Why Brezhnev's reign is stagnant. Brezhnev, the era of stagnation - briefly. The last years of Brezhnev's life
110 years ago, on December 19, 1906, a veteran of the Great Patriotic War, a participant in the Victory Parade on Red Square on June 24, 1945, and the head of the USSR, Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev, was born. Brezhnev led the USSR from 1964-1982, so an entire era is associated with his name.
The era during which Brezhnev led the party and the country soon after him began to be called “stagnation.” However, this is not entirely true. During these years, the Soviet country was actively developing, becoming stronger, its economy was strengthening, breakthrough technologies appeared in military affairs and space exploration, which could bring the USSR in the 21st century to the place of the undisputed leader of mankind.
Soviet Union in military and economically was a superpower. Our armed forces were the most powerful and combat-ready on the planet. No one could abandon the direct export of the USSR. In 1975, the USSR's share in world industrial production was 20%, and gross domestic product was 10% of the world's total. Until 1985, the USSR ranked 2nd in the world and 1st in Europe in industrial production. Already in the sixties, the USSR produced more than any other country, including the United States, iron, manganese and chrome ores, coal and coke, cement, potassium salts, tractors, diesel and electric locomotives, cotton, flax and some other types of products. Since 1975, the USSR has become a world leader in the production of iron, steel, oil, and mineral fertilizers.
It can be noted that the USSR came out on top in the world in cement production, and since 1966 it has been noticeably ahead of the USA and Great Britain in terms of this indicator per capita. This is a very important indicator, in fact the “bread” of the industry. Thus, famous economists Jorge Lopez and Les Ruddock, specialists in macroeconomics, assess the dynamics of cement consumption, along with cargo transportation, as a basic indicator of the economic health of the state. The growth of cement production is the growth of the economy as a whole, the country's GDP.
In addition to the highly developed machine tool industry, heavy engineering, oil production and oil refining industries, the USSR was a leader in the field of astronautics and rocket science, nuclear energy, laser technologies, optics, in aircraft construction (including civil), as well as in the production of first-class military products. For example, in the 1980s, the USSR occupied a leading position in the global machine tool industry. Machine tool products were exported not only to developing countries, but also to Japan, Canada, the USA and Germany. The Soviet Union was the de facto leader in robotics. In total, more than 100 thousand units of industrial robotics were produced in the Soviet Union. They replaced more than one million workers (all of this was destroyed in the 1990s). One of the most notable achievements of domestic robotics and science was the creation at the Design Bureau named after. Lavochkin "Lunokhod-1". It was the Soviet apparatus that became the world's first planetary rover, which successfully completed its mission on the surface of another celestial body. The scientific and technological revolution in the USSR promised unprecedented prospects for the country and all of humanity.
In addition, the USSR managed to create an effective economic system countries of socialism - CMEA (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance). In 1975, all CMEA countries produced about a third of the world's industrial output and more than a quarter of the world's national income, despite the fact that the population of the CMEA member countries was only 9.4% of the planet's population. For 1951-1975 The share of socialist countries in world industrial output doubled. In 1950 it was approximately 20%. The USSR produced more than 60% of the industrial output of the CMEA member countries, and the share of capitalist industrial developed countries decreased from 80% to just over 50%.
For comparison, currently most of the countries of the former social bloc in Europe (which have become members of the EU and NATO) are in socio-economic and cultural decline. States fell into debt bondage to the IMF, Western banks. The economy was privatized (stolen), collapsed, industry was methodically destroyed, part Agriculture, governments fell into credit bondage, states were relegated to the role of markets for the products of the core countries of the capitalist world, partly agricultural appendages, suppliers of cheap labor, “brothels” (sex tourism) of richer Western countries, etc. The population is rapidly dying out and moving to in search of work and personal happiness in Germany, Austria, England, etc. For example, in Bulgaria, the population from 9 million people has decreased to 7 million people, and the country continues to die out. By the middle of the 21st century, there will be no historical Bulgaria, as well as a single Bulgarian ethnic group.
People in the Union lived in complete security (internal and external), had the best education and science in the world, one of best systems education and social protection person. A quarter of the world's scientists worked in the USSR! There were 5 million students studying at universities, and they were taught by half a million teachers. In the USSR there were no mass social diseases inherent in the capitalist world: mass poverty, an army of street children, prostitutes, drug addicts, bandits, degenerate perverts. In the USSR there was no blatant social injustice, as in the current “democratic” and capitalist (or neo-feudal) Russian Federation, where a few percent of the population owns 90% of the wealth of the entire country, and half the population lives in poverty or on the verge of poverty. In the Soviet Union, they were not afraid of Islamic radicalism, cave nationalism and other archaics that are currently dragging humanity into the past. Indeed, this was the period developed socialism" It is clear that there were many shortcomings, but overall it was an excellent basis for the development of Soviet civilization and society. Not surprisingly, according to the survey results public opinion in 2013, Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev was recognized as the best head of state in Russia-USSR in the 20th century.
At the same time, the existence of the USSR allowed a whole group of countries - the “third world” - to be outside the camp of capitalist countries led by the USA and the NATO bloc, or the socialist camp. And in the Western, capitalist world, its owners had to restrain their appetites, support the so-called. “middle class”, “a sign of capitalism”, so that the population of Western countries does not want socialist transformations and revolution. After the collapse of the USSR, the middle class in the West was put under the knife; it is rapidly declining, since it is no longer needed. A classic scheme of the neo-slavery (post-capitalist) world is being built: the rich and the very rich with servants, including the creative sphere and technical staff, and the poor and the very poor.
The enemies of the Soviet project and civilization called the Brezhnev era “stagnation,” since their expectations for the continuation of “perestroika,” which Khrushchev began, were not met. It is not surprising that in the Soviet Union the term “stagnation” originates from the political report of the Central Committee of the XXVII Congress of the CPSU, read by M. S. Gorbachev, in which it was stated that “stagnation phenomena began to appear in the life of society” both in economic and social spheres. And under the “best German” Gorbachev, such “positive dynamics” began that very quickly only “horns and legs” remained of the USSR and the socialist bloc.
