Culture of Russian speech. Textbook for high schools. Ed. prof. L. K. Graudina and prof. E. N. Shiryaeva. Russian language and culture of speech. Textbook for students of theological, religious studies and other humanitarian areas and specialties of higher educational institutions
Culture of Russian speech. Textbook for high schools. Ed. prof. L. K. Graudina and prof. E. N. Shiryaeva
Introductory Chapter 1
§one. Brief information from history 2
§2. Modern theoretical concept of speech culture 12
§3. The main features of the culture of speech as a linguistic discipline 25
Literature 45
Chapter II. Culture of oratory 98
§ 10. Kinds and types of oratory 98
§ 11. Oratory and functional styles of the literary language 106
§ 12. Functional-semantic types of speech 114
§ 13. The structure of oratory 129
§ 14. Preparation of speech and performance 139
Literature 148
Chapter III. The culture of discursive-polemical speech 149
§ 15. Dispute: concept and definition 149
§ 16. Disputes in Ancient Greece 151
§ 17. Disputes in modern society 154
§ 18. Dispute as a form of organization of human communication 158
§ 19. Tricks in the dispute 163
Literature 168
Chapter VI. Mass media and culture of speech 238
§ 34. General characteristics of the media 238
§ 35. Information field and information norm in the media 240
§ 36. Pragmatics and rhetoric of discourse in the periodical press. The scope of the subject and the expression of evaluation 253
§ 37. Means of speech expressiveness 264
Literature. 279
The program of the course "Culture of Russian speech" (for humanitarian universities) 281
Reader
Preface 287
I. Colloquial speech 289
Polylogues. Non-Directional Strategy Conversations 290
Dialogues 301
Telephone conversations 306
Memory story 307
Letters, notes, congratulations 309
Diary entries. 322
II. Oratory 325
Socio-political speech 325
D. S. Likhachev. Speech at the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR 327
A. I. Solzhenitsyn. Speech in the State Duma on October 28, 1994 329
Academic and lecture speech 339
A. A. Ukhtomsky. About knowledge 340
V. V. Vinogradov. On the culture of Russian speech 342
Judicial speech 348
V. I. Lifshits. Unexpected witnesses (transcript of speech). 350
I. M. Kisenishsky. Case of Sheikhon A.D. (biased investigation) 354
Spiritual (church-theological) speech 358
A. Men. Christianity 360
Archimandrite John (Krestyankin). Word on Bright Easter Week 364
III. Discussive-polemical speech 368
Yu. S. Sorokin. On the Question of the Basic Concepts of Stylistics 370
R. G. Piotrovsky. About some stylistic categories 381
R. A. Budagov. To the question of language styles 390
I. R. Galperin. Speech styles and stylistic means of language 399
V. G. Admoni and T. N. Silman. Selection of Language Means and Issues of Style 403
V. D. Levin. On some questions of style 408
I. S. Ilyinskaya. On linguistic and non-linguistic stylistic means. 415
V. V. Vinogradov. Results of the discussion of stylistics 418
IV. Scientific style of speech 435
V. V. Vinogradov. Essays on the history of the Russian literary language of the 17th - 19th centuries 437
D. S. Likhachev. On the social responsibility of literary criticism 443
D. S. Likhachev. Poetics of Old Russian Literature 447
Yu. M. Lotman. In the school of the poetic word: Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol 450
L. Ya. Gumilev. Ancient Russia and the Great Steppe 457
test questions
Literature
M. M. Bakhtin. The problem of speech genres 464
V. N. PETROV World of Art 469
J. M. Bitsilli. In defense of the Russian language 475
J. M. Bitsilli. In Defense of Barbarisms in the Russian Language 479
B. Ya. Vysheslavtsev. Free will and creative arbitrariness 481
B. Ya. Vysheslavtsev. Conflict of Values and the Alternative of Free Choice 483
V. Official business speech 485
No. 1. Power of attorney (personal) 487
No. 2. Personal application 488
No. 3. Statement of claim 489
No. 4. Help 490
Business (service) letters 491
No. 5. Business letter - request or request 492
No. 6. Business letter - answer 492
No. 7. Business letter of guarantee 493
No. 8. Business cover letter 493
No. 9. Business letter - complaint (claim) 493
No. 10. Memorandum 494
No. 11. Explanatory note 495
No. 12. Official statement 496
VI. Means language mass media 497
G. Ya. Fedotov. Russia and freedom 499
A. K. Ekhalov. Dear Karl Mars 514
M. Ya. Lyubimov. Operation Golgotha. Secret Rebuilding Plan 515
L. Likhodeev. Predator 537
V. Voinovich. Carpenter from Kherson 541
Interview of D. Shevarov with D. S. Likhachev. "I live with the feeling of separation..." 544
Russian Academy of Sciences Institute of the Russian Language. V. V. Vinogradova
The culture of Russian speech
Managing editors - Doctor of Philology, Professor
L. K. Graudina and Doctor of Philology, Professor E. N. Shiryaev
Culture of Russian speech. Textbook for high schools. Ed. prof. L. K. Graudina and prof. E. N. Shiryaeva. - M.: Publishing group NORMA-INFRA M, 1999. - 560 p.
The book is the first academic textbook on the culture of speech, containing the most complete systematized material on this topic. The publication is based on a fundamentally new theoretical concept of the culture of speech. The book teaches to speak not only correctly, but also expressively, using skillfully and appropriately different speech styles. Particular attention is paid to culture public speaking, dispute, professional communication. The book provides information about the rhetorical teachings that were widespread in pre-revolutionary Russia.
The second section of the book - an anthology on the culture of speech - includes texts representing the modern exemplary literary language in its main functional varieties.
For students, graduate students, and teachers of humanitarian universities and faculties, as well as all those who love, study the Russian language and strive to master a high culture of speech.
Textbook authors:
Vinogradov S. I., Candidate of Philological Sciences - § 34-37 (together with Platonova O. V.);
Graudina L. K., Doctor of Philology, Professor - § 1, 3; Danilenko V. IL, Doctor of Philology - § 20-24 (together with Novikova N. V.);
Karpinskaya E. V., researcher of the IRL named after V. V. Vinogradov - § 25-27;
Kozlovskaya T. L., candidate of philological sciences - § 15-19; Kokhtev N. N., Doctor of Philology, Professor - § Yu-14;
Lazutkina E.M., candidate of philological sciences - § 5-9; Novikova N.V., candidate of philological sciences - § 20-24 (together with Danilenko V.P.);
Platonova O. V., candidate of philological sciences - § 34-37 (together with Vinogradov S. I.);
Schwarzkopf B. S., Doctor of Philology - § 28-33; Shiryaev E. N., Doctor of Philology, Professor - § 2, 4.
Compilers of the anthology:
Vinogradov S.I., candidate of philological sciences - sec. VI; Graudina L. K., Doctor of Philology, Professor - Sec. II;
Karpinskaya E.V., researcher of the IRL named after V.V. Vinogradov - section IV (together with Novikova N.V.);
Kozlovskaya T.L., candidate of philological sciences - sec. III;
Lazutkina E. M. Candidate of Philological Sciences - Sec. I;
Novikova N.V., candidate of philological sciences - sec. IV (together with Karpinskaya E.V.);
Schwarzkopf B.S., Doctor of Philology - Sec. v.
Responsible editor of the reader - Doctor of Philology, Professor L. K. Graudina
Reviewers:
D. M. Gzgzyan, Ph.D. philol. Sciences, Head of the Department of Theological Disciplines and Liturgy, SFI
A. M. Kopirovsky, Ph.D. ped. Sciences, Professor SFI
Foreword
The textbook on the course "Russian language and culture of speech" is intended for students of humanitarian specialties and higher education educational institutions.
Goals and objectives
The study of the discipline "Russian language and culture of speech" is designed to help students improve the level of practical knowledge of the modern Russian literary language in different situations communication. The course contributes to a better understanding of the structure of the Russian language and its main features, allows you to get a general idea of the history of the Russian literary language, expand your scientific and cultural horizons.
Course objectives
TO FORM IN STUDENTS THE APPROPRIATE KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS AND SKILLS. IN PARTICULAR!
The ability to build and implement promising lines of intellectual, cultural and professional self-development and self-improvement;
Basic knowledge in the field of social sciences and humanities;
Readiness for written and oral communication in Russian;
The ability to formalize and introduce into scientific circulation the results of theological research;
The ability to use specialized knowledge of the fundamental sections of philology for the development of specialized theological disciplines.
AS A RESULT OF STUDYING THE DISCIPLINE, THE STUDENT SHOULD HAVE THE REPRESENTATION:
About the Russian language as a system;
On the basic concepts of the culture of speech;
On the stylistic system of the modern Russian literary language.
AS A RESULT OF STUDYING THE DISCIPLINE, THE STUDENT SHOULD KNOW:
Principles for the use of an extended range of language tools.
AS A RESULT OF STUDYING THE DISCIPLINE, THE STUDENT SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
Create statements in oral and written form, choosing a genre, style and language means depending on the situation and goals of communication;
Apply knowledge of the history and theory of the Russian language to solve professional problems.
AS A RESULT OF STUDYING THE DISCIPLINE, THE STUDENT SHOULD OWN:
The norm of the Russian literary language;
Practical communication skills in various speech situations;
The skill of creating coherent, correctly constructed monologue texts in accordance with the communicative intentions of the speaker and the situation of communication;
Communication skills in dialogic and polylogical situations.
Thus, the purpose of this course is to promote the formation and education of a modern personality, who owns the system of norms of the modern Russian literary language. The course is aimed at increasing the level of communicative competence of students, improving their language abilities, allowing them to use all the richness of Russian language means in various communication situations.
The textbook contains theoretical material on go topics.
Of these, the first two are “Basic levels and units of the language. Modern Russian literary language. Language norm as a central category of speech culture” and “Basic concepts of stylistics. Functional Styles of the Modern Russian Literary Language” are devoted to such basic concepts of speech culture as “language norm”, “literary language” and “style”. Then the system of functional styles of the Russian literary language is studied: chapters 3–7 are devoted to literary, artistic, scientific, official business, journalistic and colloquial styles. The focus is on scientific and artistic styles.
