples or standard descriptions. In fact, the commodity exchange does not sell goods as such, but contracts for their supply. Transactions with real goods make up an insignificant share of the total volume of exchange transactions (12%). Depending on the delivery time, they are divided into transactions with immediate delivery ("spot"), when the goods from the exchange warehouse are transferred to the buyer within 15 days after the conclusion of the contract, and transactions with the delivery of goods on a certain date in the future at the price fixed at the time of the conclusion of the contract (forward transactions). The vast majority of exchange transactions are futures deals. Unlike transactions for real goods, futures contracts provide for the purchase and sale of rights to goods at a price that is set at the time of the transaction between the seller and the buyer (or their brokers) on the exchange.

    Exchange futures perform important function insurance of risks of losses from changes in the prices of real goods - hedging. The hedging mechanism is based on the fact that changes in market prices for real goods and for futures are the same in size and direction. Therefore, if one of the parties to the transaction loses as a seller of a real commodity, then it wins as a buyer of a futures contract for the same amount of goods, and vice versa. Let's assume that the manufacturer copper wire signed a contract for the supply of a certain amount of it in 6 months. She needs 3 months to complete the order. It is unprofitable to buy copper 6 months before the order is completed: it will be stored in a warehouse for 3 months, which will require storage costs and additional interest payments for a loan for its purchase. At the same time, postponing its purchase is also risky, as the market price of copper may rise. With this in mind, the firm buys a futures contract for the required amount of copper. Let the quotation of the futures be 95.2 thousand dollars with the price of the real commodity being 95.0 thousand dollars. After 3 months, copper has risen in price, which also caused an increase in the price of the futures: the same amount of copper now costs 96.0 thousand dollars, and futures - 96.2 thousand dollars. Buying copper as a real commodity for 96.0 thousand dollars, the company loses 10 thousand dollars. But it sells futures at 96.2 thousand dollars and thereby wins 10 thousand. dollars. Thus, the company has insured itself against losses due to price increases and will be able to get the planned profit.

    International auctions are a form of public sale of goods based on price competition among buyers. The subject of auctions are goods that have pronounced individual properties - furs, tea, tobacco, spices, flowers, racehorses, antiques, etc. Preparation for the auction trades provides for the formation of lots - batches of goods of uniform quality, each of which is assigned a number. Under this number, the lot, indicating the characteristics of the goods, is entered in the auction catalog. General rule of all auctions - the lack of responsibility of the seller for the quality of the goods (the buyer himself sees the goods and knows what he is buying). Auction sales are held on a predetermined day and hour in a specially equipped room. The auctioneer announces the lot number, its initial price, and the buyers make their offers regarding the price. The lot is sold to the highest bidder. The vast majority of auctions are carried out exactly according to this scheme, which is called the "English auction". In some countries, a price reduction method is used, which is called the "Dutch auction": the auctioneer announces the highest price of the lot and, in the absence of those who want to purchase goods at this price, begins to gradually reduce until the item is sold. The most famous are tea auctions in Calcutta (India), Colombo (Sri Lanka), Jakarta (Indonesia), auctions for the sale of antiques - Sotheby and Christie in London, auctions for the sale of fur in Copenhagen (Norway) and St. Petersburg (Russia) .

    International bidding (tenders) It is also a competitive form of buying and selling goods, in which buyers announce a competition for sellers to supply goods with certain technical and economic characteristics. International tenders are the most common way to place orders for the construction of industrial and non-industrial facilities, the supply of machinery and equipment, the implementation of research and design work, they also apply to the selection of a foreign partner when creating joint venture. All interested companies can take part in open tenders, in closed tenders only those that have received an invitation to participate, usually these are suppliers or contractors known on the world market. The buyers establish a tender committee, which includes representatives of the buying organization, as well as technical and commercial experts. After comparing the received offers, the winner of the auction is determined, who offered the goods on more favorable terms for the buyer and according to which the buyer signs the contract.

    The most expressive current trends in the development of international tender trade is an increase in the number of participants, an increase in the number of tenders for the construction of complex facilities, for new types of machinery, equipment, new technologies, engineering and consulting services, a significant reorientation of priorities from price factors to non-price factors (the possibility of obtaining loans for preferential terms, opportunities for further placement of orders and long-term cooperation, political factors, etc.).