The main problem of the Brezhnev era was that the Soviet elite did not find the courage to speak about the bias in Stalin’s assessments, about excesses in overcoming the cult of personality, about Khrushchev’s unprecedented gross mistakes in internal and foreign policy, and most importantly - to return to the Stalinist program to create a society of creation and service, a society of the “golden age”. In the Brezhnev USSR there was no full-fledged Idea, as with the Stalinist USSR, only substitutes. That is, the rotting of the Soviet elite continued, albeit at a slower pace, which ultimately led Soviet (Russian) civilization to the disaster of 1985-1993. and defeat in the Third World War (the so-called Cold War).
Nikita Khrushchev was removed by the party and state elite, dissatisfied with his “voluntarism.” Khrushchev destroyed everything too quickly, his “perestroika” was fraught with undesirable consequences for many in the party, state and military leadership of the USSR. Therefore, the engines of the conspiracy against Nikita Sergeevich were the same figures who had previously supported him - Mikoyan, Suslov and Brezhnev. Brezhnev was the nominee of the 1930s, when party workers quickly rose to the top, replacing the destroyed “Leninist Guard.” Brezhnev proved himself to be a good political worker during the war and skillfully worked to restore the post-war economy. And he became one of the “young people” whom Stalin noticed and placed in the highest echelons of power in the last years of his life. Brezhnev, even under Khrushchev, distinguished himself as the first secretary of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan, raising virgin soil and participating in the preparation for the construction of the cosmodrome. Since May 1960, Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.
It is clear that Brezhnev was not the main one in the secret opposition to Khrushchev. Among the Soviet leaders there were more experienced and authoritative people. However, the same Suslov and Mikoyan gave the first role to him. Brezhnev was considered by other more significant figures to be a temporary, compromise figure. These figures planned to continue Khrushchev’s course, but without “excesses” and without Khrushchev himself, with his authoritarian leadership style.
But a few miscalculated. Brezhnev retained power and gradually renewed the leadership of the country and the party. In particular, Anastas Mikoyan was dismissed. In 1967, the Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee Alexander Shelepin fell into disgrace, his protege, the head of the KGB, Vladimir Semichastny, was dismissed “honorably retired” to the insignificant post of First Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Ukrainian SSR and expelled from all-Union political life.
Overcoming the colossal mistakes of Khrushchev and his people in domestic and foreign policy became main task Brezhnev's new course, while his predecessor was not publicly criticized. The new leadership of the Union - Brezhnev, Kosygin, Podgorny, Suslov - had to take urgent measures to rectify the situation into which Khrushchev had driven the Soviet Union. The party reform was immediately canceled, and industrial and agricultural party organizations merged again. The economic councils were liquidated and normal sectoral ministries were restored. The school reform with “vocational” education was also cancelled. To alleviate the food problem that arose due to Khrushchev’s destructive “reforms,” food purchases continued abroad. To relieve tension among the people, collective farmers were given back the opportunity to have personal plots, collective and state farms had their debts written off, purchase prices were increased, and a premium was established for the sale of above-plan products to the state. Under Brezhnev, collective farmers began to receive salaries and pensions, and were exempt from taxes, which under Khrushchev were imposed on almost every tree and head of livestock or poultry in household plots(to which the peasants responded by slaughtering livestock). The implementation of a program for comprehensive mechanization of agricultural production began. At the beginning of Brezhnev's rule, the rise in price of consumer goods, which began in 1961 as a consequence of Khrushchev's “reforms,” was stopped. Religious persecution, which flourished under Khrushchev, was frozen (a second wave of closing and destruction of churches swept across the country, many of which were restored under Stalin). Quite successfully solved housing problem: by the beginning of the 1980s, 80% of families had separate apartments (they received them for free!).
Efforts were made to normalize the situation in industry. At Kosygin’s suggestion, new methods were introduced. The independence of enterprises expanded, the number of planned indicators that were set from above was reduced, and self-financing mechanisms were introduced with the ability to use part of the profits for social, cultural and everyday needs. Material incentives were introduced for workers and employees. Accelerated construction of enterprises for the production of consumer goods begins. It is worth saying that much of what was done in the field of industry and agriculture was tried back in 1951 - early 1953, that is, in the last Stalinist years, according to the proposals of Shepilov and Kosygin.
So overall domestic politics Brezhnev was in the interests masses. The conceptual problem was that Leonid Ilyich did not dare to review the results of the 20th Congress of the CPSU in 1956, where Khrushchev made a report “On Stalin’s personality cult and its consequences.” That is, the main “garbage” that Khrushchev and the Khrushchevites threw on the grave of the greatest political leader of Russia, and the world, was not raked up.
Brezhnev, by default, tried to carry out the Stalinist course (neo-Stalinism) in a number of areas, but he did not have the courage to do the main thing. In particular, at the XXIII Congress of the CPSU (1966), Brezhnev planned to speak about the bias of Stalin’s assessments in Khrushchev’s “closed” report, about excesses in overcoming the cult of personality, about the unprecedented gross mistakes of the Khrushchev government in relation to China, Albania, and a number of foreign communist parties. That is, those countries and communist parties that refused to renounce Stalin’s course. But the Khrushchevites remaining in the leadership of the USSR and supporters of the “liberalization” of the USSR, that is, representatives of the gradually decaying Soviet elite, which would ultimately lead to the collapse of Soviet civilization, rebelled against this plan. Also against the restoration of the historical truth about Stalin and his time were those leaders of the socialist countries who had already found themselves in a policy of rapprochement with the West (like Tito). Brezhnev did not dare to go against everyone and rehabilitate Stalin; he was not a leader of the same rank as Stalin or Fidel Castro (“and there is only one warrior in the field”).
As a result, the enthusiasm of the people faded. It was no longer possible to lift him up and inspire him to great achievements. The last surge of spiritual energy of the people manifested itself during the development of virgin lands, calls to “catch up and overtake America”, to the promise that “ current generation will live under communism." But then it became clear that the people had been deceived. Khrushchev's "excesses" depleted the people's energy. The outrages and major mistakes of Khrushchev’s “reforms” undermined the spiritual and ideological sphere of Soviet civilization. Under Brezhnev there were also loud slogans. They proclaimed “decisive” and “defining” years, the “five-year quality plan”, etc. However, this no longer worked as before. The people did not believe the ideologists. The country had shock racks - KamAZ, BAM, Atommash, giant gas pipelines and oil pipelines that stretched from Siberia to the western borders. But the hype was mostly for show. A ceremonial farewell to the “construction sites of communism” was arranged for young people, but most people were already going to “impact” construction sites” in order to earn money.