Chapter 8 deals with non-literary varieties of the Russian language (dialect, jargon, vernacular); acquaintance with them is intended to teach students to evaluate from a scientific point of view and consciously use or reject linguistic phenomena. Chapter 9 is aimed at considering the lexical subsystem of the Russian literary language in its historical development.
The last chapter of the textbook is “Actual problems of the language culture of society. The current state of the Russian literary language and the main trends in its development. Language and Speech in the Spiritual Life of Man and in the Life of the Church” is devoted to the problems of linguistic culture.
In addition to theoretical material, the textbook contains practical tasks and exercise. Particular attention is paid to practical stylistics, philological analysis of the text and the creation of original texts in various genres and styles. The latter allows one to engage in both improving the skills of literate writing, and developing creative abilities, “revitalizing” the relationship of a person with a word.
The textbook is intended for use both in the classroom and for independent work. It includes "questions for reflection" that give the textbook an interactive character.
1. Familiarize yourself with the theoretical material, make the necessary extracts; pay attention to the basic concepts; answer the self-test questions (see Appendix i).
2. Answer the questions for reflection, using reference books if necessary.
3. Full-time education - orally complete tasks and exercises; part-time and part-time education - it is recommended to complete assignments and exercises in writing.
4. Pay special attention to the performance of creative tasks. Write and edit your text, referring to a dictionary if necessary.
The active use of scientific and reference literature, as well as electronic resources from the list given in the "Recommended Literature" section is expected.
Introduction
THE TERM "CULTURE OF SPEECH" HAS SEVERAL MEANINGS
1. In part, the "culture of speech" coincides with such concepts as "following the norm", "correctness", "literacy". This is knowledge of the norms of the literary language in its oral and written form and adherence to them, as well as the degree of possession of these norms (for example, a person’s speech can be cultural to a greater or lesser extent).
At the same time, the culture of speech is not reduced to the absence of errors.
Normativity of speech also includes such qualities as accuracy, clarity, purity. The criterion for the accuracy of speech is its correspondence to the thoughts of the speaker and writer, the correct selection of language means for adequate expression of the content of the statement. The criterion for the clarity of speech is its intelligibility and accessibility for those to whom it is addressed. The criterion for the purity of speech is the exclusion of non-literary elements (dialect words, colloquial vocabulary, professional jargon), the appropriateness of using certain means in it in a specific situation of verbal communication, etc. Cultural speech is distinguished by the richness of the dictionary, the variety of grammatical structures, artistic expressiveness, logical harmony. The correctness of speech is brought up in the process of learning the language. These qualities of speech imply a fairly high level of general human culture, a developed culture of thinking, and a conscious love for the language. An indicator of speech culture is the possession of a literary language, in which the cultural traditions of the people are consolidated and accumulated.
Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia: In 2 volumes / Ed. V. G. Panova. T. 1. M.: Great Russian Encyclopedia, 1993. S. 487
2. The culture of speech is the possession of the whole variety of language means, the ability to select them depending on the situation of communication. This aspect of speech culture is associated with the development of the practical style of the literary language, as well as the ability to navigate non-literary varieties of the language (dialect, jargon, vernacular).
3. The concept of "culture of speech" is associated with the desire for the most effective use of the language and is synonymous with what is called "communicative excellence". The culture of speech is understood as a system of communicative properties and qualities of speech that speak of its most appropriate use.
4. The culture of speech is understood as speech skill. Language and speech are the most important manifestations of creativity. Possession of the word is one of the ways in which human freedom and responsibility are manifested. We can say that the culture of speech is an active love for the language.
5. A branch of linguistics that studies speech in its communicative perfection. “A positive program for language policy and improving the culture of speech can only be built on the basis of scientific understanding of language as a continuously developing phenomenon” (Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary for the Humanities. Vol. 2).
The study of theoretical material is necessary and important, but not the main task of the speech culture course. The main thing is to learn the practical application of knowledge about the language, to make its use more free and conscious, whether it is reading, writing scientific papers or private letters, making a presentation or an informal conversation. M. L. Gasparov in the book “Notes and Extracts” writes about such a close culture of speech discipline as rhetoric: “In vain they think that this is the ability to say what you don’t really think. This is the ability to say exactly what you think, but in such a way that they are not surprised and indignant ”(Gasparov M. L. Notes and extracts. M .: New literary review, 2001. P. 54). Improving this skill is especially important for students studying the humanities. In this case, the word is the main "working tool" that you need to learn to use consciously and creatively.
Chapter 1
Basic concepts of speech culture
Literature
1. Bozhenkova = Bozhenkova R. K., Bozhenkova N. A. Russian language and culture of speech: a textbook for university students. M.: Verbum-M, 2004. 560 p.
2. Reformed = Reformatsky A. A. Introduction to linguistics. M.: Aspect Press, 1996. 536 p.
3. Owl = Russian language: encyclopedia / Ch. ed. F. P. Filin.
M.: Sov. Encycl., 1979– 432 p. (any edition).
The Russian language and culture of speech is one of the modern linguistic disciplines that studies the speech activity of society, establishes the language norm and monitors its observance.
For reflection
Whose speech do you perceive as a model that you want to focus on? It can be the speech of a person or a group of people (for example, television announcers), or the language of literature of a certain era ... Try using your examples of “ideal” or “almost ideal” speech to determine which properties of speech are especially valuable to you.
Basic levels and units of the language
What is language? How is it arranged?
Here is one of the well-known definitions of language: "language is the most important means of human communication." what else can we say about language?
Language does not belong to natural phenomena, although such an understanding of language was popular in the 19th century. According to the naturalistic concept, language lives and evolves like biological objects. Indeed, language tends to change. These changes may occur under the influence of external factors, but they may also be internal processes, some of which are explainable and some not.
Only humans have language. In modern linguistics, it is understood as a special social phenomenon.
“Since language, being an instrument of communication, is at the same time a means of exchanging thoughts, the question naturally arises about the relationship between language and thinking. There are two opposing and equally wrong tendencies on this question:
1. separation of language from thinking
2. identification of language and thinking " [Reformatsky, 24];
“Thoughts are born on the basis of language and are fixed in it.
However, this does not mean at all that language and thought are identical.<…>Language and thinking form a unity, since without thinking there can be no language and thinking without language is impossible. Language and thought arose historically simultaneously in the process labor development human" [Ibid.].
That is, even if language and thinking arose and not quite “in the process of labor development”, language is a means of communication between a person and himself.
In linguistics, language is defined as a sign system. For example, there is such a definition: “Language is a system of discrete (articulate) sound signs that spontaneously arose in human society and is developing, serving for the purposes of communication and capable of expressing the totality of a person’s knowledge and ideas about the world” [Owl, 410].
To determine what elements are included in the structure of the language, A. A. Reformatsky gives the following example.
Two Romans argued who would say (or write) the shorter phrase; one said (wrote):
Eo rus - "I'm going to the village", and the other replied: I - Go.<… >
I. [i] is the sound of speech, i.e., a sound material sign accessible to perception by the ear, or i is a letter, i.e., a graphic material sign accessible to perception by the eye;
2. i is the root of the word, a morpheme, that is, an element that expresses some concept;
3. i is a word (a verb in the form of an imperative mood in the singular), naming a certain phenomenon of reality;
4. I is a sentence, that is, an element that contains a message.
The "small" i, it turns out, contains everything that makes up a language in general:
1. sounds - phonetics (or letters - graphics);
2. morphemes (roots, suffixes, endings) - morphology;
3. words - vocabulary;
4. sentences - syntax.
There is nothing else in the language and cannot be [ Reformatsky, 35].
Thus, each level of the language (phonetics, morphology, vocabulary, syntax) has its own basic unit (sound, morpheme, word, sentence). The word is the basic unit of language.
Each level of the language corresponds to a section of the science of language with the same name (phonetics - morphology - vocabulary - syntax).
Spelling and punctuation are neither levels of language nor branches of the science of language. These are two sets of rules, one of which is devoted to the spelling of words, the other to punctuation.
Modern Russian literary language
Language is a system of signs that really exists only in speech activity.
Speech is the use of language units in a given situation of communication.
Speech is the concrete use of language (language acts as the "material" that is used to create "speech").
Not all linguists share the point of view, according to which the concepts of "language" and "speech" are distinguished. In many philological works these words are used as synonyms.
For reflection
Where did language come from? This is a mystery, since no data on the "primitive language" has been preserved. Since ancient times, scientists have been interested in this issue and created hypotheses that can be found in any textbook on linguistics (for example, Reformatsky A. A. "Introduction to Linguistics"). As a source of the emergence of language, they pointed to the sounds of nature, imitating which a person spoke, and to the work that made a man out of a monkey, who spoke in this process ...
What does Scripture say about the origin of language?
“And the Lord God said, It is not good for the man to be alone; Let us make him a helper suitable for him.
The Lord God formed from the earth all the animals of the field and all the birds of the air, and brought them to man to see what he would call them, and that whatever he called every living soul, that was its name.
And the man gave names to all the cattle, and to the birds of the air, and to all the beasts of the field; but for man there was not found a helper like him” (Genesis 2:19-20).
Let's pay attention: language is connected with communication and knowledge; the tongue is a gift from the Lord; Language is the realm of human creativity.
Language norm as a central category of speech culture
Russian language (national Russian language) is the language spoken by the Russian people.
The unity of the language, along with territorial and economic unity, determines the preservation of the nation, its very existence.
The highest form of the national language -literary language, which obeys the norms, rules established in society (as opposed to vernacular), and these norms are “fixed” in dictionaries and grammar; it is taught in schools. The norm changes, but very slowly, which allows creating and maintaining cultural continuity between generations. The literary language serves the most diverse spheres of human activity (unlike jargon, the use of which always has age, social or professional restrictions). The literary language is internally differentiated, has varieties of use used in various situations of communication (functional styles). Its use is not limited to any particular topic. Unlike dialects, the literary language does not serve any one area of the country; it is overdialectic. The literary language is characterized by high social prestige, which is recognized by all members of society, regardless of their own level of knowledge of the literary language.
For reflection
What is literary language? Give a descriptive definition, listing its characteristic features.
Please note that the literary language and the language of fiction are not the same thing. In a work of art, the author can use not only the literary language, but also refer to those varieties of the language that are outside its literary form (dialects, jargon, vernacular). literary language is not special means creation literary works, it is spoken and written not only when they are engaged in creativity, but in various situations of communication.
The Russian literary language took shape in the 16th–17th centuries. in connection with the formation of the Moscow state and was normalized in the XVIII century. It is based on the Moscow dialect. Significantly influenced the formation of the Russian literary language Old Slavonic (later - Church Slavonic) language.
For reflection
What does "has been normalized" mean?
What do you know about the first dictionaries and grammars of the Russian language? Refer to reference literature.
Any nation has its own literary norm of the language, stable and obligatory for those who speak this language. In modern Russian there are:
spelling,
Punctuation,
Orthoepic (phonetic),
Lexico-phraseological,
Morphological (word formation and inflection),
syntactic,
Stylistic norms.
The spelling norm is violated if the word is spelled incorrectly, for example, "living room" instead of "living room". Violation of the punctuation norm is associated with incorrect punctuation marks (for example, in the sentence “Hello Ivan Ivanovich!” a punctuation error - there is no comma when referring), the orthoepic (phonetic) norm is the norm of pronunciation of words, including stress. If we don’t know which is correct - “other? Che” or “and? different”, “cottage cheese” or “cottage cheese”, we must refer to the orthoepic dictionary.
The lexico-phraseological norm is associated with the meaning of words (the use of a word or phraseological unit must correspond to the meaning). For example, "sufficient" means "to be sufficient" (cf. "enough" in "enough"). At the same time, the incorrect use of this word as a synonym for “influence, impact”, “pressure” is very common, for example, “Circumstances weigh on him” - this is a typical case of violation of the lexical norm.
The morphological norm regulates the formation of grammatical forms. For example, “My birthday is coming soon!” is not correct; right - my (m. R.) day (of what?) Birth, genitive case.
The syntactic norm is the norm for constructing phrases and sentences. It is violated, in particular, when the word order is violated (for example: "We often read very classical literature").
The stylistic norm is the correspondence of the stylistic coloring of the speech situation. For example, the style of the phrase “Dear Lucy! Considering your achievements, congratulations on your name day!” does not correspond to the situation of informal communication, the stylistic norm is violated here.
Properties of cultural speech
There are two forms of the Russian literary language: oral and written. They have different means of expression, which is especially important to know when preparing oral statements: what is perfectly perceived when reading may be poorly perceived by ear.
Features of oral speech:
1. Oral speech is designed for the perception of listeners, therefore, it is necessary to take into account the characteristics of the audience, real or intended, as well as the reaction of the listener or interlocutor.
2. Oral speech is emotional, improvisation is acceptable and often desirable in it.
3. The speaker can use intonation, tone and timbre of the voice and non-verbal means of communication (facial expressions, gesture).
4. Oral speech should be easily accessible for perception, therefore, it is characterized by the simplicity of vocabulary and syntax, repetitions are acceptable.
A feature of oral speech: it is impossible to simply read an oral message “on a piece of paper”. When preparing for such a statement, it makes sense not to write the text verbatim, but to draw up a plan, prepare abstracts, write out the necessary quotes so that you can “peep” while freely communicating with the audience.
Turning to writing we have to put into words exactly what we want to say. We have the opportunity to think over and, perhaps, change what is written several times. You can more actively use book vocabulary and complex syntactic constructions (expanded, “long” sentences). The writer must take into account that the reader will not hear his intonation and tone, will not see facial expressions. Emotions will have to be expressed only with the help of words.
For reflection
In modern private (unofficial) correspondence, “emoticons” are used - schematic representations of facial expressions using punctuation marks and other graphic signs. For those who use them, it is useful to conduct an experiment: try for a while to completely dispense with "emoticons". Observe: did you manage to replace them with words? Was it difficult? Did the recipients notice?
Both oral and written speech are subject to general requirements. D. E. Rosenthal notes such properties of cultural speech as national identity, semantic accuracy, richness and versatility of the dictionary, grammatical correctness, logical harmony, artistic ingenuity and emotionality.
Kaluga State Pedagogical University them. K.E. Tsiolkovsky
Institute social relations
Abstract - summary of the Russian language.
Kaluga 2008
Russian language and culture of speech: a textbook for universities / L. A. Vvedenskaya, L. G. Pavlova, E. Yu. Kashaeva. -Rostov n / D: Phoenix, 2007. -539s. (299s.)
The manual describes the main properties of the modern Russian literary language, discusses various aspects of speech culture (normative, communicative, ethical), talks about the organization of effective speech communication, outlines the basics of oratory, characterizes the features of official business writing.
A significant place in the manual is occupied by the Practicum, which contains tasks for independent work. The Appendix contains accentological, spelling, vocabulary minimums, an annotated list of linguistic dictionaries and reference books, materials on business writing.
Foreword
An indispensable component of a person's national identity is a sense of pride in their native language, which embodies the cultural and historical traditions of the people.
The Russian language is rich, great and powerful. This statement has become a textbook and is accepted without objection.
The state of the modern Russian language has long been of concern. The decline in the level of speech culture of different strata of Russian society is so obvious and large-scale that it is time to revive continuous language training at all levels of education.
Today, interest in their native Russian language is becoming a recognized necessity for millions of young people seeking to achieve success in life with the help of professional knowledge and skills.
Language training of students is designed to solve not only teaching, but also educational tasks.
Knowledge of the language, its laws, the possibilities inherent in it, knowledge rhetoric- art mastery of speech.
All of the above determines the purpose of this tutorial - to give the necessary knowledge about the Russian language, its richness, resources, structure, forms of implementation; to acquaint with the basics of the culture of speech, with the various norms of the literary language, its variants; outline the basics of oratory, give an idea of speech as a tool for effective communication; develop business communication skills.
Chapter 1. From the history of the Russian language
1.1 Origin of the Russian language
The modern Russian language is related by origin to the common Slavic language. Based Common Slavonic the East Slavic (Old Russian) language was formed, as well as the languages of the South Slavic group (Bulgarian, Serbian, etc.) and West Slavic (Polish, Slovak, Czech, etc.).
On the basis of the single East Slavic language of the ancient Russian people, three independent languages arose: Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian, which, with the formation of the nation, took shape in national languages.
1.2 Russian national language of the 18th and 19th centuries
The preservation of the language, concern for its further development and enrichment is a guarantee of the preservation and development of Russian culture.
The position of the Russian language in the 18th century. M. V. Lomonosov played a special role in strengthening the spread of the Russian language during this period. He creates the first in Russian "Russian Grammar" and a set of grammatical rules.
Wishing to raise the prestige of the Russian language and make lectures understandable to most students, M. V. Lomonosov argued that Russian professors should also teach in Russian at the first Russian university. There were only two Russian professors: N.N. Popovsky and A.A. Barsov. N.N. Popovsky began to lecture in Russian. In fiction, official business documents, scientific treatises, the so-called Slavic-Russian language was widely used. It was the Russian language, which absorbed the culture of the Old Slavonic language. Therefore, the paramount task was to create a single national Russian language.
The concentration of national elements is planned due to the selection of the most common features of the South Russian North Russian dialects.
In the 18th century, there was an update, enrichment of the Russian language at the expense of Western European languages: Polish, French, Dutch, Italian, German. This was especially evident in the formation of the scientific language, its terminology: philosophical, scientific-political, legal, technical.
In 1771, the Free Russian Assembly was established in Moscow. Its members are professors, students, writers and poets. The main task of the society is to compile a dictionary of the Russian language. It sought to draw attention to the Russian language, to promote its dissemination and enrichment.
By the end of the 18th century, the preferred use of the Russian language in oral and written speech became a sign of patriotism, respect for one's nation, one's culture.
In the 19th century, throughout the century, disputes continue about what should be considered the basis of the Russian national language. N.M. Karamzin believed that the Russian language was too difficult to express thoughts and needed to be processed. The transformation of the language, according to Karamzinists, requires its release from the consequences of the Church Slavonic language. Focus should be on new European languages, especially French. The Russian language must be given lightness, made simple and understandable to a wide range of readers. On the other hand, the language needs to create new words, to expand the semantics of old words to designate those put into use, mainly secular society, concepts.
The Slavophiles, their inspirer A. S. Shishkov, considered Old Church Slavonic as the primitive language of all mankind and believed that it should become the basis of Russian literary speech. According to him, there are only stylistic differences between the Church Slavonic Russian languages.
The work of the great writers of the first half of the 19th century, Griboedov and Krylov, is indicative, they proved what inexhaustible possibilities live folk speech has, how original, original, rich the language of folklore is.
A. S. Pushkin is rightfully considered the creator of the modern Russian language. The reformist nature of Pushkin's work was written by his contemporaries: N.V. Gogol, V.G. Belinsky and I.S. Turgenev. A.S. Pushkin in his poetic work and in relation to language was guided by the principle of proportionality and conformity.
The 19th century is the silver age of Russian literature and the Russian language. At this time, there is an unprecedented flowering of Russian literature. The works of Gogol, Lermontov, Goncharov, Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Ostrovsky, Chekhov and others are gaining universal appreciation. Russian journalism reaches extraordinary heights: articles by Belinsky, Pisarev, Dobrolyubov, Chernyshevsky. The achievements of Russian scientists Dokuchaev, Mendeleev, Pirogov, Lobachevsky, Mozhaisky, Kovalevsky, Klyuchevsky and others are receiving world recognition. The development of literature, journalism, and science contributes to the further development and enrichment of the Russian national language. Scientific and journalistic literature increases the stock of international terminology. Fiction serves as a basis for replenishment of Russian phraseology and the formation of new words. One of the most important features of the literary language as the highest form of the national language is its normativity. Throughout the 19th century, the process of processing the national language was going on in order to create unified grammatical, lexical spelling, orthoepic norms. The richness and diversity of the vocabulary of the Russian language is reflected in dictionaries (historical, etymological, synonymous, foreign words), which appear in the 19th century. The largest event was the publication in 1863-1866. the four-volume "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by V.I. Dahl. The dictionary was highly appreciated by contemporaries. Its author in 1863 received the Lomonosov Prize of the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences and the title of honorary academician.