The second attempt to rehabilitate Stalin was made on the eve of the 90th anniversary of Stalin’s birth (1969). A Central Committee resolution was being prepared to correct errors in the assessment of its activities. But again, external and internal opposition prevented this from happening. Only in 1970, under pressure from Beijing, was a bust installed on Stalin’s grave.
This “inconsistency” in Moscow under Brezhnev also affected the foreign policy of the USSR. On the one hand, we provided assistance to Vietnam during the American aggression, supported Egypt and Syria in the fight against Israel and the machinations of the West. Helped many countries Arab world follow the path of Arab national socialism. Order was restored in Czechoslovakia. We actively developed the Warsaw Pact Organization and CMEA. The USSR normalized relations with leading Western countries. Charles de Gaulle visited Moscow, the USSR became closer to France. We established relations with Germany, where Willy Brandt was chancellor. Negotiations in Moscow in 1970 led to the conclusion of an agreement under which the countries renounced the use of force against each other. Post-war borders were recognized. In 1972, the Federal Republic of Germany recognizes the socialist GDR. Both German states joined the UN. Soviet-American summit meetings resumed. We achieved parity in intercontinental missiles with the United States. Washington was forced to negotiate on strategic arms limitation. The real victory came at the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe in 1975 in Helsinki. We consolidated the political and territorial results of the Second World War, the principles of the inviolability of borders, the territorial integrity of states, and non-interference in internal affairs were recognized foreign countries(everything was destroyed during and after the collapse of the USSR).
On the other hand, the course towards confrontation with China continued, to the point that they feared war with China more than with NATO, and kept a powerful force on the borders with China. strike force troops. That is, instead of crushing “imperialism” together with China and building socialism on the planet, they spent a lot of resources and effort on “containing” it. As a result, Beijing moved towards rapprochement with Washington. It was not possible to achieve full agreement with Romania, Albania, Cuba, North Korea and North Vietnam (Stalin was respected almost everywhere). Brezhnev was opposed to the strengthening of the USSR's military activity in Afghanistan, but succumbed to pressure from the “military party.” As a result, Afghanistan has become a big problem, both due to the exacerbation international politics, and increasing the burden on the USSR economy. The problem of Afghanistan had to be solved by diplomatic methods, intelligence forces, special operations forces, but not by a combined arms operation.
In general, deterioration is expected in the second half of Brezhnev's reign. It was associated with the growing influence of “comrades-in-arms” who expressed the interests of the degenerating Soviet nomenklatura. The Soviet “elite” wanted to follow a course of “rapprochement” with the West, enter the “world community,” “privatize” people’s property and become “masters of life.” This ultimately led to the disaster of 1985-1993, when the liberal-bourgeois counter-revolution took place. Brezhnev as Stalin's comrade and veteran Great War, I wouldn’t do that. But he did not have a steely will and was gradually “processed”, and the Secretary General changed course to please his persistent comrades. They developed “delusions of grandeur” and created a new “cult of personality.” In particular, they awarded him all kinds of orders, prizes, medals, and the most active figures from the Politburo called him “Lenin today,” “the outstanding commander of the Great Patriotic War.” Brezhnev undeservedly became Marshal Soviet Union, four times Hero of the Soviet Union, awarded the Order of Victory, etc.
In addition, Brezhnev began to get sick more and more often and participate less in daily work. It is possible that he was deliberately poisoned. Leonid Ilyich himself felt that it was time to retire. Since 1978, he has repeatedly stated his desire to resign, but those around him did not want to hear about it. They benefited from such a leader, weak and sick, behind whose back they could carry out their course. In the last years of Brezhnev's rule, the infiltration of the future destroyers of the USSR into the top leadership of the country as a whole was completed. The KGB was also under their control. Thus, it was Andropov who introduced Brezhnev to Gorbachev, while hinting at the need for continuity of course. Since then, the career of the young Stavropol functionary has taken a sharp rise.
It is clear that in the later years of Brezhnev the situation in the economy worsened, although there were no irreversible problems. The rate of economic growth decreased (but it continued). Dependence on the sale of hydrocarbons and dependence on food supplies has increased. A significant portion of foreign exchange earnings from the export of oil and petroleum products, natural gas was spent on importing food and purchasing consumer goods. The situation in agriculture has worsened. In just 15 years, the country experienced severe crop failures 8 times (1969, 1972, 1974, 1975, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1984). The losses were not only due to harsh natural and climatic conditions, but also poor organization of labor, etc. The destruction of the Russian village under Khrushchev and excessive urbanization also had an impact, which worsened the demography. The number of incompetent officials in various sectors of the economy and in areas of management grew, which led to a decline in the quality of management of the USSR. A shadow “gray” economy developed (from underground workshops to crime). A new social stratum was actively being formed - underground businessmen, the first criminal organizations, which would take an active part in the collapse of the Union. This social stratum developed especially rapidly in the national outskirts - in Transcaucasia, the North Caucasus and in Central Asia. There was an increase in crime and alcoholization of the population. In addition, the priority development of the national outskirts (the Baltics, Transcaucasia, Central Asia) at the expense of the Great Russian provinces created an inflated self-esteem among the local population, the opinion that “it’s enough to feed Moscow,” etc.
Thus, the Brezhnev era cannot be called “stagnation.” Two main trends can be identified:
1) according to the course set during the Stalin era, the Soviet state actively continued to develop, was a leader in military affairs, space, peaceful and military atoms, machine tool building, robotics, etc. The population grew, we had the best school in the world, we were the most educated and reading nation. On the highest level was social security population. That is, he had all the makings to become a world leader and make a brilliant breakthrough into the 21st century. But for this it is necessary to restore Stalin’s course, create a society of creation and service, return big idea to the people. However, Brezhnev could not do this; apparently, by his psychology he was not a warrior or a Brahmin priest;
2) the decomposition of the Soviet elite continued, although the main destructive “reforms” of Khrushchev were neutralized. The destroyers-“perestroika” gradually took leading positions in the party. In the national outskirts there was a connection between party degenerates, who were no longer communists, with the future “new Russians” and criminals. This “swamp” eventually gave up the Soviet project, Soviet civilization, in order to “live beautifully”, like in the West.