1.3 Russian language of the Soviet period
When characterizing the Russian language of the 20th century, two chronological periods should be distinguished: 1 - from October 1917. April 1985 And 2 since April 1985. Until now.
October Revolution of 1917 It leads to the breaking of everything old, there are radical transformations in the state, economic structure of the country. This is the reason for two processes in the Russian language.
Many words that yesterday meant still significant, important concepts, today become unnecessary, go into a passive, because they go into oblivion, their denotations, concepts disappear or become irrelevant. The separation of the church from the state, the destruction of temples, the abolition of the teaching of the law of God in educational institutions also leads to the oblivion of church, liturgical vocabulary. On the other hand, the emergence of new authorities, the creation of new public organizations, changes in the economy, culture - all this is accompanied by the birth of new words that actively replenish the vocabulary of the Russian language. hallmark The Russian language of this period is considered to be flooded with official abbreviations of words and phrases.
The Russian language of the Soviet period is characterized by interference (interaction) of the opposite. A sign of the perception of reality, its reflection in the mass media throughout the Soviet period was the contrast, the polarization of phenomena in terms of parameters. This is reflected in the vocabulary, especially in socio-political vocabulary. After the October Revolution, two lexical systems gradually took shape in the Russian language: one for naming the phenomena of capitalism, the other for socialism. In scientific works, dictionaries, especially in journalism, this distinction was clearly visible. Linguistic dictionaries of that time consistently reflected the interference of the opposite, the social coloring of words. Even methods and means of presenting ideologized words in the dictionaries of the modern Russian language were developed (Boheme, Profvershushka, Reformism, Action1, Bureaucracy, etc.)
In the years Soviet power one of the principles of the nomination is the renaming of the denotation. This was due to the desire of the party and government oligarchy through language, through the word to influence public consciousness. The linguistic problem - the problem of nomination, used to form not only the mass consciousness, but also society itself, becomes a political, ideological problem, serves the interests of the party-government elite.
Indicative in this respect is the history of naming people who distinguished themselves in their work (drummer, leader, Stakhanovite, etc.). These words turn out to be quite active in word-formation, and phrases from these words also appear. The complete renewal of the life of the country after the October Revolution, the fundamental changes should have been evidenced by the periodic replacement of old names. This concerned the administrative-territorial division of the country, state institutions, the party itself. Military ranks are changing, many cities are being renamed, new street names are being given.
The essence of the renaming process, its origins and results were masterfully shown by A. Genelin and V. Mamontov in the article "Exchange as a means of moving towards a brighter future"
The process of renaming as a means of influencing public consciousness has exhausted itself. History returns to us what was lost, including the old names. However, the lessons of the past are revealing and instructive and should not be forgotten.
1.4 Russian language of the late 20th century
The period of perestroika attached particular importance to the processes that accompany the development of the language at all stages of its existence, made them more significant, more clearly expressed, brighter, more clearly presented.
The existence of a language is inconceivable without constant enrichment, development of vocabulary, its most mobile part. But the replenishment of the vocabulary increases especially during periods of fundamental social changes. However, each such period has its own characteristics. If the intensive enrichment of the vocabulary remains a common feature for all epochal periods in the life of the people, then the sources of its replenishment, the ways of forming new words, and the ways of developing the vocabulary are different.
First of all, we should talk about a significant replenishment of the vocabulary of the Russian language with new words, about the actualization of a large number of words that were previously in the passive. New vocabulary reflects all spheres of society: politics, government, ideology (government structure, authoritarianism, etc.); economy (barter, business center, etc.); medicine (acupuncture, hospice, etc.); religion (Jehovism, karmic, etc.); science, technology (clone, kilobyte, etc.); everyday life (yogurt, case, etc.), etc.
In addition to new words, many words have been brought back to life that seemed to have gone out of circulation forever or were in the passive: gymnasium, trust, department, etc. The enrichment of the Russian language dictionary also occurs as a result of the emergence of new meanings for old words. The process of replenishment of the dictionary is opposed by the process of dropping out words from the vocabulary of the Russian language.
A distinctive feature of the current state of the vocabulary of the Russian language is the reorientation of words from characterizing the social phenomena of the capitalist system to the names of the phenomena of Russian reality in recent decades. There is a destruction of two lexical systems formed in Soviet era and caused by the desire of Soviet ideologists to emphasize the polarity of capitalist and socialist reality.
In explanatory dictionaries, words from the lexical system, reflecting the concepts of the capitalist world, most often had a negative evaluative component, a socially restrictive connotation that determined their former perception. With the advent of new social denotations in our reality, the social perception of the words themselves has also changed, there has been a neutralization of socially restrictive connotations. Not only the press, but also reference literature, dictionaries.
The growth of public self-awareness, the gradual but steady assertion and expansion of human rights, freedom to express opinions, one’s own judgments led to the fact that they began to be rethought, critically evaluated words that previously did not cause any doubts, seemed indisputable in their content, clear and clear.
Consequently, changes occur not only in the language, but the attitude towards the language as a means of expressing thoughts, to the word as a meaningful unit that carries information also changes.
At present, due to significant changes in the conditions for the functioning of the language, another problem becomes relevant, the problem of language as a means of communication, language in implementation, the problem of speech.
One of the features is related to the democratization of the language. The problem of democratization of the Russian literary language became especially acute in the 19th century. It was brilliantly resolved by A.S. Pushkin. At the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, the democratization of the language reached such proportions that it would be more correct to call the process liberalization, or more precisely, vulgarization. The original justification for the vulgarization of language is the idea expressed by one public figure: “There are no words to assess the situation in the country! There are only expressions left!
Indeed, throughout its history, the Russian language has been enriched not only at the expense of internal resources, but also at the expense of other languages. It should also be added that the Latin and Old Church Slavonic languages had a significant influence on our language. On the one hand, borrowing without measure clogs speech, makes it not understandable to everyone; on the other hand, reasonable borrowing enriches speech, gives it greater accuracy. But doesn’t it seem to us, Russians, that first of all we ourselves must “know and feel” the Russian language, because we ourselves do not know it enough, we do not speak it well, we treat it carelessly, and we, and only we, are responsible for the state of mother tongue, his further development for his place in the world.
1.5 Russian language in the modern world
The Russian language is the national language of the Russian people, the state language of the Russian Federation. It is used as a means of interethnic communication in Russia itself and in near abroad. At present, the Russian language is one of the languages of European and world significance.
During its centuries-old history, the Russian language has never experienced such significant transformations as in the 20th century. This is due to the fundamental political, economic, cultural changes that took place in the state.
The tendency to reduce the influence of the Russian language, its study and functioning as a language of interethnic communication is observed in the former union and autonomous republics. However, life makes its own adjustments. In the post-perestroika period, it becomes obvious that the Russian language is necessary both for the share of the peoples of Russia and for the Union of Independent States. Sober attitude to the Russian language, understanding of its significance for peoples sovereign states, for the development of their culture, economy, trade and industrial relations determine the language policy.
The main source of development, processing and polishing was the creative creativity of the Russian people, especially generations of Russians and all Russian figures in science, politics, technology, culture and literature - the Russian language became highly developed, rich, revealed in its potentialities, ordered, stylistically differentiated, historically balanced a language capable of serving all needs - not only national, but also universal.
Chapter 2. Structural and communicative properties of language
2.1 Language - sign system
The Russian language, like any other language, is a system. System - (from the Greek systema - a whole made up of parts; connection) an association of elements that are in relationships and connections that form integrity, unity. Therefore, each system:
Consists of many elements;
The elements are related to each other;
The elements form a unity, one whole.
The language consists of units:
Morpheme (prefix, root, suffix, ending);
Phraseological unit (stable phrase);
Free phrase;
Sentence (simple, complex);
Units of language are related to each other. Homogeneous units (for example, sounds, morphemes, words) are combined and form levels of the language. Language is a sign system. There are two types of signs: natural (signs signs) and artificial (signs - informants). Natural signs are inseparable from objects, phenomena, they are part of them. Artificial signs, unlike natural ones, are conditional. Conventional signs serve as a means of communication and transmission of information, therefore they are also called communicative or informative. Informative signs are a combination of a certain meaning and a certain way of expressing it. Meaning is the signified, and mode of expression is the signifier.
Language signs are the most complex. They may consist of a single unit or a combination of them. Language is inherently multifunctional. The language performs communicative, cognitive, accumulative, emotional functions and the function of influence (voluntative).
2.2 Forms of language existence
Language is a complex phenomenon. The national language as a heritage of the people exists in several forms. These include: dialects, vernacular, jargons and literary language. Any modern developed language presupposes the presence of territorial dialects, which are the most archaic and natural forms of linguistic existence. The study of dialects is of interest: from a historical point of view and from the point of view of the formation of a literary language.
Vernacular is one of the forms of the national Russian language, which does not have its own signs of a systemic organization and is characterized by a set of linguistic forms that violate the norms of the literary language.
Jargon is the speech of social and professional groups of people united by a common occupation, interests, social status, etc.
The highest form of the national Russian language is the literary language. Literary language has two forms - oral and written. Oral - sounding speech, and written - graphic design.
2.3 Conditions for the functioning of book and colloquial speech, their features
Depending on the material from which speech is built, it acquires a bookish or colloquial character. Book speech is built according to the norms of the literary language, their violation is unacceptable; sentences must be complete, logically related to each other. Book speech serves political, legislative, scientific sphere communication.
Colloquial speech is not so strict in observing the norms of the literary language. It allows the use of forms that qualify in dictionaries as colloquial. Colloquial speech is used in semi-formal meetings, meetings, etc.
Book and colloquial speech have written and oral forms.
2.4 Functional styles of literary language
Depending on the goals and objectives that are set and solved in the process of communication, there is a selection of various language means. As a result, varieties of a single literary language are created, called functional styles.
The term functional style emphasizes that the varieties of the literary language are distinguished on the basis of the function (role) that the language performs in each specific case. Usually, the following functional styles are distinguished: scientific, official - business, journalistic, colloquial - everyday.
1.scientific style- words are used in direct, nominative meaning, figurative means of language, emotionality is absent. Sentences are narrative in nature, mostly in direct word order.
2. Officially - business style - this is a concise, compact presentation, economical use of language tools. It is characterized by the "dryness" of the presentation, the lack of expressive means, the use of words in the direct meaning.
3. Newspaper - journalistic style - this is the sharpness and brightness of the presentation, the author's passion. The goal is to influence the mind and feelings of the reader, listener. A variety of vocabulary is used: terms of literature and art, general literary words. The means of speech expressiveness, artistic definition, inversion are actively used. Expanded stylistic constructions predominate, interrogative and exclamatory sentences are used.
4. Colloquially - everyday style. Neutral vocabulary is used, although there are also colloquial words. The words of the colloquial style are distinguished by great semantic capacity and colorfulness, they give speech liveliness and expressiveness.
Chapter 3. Culture of speech
3.1 Characteristics of the concept of "culture of speech"
The concept of culture of speech is closely connected with the literary language. The culture of speech is understood as the possession of the norms of the literary language in its oral and written form. The culture of speech contains three components: normative, communicative, ethical. The culture of speech presupposes, first of all, the correctness of speech. The language norm is the central concept of speech culture, and the normative aspect of speech culture is considered one of the most important.
The culture of speech develops the skills of selecting and using language means. The choice of language means necessary for this purpose is the basis of the communicative aspect of speech culture. In accordance with the requirements of the communicative aspect of the culture of speech, native speakers must be proficient in functional varieties of the language.
The ethical aspect of the culture of speech prescribes the knowledge and application of the rules of linguistic behavior in specific situations. Ethical norms of communication are understood as speech etiquette.
3.2 Normative aspect of speech culture
1 The concept of the language norm
The language norm (literary norm) is the rules for the use of speech means in a certain period of development of the literary language.
The norm is obligatory for both oral and written speech and covers all aspects of the language.
There are norms: orthoepic (pronunciation), spelling (writing), word-formation, lexical, morphological, grammatical, syntactic, intonation, punctuation.
Characteristic features of the norm of the literary language:
relative stability,
Prevalence,
ubiquity,
obligatory,
Correspondence to the usage, custom and possibilities of the language system.
Language norms are a historical phenomenon. The change in literary norms is due to the constant development of the language. The sources of changes in the norms of the literary language are different: live, colloquial speech, local dialects, vernacular, professional jargons, other languages.
2 Characteristics of the basic norms of the literary language
Grammatical norms are the rules for using morphological forms of different parts of speech and syntactic constructions.
Lexical norms, that is, the rules for the use of words in speech, require special attention. The word should be used in the meaning (literal or figurative) that it has and which is recorded in the dictionaries of the Russian language. Violation of lexical norms leads to a distortion of the meaning of the statement. To clarify the lexical norms of the modern literary language, it is recommended to use explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language, special reference literature.
Orthoepic norms are pronunciation norms of oral speech. They are studied by a special section of linguistics - orthoepy. Maintaining uniformity in pronunciation is essential. Pronunciation, corresponding to orthoepic norms, facilitates and speeds up the process of communication.
3 Pronunciation of consonants
The basic laws of pronunciation of consonants are stunning and assimilation. Living pronunciation in its past and present state is reflected in poetic speech, in verses, where this or that rhyme speaks of the pronunciation of the corresponding sounds.
4 Pronunciation of borrowed words
Borrowed words, as a rule, obey the orthoepic norms of the modern Russian literary language and only in some cases differ in pronunciation features.
5 Features of Russian stress
Reduces the culture of oral speech not only incorrect pronunciation, but also incorrect stress in words. The features and functions of stress are studied by the department of linguistics, which is called accentology (from Latin Accentus stress). Stress in Russian is free, in addition, stress in Russian can be mobile and fixed. If in various forms word stress falls on the same part, then such stress is fixed. stress. Changing its place in different forms of the same word is called mobile. Errors in stress can lead to a distortion of the meaning of the statement.
6 Variation of accents
In order to avoid mistakes in setting stress, one should know not only the norm, but also the types of options, as well as the conditions under which one or another of them can be used. It is recommended to use special dictionaries and reference books. They give a system of normative marks (single for evaluating pronunciation, accent and morphological variants), which looks like this.
Equal options.
Variants of the norm, of which one is recognized as the main one:
a) the mark "permissible" (add.). Most often used in colloquial speech.
b) mark “tolerably obsolete” (additional obsolete). The litter indicates that the variant she evaluates is gradually being lost, and in the past it was the main one.
The dictionary also includes options that are outside the literary norm. To indicate these options, the so-called prohibition marks are introduced:
b) "wrong" (wrong)
c) “grossly wrong” (grossly wrong)
A number of stress variants are associated with the professional sphere of use.
3.3 Communicative qualities of speech
Speech Accuracy
The accuracy of speech is most often associated with the accuracy of word usage. Speech accuracy is determined by:
knowledge of the subject,
logic of thought,
The ability to choose the right words.
Violation of the accuracy of speech as a result insufficient knowledge features of the Russian language is the use of words in an unusual meaning for them; ambiguity not eliminated by the context; generating ambiguity; mixture of paronyms, homonyms.
Each significant word performs a nominative function, that is, it names an object or its quality, action, state. This obliges speakers to pay attention to the meaning of words, to use them correctly.
Reduces the accuracy of speech ignorance of the existence of paronyms and homonyms in the language, the inability to neutralize these phenomena in speech.
Paronyms are words that are similar in sound and spelling, but different in meaning. The presence of paronyms in the language leads to the fact that in oral and written speech one word is mistakenly used instead of another.
The use of homonyms in speech, i.e. words that are different in meaning, but the same in spelling and sound, can also lead to semantic inaccuracy, ambiguity of the statement.
Speech intelligibility
According to researchers, the general comprehensibility of a language is determined primarily by the selection of speech means, namely, the need to limit the use of words that are on the periphery of the vocabulary of the language and do not have the quality of communicative validity.
From the point of view of the scope of use, the huge dictionary of the Russian language can be divided into two large groups - the vocabulary of an unlimited scope of use, which includes commonly used words that are understandable to everyone, and the vocabulary of limited use, which includes professionalism, dialectisms, jargon, terms, i.e. . words used in a certain area - professional, social, etc.
Professionalisms are words and expressions used by people of the same profession (journalists, electronics engineers, etc.). They are characterized by great detail in the designation of special concepts, tools, production processes, material.
Dialect vocabulary - words that are territorially limited, included in the vocabulary of individual dialects, understandable only to a resident of a given area.
Jargons are words and expressions that belong to some kind of jargon. In modern linguistic literature, the word jargon is usually used to refer to various branches of the national language, which serve as a means of communication for various social groups.
Terms are words that are the exact designation of a certain concept of any special area science, technology, art, public life etc. Recall that a concept is a thought about common essential properties, connections and relations of objects or phenomena of objective reality.
Clarity and intelligibility of speech also depend on the correct use of foreign words in it. Borrowing is a normal, natural phenomenon for any language. Borrowed words in the language appear as a result of communication of some peoples with others, as a result of political, economic and cultural ties between them.
The place of foreign words in the Russian language, their further fate is not the same and is determined by their purpose. Borrowings according to the degree of their penetration into the vocabulary of the Russian language can be divided into three groups.
The first of them is made up of foreign words that have firmly entered the Russian language. They have been borrowed for a long time, assimilated by all the people and are not perceived as foreign languages.
The second group is made up of words that are widespread in the Russian language and are also the only names for the designated concepts, but are recognized as foreign.
The third group includes foreign words that are not widely used. These include words that have Russian parallels, but also differ from them in volume, shade of meaning or scope of use.
In the process of communication, people often have to explain how to understand what is being discussed, to clarify what meaning this or that word or expression has. Speech practice has developed several ways of explaining words.
The most rational way of interpreting words is considered to be a logical definition, i.e. definition of the concept through the nearest genus and specific difference.
The synonymous method is common, i.e. explanation using words that sound different but have a common meaning.
Quite often, when explaining a word, a descriptive method is used, in which its meaning is conveyed by describing the very object, concept, phenomenon.
Explaining the meaning of a word, it is sometimes good to turn to its etymology. Etymology teaches us to understand the true meaning of the word, clarifies it. Science not only establishes the original meaning of the word, its original meaning, but also explores the history of its application, the reasons for the changes that it has undergone.
Purity of speech
Richness and variety of speech
The richness and diversity, the originality of the speech of the speaker or writer largely depends on how much he realizes what the originality of the native language is, its richness.
The richness of any language is determined primarily by the richness of the dictionary. The lexical richness of the Russian language is reflected in various linguistic dictionaries. The richness of the language is also determined by the semantic richness of the word, i.e. its ambiguity. Most often, one of the meanings of a polysemantic word is realized in speech. If it were otherwise, then people would often not understand each other or misunderstand. However, polysemy can be used as a method of enriching the content of speech.
Our language is very rich in synonyms, i.e. words that are close in meaning. Each of the synonyms, thus, differing in a shade of meaning, highlights some feature of the quality of an object, phenomenon, or some sign of an action, and together the synonyms contribute to a deeper, more comprehensive description of the phenomena of reality.
Synonyms make speech more colorful, more diverse, help to avoid repetition of the same words, allow you to figuratively express an idea.
There are many words in the Russian language that convey a positive or negative attitude of the speaker to the subject of thought, i.e. have expression.