The enemies of Soviet civilization and the USSR called Brezhnev’s time “stagnation”, since it was not possible to destroy the Union in the 1960-1970s, liberalization and plunder of the Soviet state had to be postponed until the turn of the 1990s. For ordinary people, the Brezhnev era was the best time in the history of the USSR-Russia: they had a peaceful sky above their heads, they did not starve, did not fight, did not know the massive social ills of the West and East, their life and well-being improved from year to year and grew up.
“The era of stagnation” - this is how publicists characterize the economic and political state of the USSR during the reign of L. I. Brezhnev (from 1964 to 1982). The conservatism and lack of political foresight of Secretary General Brezhnev brought the Soviet economy closer to collapse. He gave particular preference to the development of the military-industrial complex, on which the bulk of budget funds was spent. A powerful complex was created, but this had a negative impact on the economy as a whole and aggravated the crisis in the country. Scientific and technological progress is slowing down, economic reforms“frozen”, the growth rates of agriculture and industry are sharply reduced. All these factors began to lead the Soviet Union to lag behind the leaders of world powers in development. At the same time, the internal political situation was not developing in the best possible way. The new Constitution of the USSR is adopted. The basic law of the country spoke of the sovereignty of the people as the main principle of power. In reality, everything was different. Under Brezhnev, the bureaucratic apparatus is growing and strengthening. Party members and associates of Leonid Ilyich freely engage in arbitrariness, embezzlement, and abuse their official position. Corruption among officials is rampant. The fight against dissidents is being actively waged. Under Brezhnev's leadership, state security agencies take repressive measures against members of human rights movements. Censorship is being tightened. The persecution of literary figures for their works is being resumed. However, in addition to the negative aspects in the internal politics of the USSR, one should highlight such an important historical event as the first manned spacewalk (1965).
Foreign policy of the USSR under Brezhnev
As for the foreign policy pursued by Brezhnev, it was ambiguous. The USSR, together with the powerful powers of the USA and Great Britain, signed a number of agreements (on the peaceful use of outer space, on the non-proliferation of nuclear and bacteriological weapons, and others). Many cooperation agreements have been adopted with various countries (Egypt, India, Syria, Iraq, etc.). Along with the adoption of peaceful political resolutions, during the years of Brezhnev's rule, decisions were made to send Soviet troops, together with some European troops, into the territory of Czechoslovakia (August 1968). Less than ten years later, in 1979, Soviet troops were sent to Afghanistan. In addition, L.I. Brezhnev initiated the doctrine of limiting sovereignty for socialist states. In other words, those states that tried to ignore the leadership of the Soviet Union when building their foreign and domestic policies could be subject to certain sanctions (from simple intimidation to military invasion). Such aggressive behavior of the USSR devalued previous peacekeeping agreements. The Soviet Union under the leadership of Brezhnev was rapidly approaching collapse.
37. Foreign policy of the USSR in the 1950s - early 1980s.
Soviet foreign policy solved the main problem of this period - reducing the confrontation between East and West.
Relations between the USSR and capitalist countries became more balanced.
In order to ease international tension, a number of agreements were signed: the quadripartite agreement on West Berlin, the Soviet-American treaty on the limitation of missile defense systems, etc.
In the summer of 1966, French President Charles de Gaulle visited Moscow, and in 1970, German Chancellor W. Brandt (arriving in Moscow, he concluded an agreement with the USSR on the non-use of force in relations). The negotiations confirmed the post-war borders. On December 21, 1972, the Federal Republic of Germany declared recognition of the GDR. Both German states were admitted to the UN.
In 1972, meetings took place with American presidents R. Nixon and his successor D. Ford. A course has been outlined towards détente in relations between the two powers.
On May 26, 1972, the SALT-1 Treaty was signed in Moscow. The parties agreed to limit the number intercontinental missiles and submarine-launched missiles. In 1978, the SALT-2 treaty was concluded to limit underground nuclear tests and missile defense: The volume of Soviet-American trade increased 8 times.
There have been positive changes in relations with Great Britain, Germany, Italy, France and other capitalist powers.
On July 30, 1975, the Pan-European Conference on Security and Cooperation (CSCE) was held in Helsinki. 33 states took part in it, and the final document enshrined ten principles in the relations between the CSCE participating countries: sovereign equality states, their territorial integrity, inviolability of borders, peaceful settlement of disputes, non-interference in internal affairs, respect for human rights, equality of peoples, mutually beneficial cooperation, fulfillment of obligations under international law.
The development of cooperation with countries continued people's democracy. The USSR was faced with the task of strengthening the socialist camp, uniting it in political, military and economic relations.
In 1971, a program of economic integration of the CMEA member countries was adopted, which had a positive impact on the development of the economy of the socialist countries. However, the isolation of the CMEA from the world economy had a detrimental effect on the pace economic development, which in turn became the cause of crisis situations in relations between socialist countries.
In 1968 in Czechoslovakia, the leadership of the Communist Party, led by A. Dubcek, made an attempt to carry out democratic changes in society and build socialism with “ human face" In response, joint troops of five countries participating in the Warsaw Warsaw War were brought into the territory of Czechoslovakia. A change of government was made, at the head of which G. Gusak was placed in Moscow.
In May 1970, Czechoslovakia signed an alliance treaty with the USSR. Czechoslovakia, Poland and the GDR became the stronghold of socialism in Europe. These events caused enormous damage to the international prestige of the USSR and had serious foreign policy consequences.
In 1969, the territorial conflict between the USSR and China ended in armed clashes on the Damansky Peninsula.
The conflict in Poland was provoked by a sharp rise in prices, which caused a wave of protest. The struggle for independence was organized by the Solidarity trade union, led by the popular leader L. Vapensa. On December 13, 1981, martial law was introduced in Poland.
Since 1973, negotiations have been held between the Warsaw Pact countries and NATO on the reduction of armed forces in Europe. However, the introduction of Soviet troops into Afghanistan in December 1979 thwarted all efforts, and negotiations reached a dead end.
38. Course M.S. Gorbachev on “renewal of society.” Socio-economic and political transformations in the USSR (1985-1991)
By the early 1980s, the Soviet Union was seriously lagging behind the advanced Western countries. Civilian sectors of the economy developed extremely slowly, while billions of rubles were spent on the arms race and maintaining the army. The outdated political system hampered the country's development. In 1985, the Soviet Union was headed by a young and energetic leader, Mikhail Sergeevich Gorbachev. He announced the beginning of perestroika. It was supposed to accelerate economic growth through the development of new technologies, strengthening discipline and people's interest in the results of their work. The people supported the policies of the new leader and believed in him.. In 1989, free elections were held in the USSR (for the first time since 1917). Leading publicists (“foremen of perestroika”) in publications published in millions of copies exposed the crimes of Soviet leaders. However, glasnost and democratization called into question the CPSU's monopoly on power, which was the basis of the Soviet state. Economic reforms (the creation of cooperatives and commercial banks) were inconsistent and often caused sharp rejection by society. The most necessary products and goods began to disappear from stores, and huge queues stretched out on the streets of big and small cities.
By the early 1990s, confidence in the policy of perestroika and Gorbachev's popularity were undermined. The main reason is the decline in living standards of the bulk of the population. The policy of perestroika has reached a dead end. With the collapse of the USSR, it was defeated, but it led to the formation of the foundations of market relations and significantly expanded civil liberties.
39. Russian foreign policy 1985 – 1990s.
With the beginning of the perestroika process, serious changes began to occur in the foreign policy of the USSR. With the resignation of A. A. Gromyko as Minister of Foreign Affairs, there was a change in the leadership of the ministry. People with new thinking came to foreign policy.
Foreign policy began to be chosen on the basis of expert opinion.
Gorbachev declared the priority of universal human values over class ones and the rejection of the main postulate of Soviet ideology about the split of the world into two opposing socio-political systems. The world was recognized as one and indivisible. The main instrument for resolving international issues was not the balance of forces, but the balance of their interests. Based on this, the main directions of foreign policy were determined: mitigating the confrontation between East and West through negotiations, resolving regional conflicts, expanding economic ties
with the international community.
Particular importance was attached to Soviet-American relations. “Summit meetings” became annual, and as a result, agreements were signed on the destruction of medium- and shorter-range missiles. In July 1991, M.S. Gorbachev and George W. Bush signed an agreement on the limitation of offensive weapons. Significant success has been achieved in the negotiation process on reducing the number of conventional weapons in Europe. Having signed this agreement in November 1990, the USSR put forward a counter initiative and unilaterally reduced the number of ground forces by 500 thousand people. In April 1991 paid a visit to Japan in order to prepare the ground for the signing of a peace treaty and revitalization of bilateral relations. The Soviet delegation officially recognized the existence of territorial disagreements with Japan related to changes in borders as a result of their revision in 1945.
In May 1989, as a result of the visit of the Soviet delegation to Beijing, relations with China were normalized, and long-term agreements on political, economic and cultural cooperation were signed.
The Soviet Union's senseless war in Afghanistan was put to an end. The process of settlement and withdrawal of troops was carried out in stages: in February 1988, the withdrawal of troops was announced, which began on May 15, 1988 and ended in February 1989.
The policy of non-use of force in international relations, including in relation to allies, accelerated the process of the fall of communist regimes in countries of Eastern Europe. In Czechoslovakia, Poland, Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, and the GDR, new democratic forces came to power.
In November 1989, the Berlin Wall, a symbol of the division of Europe, ceased to exist. The leaders of the new states set a course for breaking ties with the USSR and rapprochement with Western countries.
On July 1, 1991, the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact was legally formalized. By this time, Soviet troops had left Hungary and Czechoslovakia.
The biggest problem in European politics, the “German question,” was solved. In 1990, a meeting between German Chancellor Heinrich Kohl and M.S. Gorbachev took place in Moscow. During the negotiations, an agreement was reached on the unification of the two German states and the entry of a united Germany into NATO. In March of the same year, multi-party elections were held in the GDR, which were won by a bloc of bourgeois-conservative parties.
In November, the GDR became part of the Federal Republic of Germany.
During the period of perestroika, the USSR was integrated into the world community. The work of USSR representatives in international conferences and meetings of leaders of leading countries began.
In the West, the sharp turn in foreign policy was associated with the name of USSR President Gorbachev. In 1990 he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Trust in the USSR increased.
40. Russia at the beginning of the 21st century: economic and political life of the country.
“Revolution from above” in Russia in the 90s. led to the formation of the labor market, goods, housing, and stock market. However, these changes were only the beginning transition period economy.
The failed “putsch” of the Emergency Committee and the completion of perestroika meant not only the end of socialist reform in the USSR, but also the victory of those political forces that saw a change in the model of social development as the country’s only way out of the protracted crisis. This was a conscious choice not only of the authorities, but also of the majority of society. “Revolution from above” in Russia in the 90s. led to the formation of the labor market, goods, housing, and stock market. However, these changes were only the beginning of an economic transition period.
During the political transformations, the Soviet system of organizing power was dismantled. Instead, the formation of a political system based on the separation of powers began.
Due to the redistribution of power between the weakened federal Center and the growing regions (primarily national ones), centrifugal tendencies have intensified. In this situation, maintaining the state unity of the country was the most important task.
Many problems of spiritual life were associated with a change in the model of social development, the transition from the dominance of the only communist ideology in previous years to ideological pluralism, the rejection of a number of traditional moral values, and the borrowing of mass Western culture. The collapse of the USSR radically changed Russia's geostrategic position. The country's unified security and defense system was destroyed. NATO has moved closer to the borders of Russia. At the same time, Russia itself, having overcome its previous isolation from Western countries, has found itself, as never before, integrated into many international structures.
TO beginning of XXI V. Russia has lost its status as a great world power. Occupying 12% of the world's landmass, by the end of the 20th century. produced only 1% of the world's gross product. There was a crisis in federal relations and the social sphere. The standard of living of the population dropped to a minimum. It was necessary to take urgent measures to correct the situation.