There are a lot of words in the Russian language that are emotionally colored. This is due to the fact that our language is rich in various suffixes that convey human feelings: affection, irony, neglect, contempt. The Russian language is unusually rich in figurative phraseology.
The dictionary of the Russian language is constantly enriched with new words. If the Russian language is compared with other languages, then it compares favorably in the variety and number of ways in which new words are formed. New words are created with the help of prefixes, suffixes, alternating sounds at the root, adding two or more stems, by rethinking, splitting words into homonyms, etc. The most productive is the morphological method of formation, with the help of which dozens of new words are created from the same root.
The grammatical structure of the language is also distinguished by richness, flexibility and expressiveness. The richness, diversity, originality and originality of the Russian language allow everyone to make their speech rich and original.
Expressiveness of speech
The expressiveness of speech enhances the effectiveness of the speech: a vivid speech arouses interest among listeners, maintains attention to the subject of conversation, and has an impact not only on the mind, but also on the feelings and imagination of the listeners. A number of researchers emphasize that the expressiveness of speech largely depends on the situation of communication.
Special artistic techniques, figurative and expressive means of language, traditionally called tropes and figures, as well as proverbs, sayings, phraseological expressions, winged words help the speaker to make speech figurative, emotional.
Before analyzing the various visual means of the language, it is necessary to clarify what properties the word has. The concept of figurativeness of a word is connected with the phenomenon of polysemy. Words that name only one object are considered unambiguous, and words that designate several objects, phenomena of reality, are considered polysemantic.
The first meaning with which the word appeared in the language is called direct, and the subsequent ones are figurative.
Direct meanings are directly related to certain objects, the names of which they are.
Figurative meanings, in contrast to direct ones, denote the facts of reality not directly, but through their relation to the corresponding direct ones.
The concept of figurative use of words is associated with such artistic means as metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, which are widely used in oratory and oral communication.
The metaphor is based on the transfer of the name by similarity. Metaphors are formed according to the principle of personification, reification, abstraction, etc. Metaphors should be original, unusual, evoke emotional associations, help to better understand, represent an event or phenomenon.
Metonymy, unlike metaphor, is based on contiguity. With metonymy, two objects, phenomena that have received the same name, must be adjacent. The word adjacent in this case should be understood not just as a connection, but somewhat broader - closely related to each other.
Synecdoche is a trope, the essence of which lies in the fact that the part is called instead of the plural, or, conversely, the whole is called instead of the part, plural- instead of the only one.
Comparison is a figurative expression built on a comparison of two objects or states that have common feature. Comparison presupposes the presence of three data: an object, an image, and a sign.
Epithets are artistic definitions. They allow you to more clearly characterize the properties, qualities of an object or phenomenon and thereby enrich the content of the statement. In the scientific literature, three types of epithets are usually distinguished: general language (constantly used in the literary language, have stable connections with the word being defined); folk - poetic (used in oral folk art); individually - author's (created by the authors).
To revitalize speech, give it emotionality, expressiveness, figurativeness, they also use the techniques of stylistic syntax, the so-called figures: antithesis, inversion, repetition, etc.
A technique based on a comparison of opposite phenomena and signs is called antithesis. The antithesis is widely represented in proverbs and sayings. Antithesis is an effective means of speech expressiveness and in public speech.
A valuable means of expressiveness in a speech is inversion, i.e. changing the usual word order in a sentence with a semantic and stylistic purpose.
Often, to strengthen the utterance, to give speech dynamism, a certain rhythm, they resort to such a stylistic figure as repetitions. Start several sentences with the same word or group of words. Such a repetition is called an anaphora, which is translated from Greek means unity.
In oral speech, repetitions are also found at the end of a phrase. As at the beginning of a sentence, individual words, phrases, speech constructions can be repeated. Such a stylistic figure is called an epiphora.
Techniques have been developed in the practice of oratory. One of these techniques is a question-and-answer move. In addition to the question-and-answer method, the so-called emotional or rhetorical question is often used. The rhetorical question enhances the impact of speech on the listeners, awakens in them the corresponding feelings, carries a great semantic and emotional load.
The means of expression include direct speech. Literally transmitted someone else's speech is called a quotation. As a form of transmission of someone else's statement in a speech, indirect speech is also used, which conveys someone's words from a third person.
Rich material for performances contains oral folk art. A real treasure for a speaker is proverbs and sayings. Proverbs and sayings are clots of folk wisdom, they express the truth, proven by the centuries-old history of the people - the creator, the experience of many generations.
The phraseology of the Russian language is used to create imagery and emotionality of speech.
It must be remembered that the correctness of our speech, the accuracy of the language, the clarity of the wording, the skillful use of terms, foreign words, the successful use of figurative and expressive means of the language, proverbs and sayings, catchwords, phraseological expressions, the richness of the individual dictionary, the effectiveness of communication, enhance the effectiveness of the spoken word .
3.4 Ethical norms of speech culture (speech etiquette)
Etiquette by origin french word. Initially, it meant a product tag, a label. All greater distribution in business circles, especially in recent times, receives business etiquette. Business etiquette provides for the observance of norms of behavior and communication.
When communicating, first of all, the features of speech etiquette are taken into account. Speech etiquette refers to the developed rules of speech behavior, a system of speech formulas for communication. Speech etiquette has national specifics. Each nation has created its own system of rules of speech behavior.
Knowing the peculiarities of national etiquette, its speech formulas, understanding the specifics of business communication of a particular country, people help in negotiating, establishing contacts with foreign partners.
Any act of communication has a beginning, main part and final:
Acquaintance;
Business Cards;
greetings;
Invitations and congratulations;
Formulas of sympathy and consolation;
Expression of gratitude;
remark, warning;
Making a request;
Agreement. Permission;
Compliment.
From time immemorial, conversion has performed several functions. The main one is to attract the attention of the interlocutor. This is a vocative function. Appeals can be expressive and emotionally colored.
Chapter 4
Communication enables a person to reveal his feelings, experiences, tell about joys and sorrows, about ups and downs. Communication helps organize joint work, outline and discuss plans, and implement them.
The problems of communication are dealt with by representatives of different sciences - philosophers, psychologists, linguists, sociologists, culturologists, etc. Human communication, according to researchers, consists of two-thirds of speech. It is with the help of speech that communication between people most often occurs.
The peculiarity of speech activity lies in the fact that it is always included in a wider system of activity as a necessary and interdependent component.
Many linguistic disciplines deal with the problems of verbal communication: cognitive linguistics, the theory of speech impact, the theory of speech acts (TRA), pragmatics, psycholinguistics, culture of speech, etc.
Note that along with the term communication, the word communication has become widespread. Communication - communication, exchange of opinions, information, ideas, etc. - a specific form of interaction between people in the process of their cognitive and labor activity.
4.1 Basic units of verbal communication
Researchers identify and describe the main units of communication - a speech event, a speech situation, speech interaction.
A speech event is understood as a discourse taking place in the context of a speech situation. A speech event, as follows from its definition, includes two main components:
1) verbal speech and what accompanies it, i.e. discourse;
2) the conditions, the environment in which the verbal communication between participants.
Speech situation, i.e. the situation constituting the context of an utterance generated in a speech act plays an important role in speech communication.
There are canonical and non-canonical speech situations.
Situations are considered canonical when the time of pronunciation is synchronous with the time of its perception, i.e. defined moment of speech.
Non-canonical situations are characterized by the following points: the time of the speaker, i.e. the time of the utterance may not coincide with the time of the addressee, i.e. time of perception.
Speech interaction is a very complex phenomenon. To understand its essence, first of all, one should understand what speech activity is.
Speech activity is social in nature, since it is part of a person's social activity. In the process of (verbal) interaction of subjects, their thinking, will, emotions, memory participate - speech-cogitative, modal (volitional), emotional, intentional (intentional), cognitive (conceptual) spheres. Speech activity, like any other activity, consists of processes that provide, make it possible to carry out the act of speech. Speech, utterance is a product of speech activity, its generation. Speech activity most often pursues some goal, so the result is important. The study of speech activity is organically connected with psychology, psychophysiology, and sociology.
4.2 Organization of verbal interaction
In the process of speech interaction, it is not enough just to know the language. The interlocutors must adhere to certain principles, the rules of conversation, which allow them to coordinate their actions and statements. These rules constitute the conventional (conditional, accepted) basis of verbal interaction. One of them is called the principle of succession. It presupposes the relevance (semantic correspondence) of the response, i.e. waiting for a replica of the appropriate type. Another principle - the principle of preferred structure - characterizes the features of speech fragments with confirming and rejecting replies. The basis of speech communication is the principle of cooperation, which implies the willingness of partners to cooperate. Another leading principle of communication is the principle of politeness, which is a combination of a number of maxims.
4.3 Effectiveness of verbal communication
Effective speech communication is understood as the achievement of adequate semantic perception and adequate interpretation of the transmitted message.
Basic principles formulated in the scientific and methodological literature.
The principle of equal security, which implies the non-infliction of psychological or other damage to the partner in the information exchange.
The principle of decentralization, which means non-damage to the cause for which the parties entered into interaction.
The principle of the adequacy of what is perceived to what is said, i.e. not causing damage to what was said by deliberately distorting the meaning.
There are two types of listening. One of them is called non-reflexive. It consists in the ability to be attentively silent, not to interfere with the speech of the interlocutor with your remarks. Another kind of listening is reflective. Its essence lies in the active intervention in the speech of the interlocutor, in helping him express his thoughts and feelings, in creating favorable conditions for communication, in ensuring the correct and accurate understanding of the interlocutors of each other.
Understanding and applying the principles of good listening will help you connect with your opponent, understand his point of view, get to the heart of the differences between you, and make the dialogue more fruitful.
4.4 Evidence and persuasiveness of speech
Main types of arguments
The study of the most effective methods and techniques of persuasive influence in the communicative process is carried out by a special branch of knowledge - the theory of argumentation.
Argumentation is the operation of substantiating any judgments, practical solutions and assessments, in which, along with logical ones, speech, emotional-psychological and other non-logical methods and techniques of persuasive influence are also used.