A new strategic course was proposed by V.V. Putin, who relied on strengthening statehood and achieving through this the revival and prosperity of the country, taking into account all the positive experience accumulated at all stages of the national history of the 20th century. By implementing it, in a short historical period the country managed to:
in the economy, enter the final stage of building a state socially oriented market;
in politics, create a model of a political system free from interference in government affairs by both domestic oligarchs and foreign states and international organizations;
in spiritual life, ensure respect for the constitutional rights and freedoms of citizens, development global network communications, Russia's involvement in the global cultural and information space;
in foreign policy, to formulate the essence of national interests at a new stage of development and begin to solve them.
It is 110 years since the birth of Leonid Brezhnev, who led the Soviet Union from 1964 to 1982. With the light hand of Mikhail Gorbachev - the first and last president USSR, this time was called the “period of stagnation.” But thirty-four years after Brezhnev’s death, many people call this time the “golden age of the USSR”...
Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev was born according to the new style on January 1, 1907, but officially his birthday was considered December 19, 1906 ( old style), and his anniversaries were always celebrated on December 19, perhaps to avoid coincidence with the New Year.
He was born in the village of Kamenka, Dnepropetrovsk region of Ukraine. Graduated from the Kursk Land Management and Reclamation College and the Dneprodzerzhinsk Metallurgical Institute. Worked at a factory. In 1937, he was elected deputy chairman of the executive committee of the Dneprodzerzhinsk City Council.
Since February 1939 - Secretary of the Dnepropetrovsk Regional Committee of the Communist Party of Ukraine for Propaganda. Since 1941 - in active army: Deputy head of the political department of the Southern Front, head of the political department of the 18th Army, head of the political department of the 4th Ukrainian Front. 
Leonid Brezhnev (right)
In 1950-1952 - first secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Moldova. In 1953-1954 - deputy chief of the Main political management Soviet army and the Navy. From February 1954 - second, from August 1955 - first secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan.
In 1952-1953, 1956-1960, 1963-1964 - secretary, in 1964-1966 - first secretary of the CPSU Central Committee. Since 1966 - General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee, at the same time since 1977 - Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.
During Brezhnev’s tenure at the highest party and government posts in the country, conservative tendencies prevailed, negative processes in the economy, social and spiritual spheres of society grew (the “Brezhnev era” was called “stagnation” in the literature).
Periods of easing tension in the international situation, associated with the conclusion of a series of agreements with the USA, Germany and other countries, as well as with the development of measures for security and cooperation in Europe, were followed by a sharp aggravation of international contradictions; intervention was undertaken in Czechoslovakia (1968) and Afghanistan (1979). 
Leonid Brezhnev is a whole era. Some call it a period of stagnation, others call it far from the worst years of their lives. In any case, interest in the personality of the General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee does not fade.
What events should the Brezhnev era be remembered for?
Operation Danube
On the night of August 21, 1968, troops from five Warsaw Pact countries (USSR, Bulgaria, Hungary, East Germany and Poland) were brought into Czechoslovakia. The operation, codenamed Operation Danube, aimed to stop the process of reforms taking place in the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (CSSR), initiated by the First Secretary of the Central Committee Communist Party Czechoslovakia by Alexander Dubcek - “Prague Spring”.Within 36 hours, the armies of the Warsaw Pact countries, without encountering opposition from the Czechoslovak troops, broke public resistance and established complete control over the territory of Czechoslovakia. At the same time, over 70 citizens were killed and several hundred were injured. On August 24 - 27, 1968, negotiations took place in Moscow, at which the Czechoslovak side agreed to restore “true” socialism.
However, the result of yet another resolution of contradictions within the socialist camp by force was an even greater isolation of the Warsaw Pact countries from the rest of the world and mass emigration (up to 300 thousand people) of highly qualified specialists from Czechoslovakia.
Despite the relative “bloodlessness” of the occupation, when similar events begin in Poland in 1980, the Brezhnev leadership will no longer dare to use force, fearing international sanctions and a split within the socialist camp.
Finally, the events in Czechoslovakia gave rise to a dissident movement in the USSR itself. August 25, 1968 in Moscow seven Soviet citizens went on a demonstration against the entry of troops into Czechoslovakia. On October 9, 5 of them appeared in court (two received 2.5 and 3 years of imprisonment, the rest - from 3 to 5 years of exile). Two more were sentenced to imprisonment in a specialized mental hospital.
Discharge
At the end of the 60s, the international situation gradually changed. Khrushchev’s “Thaw”, along with the desire of the Soviet nomenklatura to ensure a stable existence for themselves, are bringing their results: in relations with the United States and its allies, the Soviet Union is guided by the policy of “détente.”
During these years, Moscow and Washington concluded a number of important agreements to limit the arms race, including agreements to limit missile defense (ABM) and strategic nuclear weapons(OSV-1 and OSV-2).
Leonid Brezhnev and Richard Nixon
The culmination of détente was the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe, which opened in 1973. Final Act The CSCE, signed at the Helsinki summit in the summer of 1975, established the principle of the inviolability of borders in Europe, non-use of force, and respect for human rights and freedoms.
By signing this agreement, Soviet leaders have placed the strongest weapons in the hands of human rights defenders, who only demand that their obligations be fulfilled.
Generation "P"
“Détente” in political relations was accompanied by the development of economic ties between Russia and the West. In 1973, as part of a bilateral trade agreement between the USSR and the USA, Pepsi-Cola began to be sold in the Soviet Union.
In addition, the construction of Pepsi-Cola plants in the USSR began (the first such plant opened in 1974 in Novorossiysk). In a matter of years, for Soviet people Pepsi-Cola has become a symbol of Western consumerism, both desirable and inaccessible.
"Our Vietnam"
The invasion of Afghanistan by Soviet troops on December 26-27, 1979 put an end to “détente.” The shot President Amin is replaced by a new Kremlin protege, Babrak Karmal.The Kremlin's strategic mistake in Afghanistan allows Zbigniew Brzezinski, adviser on national security US President Jimmy Carter, to tell the latter: “We have a historic chance to give the Soviet Union its Vietnam.”
Afghanistan quickly turned into just another theater cold war between the USSR and the USA, although in the Union the war was stubbornly called “international assistance to the fraternal people of Afghanistan.”
Over nine years, one month and nineteen days of war, more than half a million soldiers of the “limited contingent” of Soviet troops passed through Afghanistan. During the war, the country lost almost 15,000 people (according to unofficial data - up to 40 thousand).
Afghans lost up to 1 million people during the same period (with total number population of 13 million people), among whom the vast majority were civilians.