Researchers distinguish two aspects in argumentation - logical and communicative.
Any logical proof includes three interrelated elements: thesis;
arguments or grounds, arguments; demonstration, or form, way of proof.
Distinguish between direct and indirect evidence. With direct proof, the thesis is substantiated by arguments without the help of additional constructions.
Indirect evidence involves substantiating the truth of the thesis by refuting the contradictory position - the antithesis. From the falsity of the antithesis, on the basis of the law of the excluded middle, a conclusion is made about the truth of the thesis.
To prove the correctness of the propositions put forward, to convince of their truth, in the process of communication, different kinds arguments.
Since ancient times, it has been customary to divide arguments into logical ones, which appeal to the mind of listeners, and psychological ones, which affect feelings.
When arguing, it is important to distinguish between fact and opinion.
4.5 Non-verbal means of communication
When talking with each other, people, along with verbal (verbal) speech, use gestural-mimic speech, that is, non-verbal means (facial expressions, gestures) to convey their thoughts, desires, along with verbal (verbal) speech.
The language of facial expressions and gestures allows the speaker to express his feelings more fully, shows how much the participants in the dialogue control themselves, how they really relate to each other.
The main indicator of the speaker's feelings is the facial expression, his facial expressions.
Facial expressions allow us to better understand the opponent, to figure out what feelings he is experiencing (surprise, anger, sadness, happiness).
A lot can be said about the gestures of the interlocutor. The meaning of the gesture: the gesture clarifies the thought, enlivens it, in combination with words enhances its emotional sounding, contributes to a better perception of speech. Mechanical gestures distract the listener's attention from the content of speech, interfere with its perception.
Depending on the purpose, gestures are divided into rhythmic, emotional, pointing, pictorial and symbolic. Rhythmic gestures are associated with the rhythm of speech. Gestures that convey various shades of feelings are called emotional. Pointing gesture - the speaker singles out some object from a number of homogeneous ones, shows the place. A pictorial gesture is when they depict an object, show it. Symbolic gestures are conditional. A symbolic gesture is often characteristic of a number of typical situations:
The gesture of limiting (categorical);
Gesture intensity;
Gesture of opposition, antonymy;
Gesture of separation, dissimilarity;
Gesture of association, addition, sum;
National character of gestures.
If the pictorial gesture is associated with specific outward signs, then the gesture-symbol is associated with an abstraction. Its content is understandable only to some Nord or a certain group. With all the variety of gestures, variability, they show stability in their embodiment. However, there are cases when the nature of the gesture changes somewhat and loses its national coloring.
Chapter 5
5.1 The concept of oratory
The expression oratory has several meanings. Oratory refers primarily to high degree skills of public speaking, qualitative characteristics of oratory, skillful possession of a living word. Oratory is the art of constructing and publicly delivering a speech in order to have the desired impact on the audience.
Oratory is also called the historically established science of eloquence and an academic discipline that sets out the foundations of oratory.
In eloquence, art and science make up a complex alloy of relatively independent ways impact on people. Oratory is a complex intellectual and emotional creativity of public speech.
Throughout the centuries-old history of its development, oratory has been used in various spheres of society: spiritual, ideological, socio-political.
Let's note one more feature of oratory. It has a complex synthetic character. Philosophy, logic, psychology, pedagogy, linguistics, ethics, aesthetics - these are the sciences on which oratory is based.
Oratory has never been homogeneous. Historically, depending on the scope of application, it was divided into various genera and species. In domestic rhetoric, the following main types of eloquence are distinguished: socio-political, academic, judicial, social, everyday, spiritual (theological and ecclesiastical).
Socio-political eloquence includes speech, dedicated to state building, economics, law, etc.;
to the academic one - an educational lecture, a scientific report, a review, a message;
to judicial - speeches made by participants litigation– prosecutor, lawyers, defendants, etc.;
to the social everyday - welcoming, anniversary, drinking, memorial speeches, etc.;
to the theological - church - sermons, speeches at the cathedral.
5.2 The speaker and his audience
The highest manifestation of the skill of public speaking, the most important condition for the effectiveness of oratorical speech is contact with the audience. Contact is a commonality of the mental state of the speaker and the audience, this is mutual understanding between the speaker and the audience. Scientists call the joint mental activity of the speaker and the audience intellectual empathy. For the emergence of contact, emotional empathy is also important, i.e. the speaker and listeners during the speech should experience similar feelings. Contact between the speaker and the audience occurs when both parties are engaged in the same mental activity and experience similar experiences.
The main indicators of mutual understanding between speakers and listeners are a positive reaction to the words of the speaker, an external expression of attention from listeners.
The form of presentation of the material significantly affects the relationship between the speaker and the audience.
It is very important that each person creatively approach the preparation and delivery of oratory speech, use their natural data, individual capabilities more fully and widely, skillfully apply the acquired rhetorical skills and abilities.
5.3 Preparation of speech: choice of topic, purpose of speech
Preparing for a speech is a very important and responsible matter in the activity of a speaker.
Preparation for a specific speech is determined by the type of oratorical speech, depends on the topic of the speech, the goals and objectives of the speaker, his individual characteristics, on the composition of the audience in which to speak, etc.
Preparation for any speech begins with the definition of the topic of speech. Having chosen a topic, you need to think about its wording. The title of the speech should be clear, concise, and as short as possible.
When preparing a speech, it is necessary to determine the purpose of the speech. The speaker must clearly understand why, for what purpose he is making a speech, what kind of reaction the audience is trying to achieve.
It must be borne in mind that the speaker should formulate the purpose of the speech not only for himself, but also for his listeners. Clear wording target installation facilitates the perception of oratorical speech, in a certain way sets up listeners. This is exactly what the great orators of different times did.
5.4 Basic methods of searching for material
After determining the topic of the speech, its purpose is followed by the stage of search and selection of material.
Methodological literature identifies the main sources from which you can draw new ideas, interesting information, facts, examples, illustrations for your speech. These include:
Official documents;
Scientific, scientific - popular literature;
Reference literature: encyclopedias, dictionaries on various branches of knowledge, linguistic dictionaries, statistical collections, yearbooks on various issues, tables, biblio - graphic indexes;
Fiction;
Articles from newspapers and magazines;
Radio and television broadcasts;
Results of sociological surveys;
own knowledge and experience;
Personal contacts, conversations, interviews;
Reflections and observations.
To make the speech meaningful, it is better to use not one source, but several.
The most important stage in the preparation of oratorical speech is the study of selected literature.
While reading, it is important to be able to comprehend the content of what was read, to combine it with the knowledge that was obtained earlier. This helps to analyze and systematize the material, to draw the necessary conclusions.
When preparing a report for a lecture, it is imperative to make appropriate notes of what has been read.
Reading is not as easy as it might seem at first glance. When reading, some comparisons, associations, comparisons with real life processes appear, new thoughts are born.
5.5 Starting, ending and expanding speech
In the theory of oratory, the composition of speech is understood as the construction of a speech, the ratio of its individual parts and the relationship of each part to the entire speech as a whole. To name this concept, along with the word composition, the words construction, structure, which are close in meaning, are also used.
Starting to work on the composition of speech, it is necessary, first of all, to determine the order in which the material will be presented, that is, to draw up a plan. A-priory explanatory dictionary Russian language, the plan is mutual arrangement parts, a brief program of some presentation.
At different stages of speech preparation, plans of various purposes are drawn up. So, after choosing the topic of the speech, it is recommended to draw up a preliminary plan for the future furnace. A preliminary plan that helps to more purposefully select literature and select factual material for presentation.
After the literature is studied, the topic is considered, factual material is collected, and a working plan is drawn up. When writing it, it is necessary not only to highlight the issues of the chosen topic, but also to select the most significant and basic of them, to determine in what order they will be presented. The work plan makes it possible to judge the content of the speech, its structure.
Plans can be simple or complex in structure. A simple one consists of several points related to the main part of the presentation of the topic. A simple plan can be turned into a complex one, for which it is necessary to break its points into sub-points. In a complex plan, there is also an introduction, main part, conclusion.
After writing the plan, the speaker needs to work on building the individual parts of his speech. As the theorists of oratory note, the most common structure of oral speech since ancient times is considered to be three-part, which includes the following elements: introduction, main part, conclusion.
The introduction emphasizes the relevance of the topic, its significance for this audience, formulates the purpose of the speech, and briefly outlines the history of the issue.
An important compositional part of any speech is the conclusion. folk wisdom says: "The end crowns the deed." A convincing and vivid conclusion is remembered by the audience, leaves a good impression of the speech. Therefore, it is recommended in conclusion to repeat the main idea for which the speech is made, to summarize the most important provisions. In conclusion, the results of what has been said are summed up, conclusions are drawn, specific tasks are set for the audience, which follow from the content of the speech.
The speaker faces a very important task - not only to attract the attention of the audience, but also to keep it until the end of the speech. Therefore, the most responsible is the main part of the oratory.
It sets out the main material, consistently explains the propositions put forward, proves their correctness, and leads the audience to the necessary conclusions.
The structure of the speech depends primarily on the method of presenting the material chosen by the speaker.
The inductive method is the presentation of the material from the particular to the general. The speaker begins the speech with a particular case, and then brings the listeners to generalizations and conclusions.
The deductive method is the presentation of the material from the general to the particular. The speaker at the beginning of the speech puts forward some provisions, and then explains their meaning with specific examples, facts.
The analogy method is a comparison of various phenomena, events, facts. Usually a parallel is drawn with what is well known to listeners.
The concentric method is the arrangement of material around the main problem raised by the speaker. The speaker moves from a general consideration of the central issue to a more specific and in-depth analysis of it.
The stepwise method is a sequential presentation of one issue after another. Having considered any problem, the speaker no longer returns to it.
The historical method is a presentation of the material in chronological order, a description and analysis of the changes that have occurred in a particular person or object over time.
The use of different methods of presenting material in the same speech allows you to make the structure of the main part of speech more original, non-standard.