Olympics-80
July 19 - August 3, 1980, the XXII Summer Olympic Games. The USA, Canada, Japan, China and the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) announced a boycott of the Moscow Olympics due to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.
And yet, the Olympics took place. Almost 6,000 athletes from 81 countries competed in 203 disciplines in 21 sports. A record number of medals in the entire history of Olympism - 197 (including 80 gold) - were won by Soviet athletes.
For Moscow residents, this sports holiday turned into an unexpected communism that came for two weeks in a single capital: full counters, Finnish beer and juice with a straw. True, not everyone could observe this abundance: entry into the city during the games was limited, and citizens with a criminal record, as well as beggars, parasites and prostitutes were evicted 101 kilometers away.
To ensure the safety of the games, police officers from all over the country were brought to the capital. The law enforcement officers failed to control the crowd only once - on the day of the funeral of Vladimir Vysotsky.
"Kosygin reforms"
In 1965, under the leadership of the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR Alexei Kosygin, economic reforms began, the essence of which was the introduction of progressive elements of market relations (cost accounting) into the planned economy of the USSR.
Sectoral management of the economy was restored (economic councils were abolished, and their functions were transferred to newly created ministries); enterprises were allowed to create “material incentive funds” for the development of production and implement financial incentive employees.
Leonid Brezhnev and Alexey Kosygin
In addition, enterprises were transferred to self-financing (i.e., self-financing), reporting was simplified; purchase prices for agricultural products were increased and a number of other measures were taken, which manifested themselves during the Eighth Five-Year Plan (1966 - 1970).
This five-year plan became the most successful in Soviet history and received the name “golden”. The volume of industrial production, according to official data, increased by 50%. Almost 1,900 large enterprises were built (including the Volzhsky plant in Togliatti, from whose assembly line the first Zhiguli cars rolled off in 1970).
Agricultural production increased by 21%. However, temporary economic successes were largely due to the export of energy resources and favorable global conditions. Official statistics on the growth of agricultural indicators also do not inspire confidence, since from the mid-60s the country begins to regularly import grain, and the notorious Food problem becomes the main subject of discussion at the next congress.
Ultimately, the reform was doomed to failure: the initiative of enterprises was not consistent with centralized planning, material incentives were weak, and came into conflict with the official egalitarian ideology of communism. The latter worried the main ideologist of the party, Mikhail Suslov, most of all.
Birth of the human rights movement
Since the mid-60s, the dissident movement has gradually “come out into the world.” The catalyst for this process was largely trial over writers Julius Daniel and Andrei Sinyavsky.In the fall of 1965, they were arrested for “anti-Soviet agitation”: for 10 years, Sinyavsky and Daniel, under pseudonyms, secretly published their stories in the West. On February 10 they appeared before Supreme Court THE USSR. At the show trial, Sinyavsky and Daniel never admitted their guilt.
As a result, by initiating this process, the authorities only created a “chain reaction”, which was stunning by Soviet standards: 62 writers appealed to the authorities to bail their arrested colleagues. Nevertheless, Sinyavsky received seven years in the camps, Daniel - five.
At the XXIII Party Congress, Mikhail Sholokhov, who had recently received the Nobel Prize in Literature, made a speech against Sinyavsky and Daniel.
“I am not ashamed of those who slandered the Motherland and poured mud on everything that was bright for us. They are immoral. I am ashamed of those who tried and are trying to take them under their protection. It’s doubly shameful for those who offer their services and ask to give them bail for convicted renegades,” the writer branded the anti-Soviet people.
Soon after the arrest of Sinyavsky and Daniel, the idea arose to hold a protest demonstration - the first in Moscow in 35 years. On December 5, the day of the Stalin Constitution, about 200 people raised posters over Pushkin Square: “Respect the Soviet Constitution!”, “We demand openness of the trial of Sinyavsky and Daniel!”
The demonstration on December 5 has become traditional. This day, December 5, 1965, is considered the birthday of the human rights movement.
"Bulldozer Exhibition"
On September 15, 1974, several unofficial Soviet artists decided to organize an exhibition of their paintings under open air, since they for a long time they did not give permission for an exhibition on the premises. The exhibition was organized in a vacant lot near the Belyaevo metro station in Moscow.
However, the artists were immediately told that the exhibition was prohibited, since a “communist subbotnik” was being held in the vacant lot. Three bulldozers drove up to the vacant lot and began crushing the paintings with their caterpillars. Four artists were detained by the police.
Expulsion of Solzhenitsyn
In 1973, “The Gulag Archipelago” by Alexander Solzhenitsyn was published abroad. The book quickly began to be distributed by “samizdat” (that is, underground reprinting) within the country.On February 12, 1974, Solzhenitsyn was arrested at his apartment and taken to Lefortovo prison. The authorities did not dare to send the Nobel Prize winner in literature (1970) to the camp, and therefore Solzhenitsyn was informed that he had been deprived of Soviet citizenship and expelled from the USSR.
Under escort, the writer was put on a plane. Only after landing, having read the inscription at the airport: “Frankfurt am Main”, did he find out what country he was in.
Sakharov's link
In 1968, "father hydrogen bomb“, three times Hero of Socialist Labor, academician Andrei Sakharov writes an article “Reflections on progress, peaceful coexistence and intellectual freedom”, in which he defends the idea of “an unbiased and fearless discussion”, calls for “to complete the exposure” of Joseph Stalin and highly appreciates the case of Vladimir Lenin .He also expresses the idea of a "gradual rapprochement of capitalism and socialism" and other ideas that the Soviet press later called a "manifesto" of the technical intelligentsia.
In 1968, Sakharov was removed from secret work. Since 1970, protecting the rights of political prisoners and the fight against the death penalty has come to the fore for Sakharov. In 1970, Sakharov became one of the founders of the Human Rights Committee, which operated until 1974.
In 1975, Sakharov was awarded Nobel Prize world, which causes condemnation in the Soviet press. The laureate was not released abroad, and his wife Elena Bonner received the prize. After a series of speeches by Sakharov criticizing the entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan, the academician was deprived of all awards and exiled to Gorky (now Nizhny Novgorod), where he was placed under house arrest.
Space successes
On March 18, 1965, the USSR took a new step in the exploration of outer space: Alexei Leonov made the first human spacewalk. However, it was not possible to land a Soviet cosmonaut on the Moon, as the Americans did for the first time in 1969 (there were six such landings in total).
In 1970, the space station Luna-17 with the Lunokhod-1 apparatus made a soft landing on the surface of the Moon.
In 1971, the USSR created and launched into orbit the world's first long-term orbital station (DOS), called Salyut-1, which marked a new stage in space exploration.
In 1975, the first international flight of manned spacecraft Soyuz 19 and Apollo took place in the history of astronautics.
Have fun guys...!
In April 1974, at the XVII Komsomol Congress, BAM was declared a Komsomol shock construction site.
The main youth organization of the USSR began implementing a program to actively involve the younger generation in the construction of the highway. Thousands of young romantics went to BAM to live, build and raise children.
Constitution of developed socialism
In 1977, a new Constitution was adopted, which went down in history as the “constitution of developed socialism.” The new Basic Law, work on which began during the time of Khrushchev, was intended to create guarantees against the return of the regime of personal power and mass repression.
For the first time, a preamble appeared in the Soviet constitution, which spoke of building a developed socialist society in the USSR. In addition, the 1977 Constitution secured the de facto monopoly of the CPSU on political power: Art. 6 declared the Communist Party “the leading and directing force of Soviet society, the core of its political system.”
Most published author
1978 - the famous “Brezhnev trilogy” was published in the magazine “New World”: memoir books “Malaya Zemlya”, “Renaissance” and “Virgin Land”, actually written by professional journalists.
The circulation of each book amounted to 15 million copies, thanks to which Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev became the most published writer in the USSR. For several years these works were studied as part of a school literature course. After Brezhnev’s death, in 1987, the books of the trilogy were removed from bookstores and written off as waste paper...
We will talk about Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev, the leader of the Soviet Union from the late 60s to the early 80s. The period of his chairmanship is characterized by stagnation in all areas of life of Soviet people, decline in production, and lack of political freedom. It’s worth starting with the fact that Leonid Ilyich’s career begins in 1931, when the young Brezhnev joined the CPSU. During the Great Patriotic War, the future secretary general holds the post of political instructor in the 18th Army, and then the entire Fourth Ukrainian Front. After the war, the well-established Brezhnev quickly made progress in his party career. Thanks to his connections with Khrushchev, he was appointed to the post of Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Moldova. Then he rapidly advanced in his career until he became Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.
Next after Khrushchev
After the “displacement” of N.S. Khrushchev and Brezhnev were recommended for the post of Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee. Most likely due to the fact that Brezhnev often did not have his own opinion, and was also weak to flattery and gifts. These qualities made him advantageous as a leader for other, more influential members of the Central Committee. In many ways they were right, but in some ways they were wrong. Brezhnev, despite his habits, is a rather smart and very cunning person with a great sense of people. This is what helped him stay in power for such a long time.
If we talk about Brezhnev’s activities as leader of the country, it should be noted that all spheres of life did not develop particularly during this period. Or rather, there most likely was development. While great importance gave “paper” growth. The real numbers were kept silent or deliberately increased.
Leonid Ilyich himself, as a typical party functionary, was not very knowledgeable in numbers. But for this task, Alexey Kosygin was in the government. He became the author of the reforms that made the Eighth Five-Year Plan the most effective in the history of the USSR. But then the crisis occurred in the Middle East, the price per barrel skyrocketed and Kosygin’s reforms became unnecessary. However, later, when the price stabilized (which happened much later), the leaders regretted that they had not implemented economic reforms.
A lot of Soviet classics were filmed at that time, for example by everyone famous films: Love affair at work(1977), Twelve Chairs (1970), etc. At this time, such artists and composers as Chagall and Khachaturian created their masterpieces. Heart general public won by V. Vysotsky with his genre of “live” concerts.
The military-industrial complex was not worried best time. The idea of a “big” war had already been buried, so research in this area was not very active. At this time, many tanks and other armored vehicles were created, for example, MP 2, T-72, BMD 2, etc.
As for assessing Brezhnev’s activities, most historians are unanimous in their opinions. This era was a reflection of the personality of L.I. Brezhnev. She was calm and phlegmatic. Probably for the first time since Tsarist times, soviet man I could say what would happen tomorrow and not be afraid of anything from the state. But, nevertheless, the general inefficiency of the economic, financial and business systems was extremely felt in ordinary people. It was at that time that the stereotype about the extremely low quality of Soviet products was born.
After the dismissal of Khrushchev, L.I. became the First Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee. Brezhnev (from 1966 - general secretary, since 1977 - simultaneously Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR). The post of Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR was taken by A.N. Kosygin.
Both in character and intellect, Brezhnev did not possess the qualities of a leader of a great power necessary to implement a radical renewal of society. The leading place in governing the country was taken by the unofficial “small” Politburo, which included Minister of Defense D.F. Ustinov, Minister of Foreign Affairs A.A. Gromyko, Secretary of the Central Committee M.A. Suslov, KGB Chairman Yu.V. Andropov, who determined domestic and foreign policy.
The basis of the course was “stability,” which meant the rejection of any attempts at radical renewal of society. Both the government and society are tired of emergency conditions and constant tension in which the country had lived for the previous half century.
Political development.
Characteristics political development countries in the second half of the 1960s - the first half of the 1980s. centralization and bureaucratization of the administrative apparatus began. Resolutions adopted on further democratization public life remained declarative.
Brezhnev's reign was a "golden time" for the bureaucracy. Under Stalin, she lived under constant fear of arrest; under Khrushchev’s constant reorganizations, she also felt restless. After the death of Stalin and the removal of Khrushchev, the elite wanted a quiet life, confidence in the future, and wanted to protect themselves from personnel changes. Brezhnev was ideally suited to the role of spokesman for the interests of the bureaucrats.
The total number of managers by the end of Brezhnev's reign was almost 18 million people (one manager for every 6-7 employees). The rapid growth of the bureaucracy was ensured by numerous benefits and privileges. To maintain such a device by the mid-1980s. More than 40 billion rubles, or 10% of the budget, were spent annually.
By the beginning of the 1980s. only in management national economy Up to 200 thousand various orders, instructions and other by-laws had accumulated, which regulated every step of business executives and fettered their initiative.