Work on the plan, the composition of speech is a creative process. Each lecture, each speech, if they are the result of extensive preliminary work, reflect the characteristics, interests, inclinations of the speaker himself.
5.6 Ways of verbal registration of a public speech
One of the important questions that arise when preparing a public speech is whether or not it is necessary to pre-compile a written text of the speech. This is a long-standing dispute, with its roots dating back to ancient times.
Written speech is easier to remember and retains in memory longer than unfinished material. In addition, the written text disciplines the speaker, gives him the opportunity to avoid repetition, sloppy wording, reservations, hitches, makes his speech more confident, etc.
Of course, each speaker has his own methods of working with the text of speech. The main thing is not to forget that mastering the material of the speech is a very important stage in the activity of the speaker. Sometimes this stage of preparatory work is called rehearsal.
1. Full text (not for reading, but for retelling in your own words)
2. A detailed summary with the main wording, ending, quotations, numbers, proper names.
3. A non-detailed abstract with the designation of transitions from block to block, citations, etc.
4. Plan with quotes, etc.
5. Speech without paper.
5.7 Logical and intonation-melodic patterns of speech
Most often, the difficulty in perceiving the meaning of an oral presentation is associated not with the shortcomings of the speaker's thinking logic, but with his inability to reflect this logic in a sounding phrase.
Based on the logical laws of speech, reflected in spelling and punctuation, we can establish some general patterns toning, characteristic of the melodic structure of the Russian language. These primarily include: logical stress, logical pause, speech tact, intonation - melodic pattern of punctuation marks.
Logical stress, unlike grammatical stress, does not single out a single syllable, but a whole word and can move within the same phrase, depending on the purpose of the statement.
Oral speech requires a clear semantic grouping of words around logical centers, such that the listener perceives not individual words, but semantic blocks, pieces called speech beats.
Speech measures combine a word or a group of words that are closely related in meaning. Inside the speech tact, the words are pronounced as a whole, and the word that carries the logical stress becomes the center of the speech tact.
The pauses that separate one speech measure from another are called logical pauses. Their purpose is not only to separate one measure from another, but also to group the words within the measure into a single whole.
Before the performance, one should mark the speech measures, place logical stresses and separate them with logical pauses, and then correlate them with each other in terms of semantic significance, i.e. build the so-called logical perspective of speech. It will help to perceive thought in a holistic semantic unity, in dynamics, development, will facilitate the perception of each semantic piece in interconnection with all the others, will make it possible to realize the main line of thought directed towards the single goal of reasoning.
Intonation is a complex phenomenon. It includes four acoustic components: tone of voice, intensity or strength of the sound, its duration and timbre.
The term tone comes from the Greek word tonos (literally, "stretched rope, tension, tension"). When talking about the tone of speech sounds, they mean the height of vowels, sonorous and voiced noisy consonants. This term is used in various sciences. As a result of the oscillation of the vocal cords, the main tone of the sound arises, the most important component of speech intonation.
By changing the tone, a melodic pattern of speech is created.
The task of the speaker is to determine the range of his voice and try to diversify its tone.
Sound intensity.
The intensity of the sound depends on the intensity and amplitude of the vibration of the vocal cords. The larger the vibration amplitude, the more intense the sound.
Listen to the level of intensity. It comes in low, medium and high.
The interplay of tone and intensity amplifies the loudness of the sound.
Pace
The rate of speech is the speed of pronunciation of speech elements.
It is important for the speaker to be able to change the pace of speech. If you want to emphasize something, highlight (definition, conclusions), then the pace must be slowed down. When the speech is delivered with an upsurge, internal pathos, the tempo accelerates.
Timbre
The last component of intonation is timbre. This is an additional articulatory-acoustic coloring of the voice, its coloring.
In the oral cavity, as a result of greater or lesser tension of the speech organs and changes in the volume of the resonator, overtones are formed, i.e. additional tones that give the main tone a special shade, a special color. Therefore, the timbre is also called the "color" of the voice.
Seven intonation structures
There are certain types of intonation in the language. With all the variety of intonations, they can be combined into the types most characteristic of the Russian language. To do this, first of all, it is necessary to find the center in the expression - the main stressed syllable. Everything in front of the center is called pre-center, and everything after the center is called post-center. The pre-center, center and post-center parts form an intonational construction - IK (pronounced Ika).
To determine the type of IC, it is also important to distinguish how the fundamental tone changes: it rises or falls. By changing the tone, one can judge the purpose of the statement and the subjective attitude of the speaker towards it.
Intonation plays a significant role in oral speech. Intonation conveys the semantic and emotional differences of statements, reflects the state and mood of the speakers, their attitude to the subject of the conversation or to each other.
Intonation distinguishes oral speech from written speech, makes it richer, gives it a unique, individual character.
It is necessary to say about the syntactic function of intonation. She points out:
End of phrase;
Its completeness or incompleteness;
What type of sentence is it, does it contain a question, an exclamation or a narrative.
And the reader learns about the syntactic role of intonation in written speech by punctuation marks.
The point is characterized by an intonational figure of a sound decrease in the fundamental tone - a kind of fall in sound.
A comma, on the contrary, is characterized by an increase in sound, which ends with a kind of “vocal bend”, which cuts off the sound and warns, like a raised hand, that the thought is not completed.
The colon intonation prepares the listener for the continuation of the thought, in his intonation there is movement, development, transmitted by a light sound impulse.
The question mark requires a sharp and rapid rise in sound on the question word, which is accompanied by a characteristic figure of the so-called "croak". The height and speed of ascent, the shape of the sound figure create a gradation of the question.
The exclamation point begins with a quick and energetic sound rise, after which the voice falls sharply downwards. The higher the rise and the sharper the fall, the more intense the exclamation sounds.
The characteristic of oral speech will not be complete, if not to say more of its rim features - about a pause. Pause (lat. pausa from Greek pausis - cessation; stop) - a temporary stop of sound, during which the speech organs do not articulate and which breaks the flow of speech. A pause is silence.
Types of pauses - hesitation, logical, psychological, intonational-syntactic, situational, physiological.
From the history of the study of intonation.
Intonation interested, first of all, the theorists of oratory in ancient times. In their works that have come down to us, a speech melody is described, its difference from a musical one is determined, rhythm, tempo, pauses are characterized, and the importance of dividing the molasses of speech into semantic parts is said.
The problem of intonation attracted theorists of public speech in the Middle Ages as well. But for us, the works that appeared in Russia in the 18th century are of greater interest. It was at this time that the main theoretical provisions of oratory were formulated, which remain relevant today. One of these theorists was M.V. Lomonosov.
In the 18-19 centuries, with the development of theatrical art, intonation began to be considered as an important element of stage speech. For an actor, as well as for a speaker, sounding speech is the main means of conveying thoughts, feelings, a means of influencing the audience, so the actor must be able to use all the possibilities of the language, to know its laws.
Chapter 6
6.1 From the history of Russian business writing
Russian official business writing has centuries-old traditions and deep historical roots. Acquaintance with its history will make it possible to better understand the causes and patterns of the formation of a special style of language serving the sphere of official business relations, to identify the features of the national culture of Russian business writing, its international properties.
The first written documents that have survived to this day indicate that already in the 10th century in Old Russian state practiced the preparation of official documents.
A significant milestone in the development of Russian official business writing was the office work (the first state institutions were called orders) of the 15th-17th centuries.
The system of collegiate office work came to replace the order office work. The General Regulations, approved by Peter 1 in 1720, introduced a system of office work, called "college" after the name of a new type of institution - colleges. By this legislative act, office work is finally assigned to an independent unit - the office.
The provincial reform of Catherine 2 completed the Petrine transformations of the state apparatus of Russia, brought uniformity to the structure of the provinces, delimiting administrative, judicial and financial places. This hierarchical order of relations between institutions was preserved throughout the 19th century, and to a certain extent it is also present in modern office work.
At the beginning of the 19th century, in the depths of the college system, new system management - ministerial, which existed until the beginning of the 20th century. Her main feature- unity of command, gave the management system flexibility and efficiency.
The 19th century was marked by the appearance of extensive clerical literature, in particular, letter books - collections of sample documents, as well as scientific research in the field of Russian official business writing.
Over time (approximately by the middle of the 19th century), a new order of presenting the case in the form of a short note developed - a presentation of only the very essence of the issue.
Soviet period Russian history associated with the replacement of the existing state apparatus. The question arose of conducting office work in accordance with the newly created state structures, of developing new requirements for the language forms of an official business letter.
The development of business and commerce in the last decade of the 20th century in our country significantly changed not only the form, but also the content of business communication, including written communication, required the creation of new types of business correspondence (advertising business letters, resumes, introduction letters, etc.). ), speech patterns that are relevant in new situations of communication.
6.2 International properties of official business writing
The international properties of a business letter are a consequence of the universality of the tasks that it is designed to solve, namely, to serve as a tool for business communication, a linguistic means of fixing (documenting) managerial, business, service information. General requirements are imposed on official information: reliability, relevance, persuasiveness, completeness.
Documentation is a regulated process of recording information on paper or other medium, ensuring its legal force. Documentation rules are set legal acts each state or developed traditions. The result of documentation is the creation of a document.
General document functions:
Informational: any document is created to store information;
Social: the document is a socially significant object, since it is generated by one or another social need;
Communicative: the document acts as a means of communication between individual elements of the social structure, in particular between institutions;
Cultural: a document is a means of consolidating and transmitting cultural traditions, stages in the development of civilization.
Document special features:
Managerial: the document is a management tool;
Legal: the document is a means of fixing and changing legal norms and legal relations in society; function of a historical source: the document acts as a source of historical information about the development of society.
These functions are international in nature and define common document requirements for different language cultures.
The legal force of the document is provided by sets of details - mandatory elements of paperwork. These include: the name of the author of the document, the addressee, signature, date, document number, stamp of approval, seal, etc. The set of details and the scheme of their location on the document make up the document form.
Officiality and regulation of business relations, i.e. their obedience to established rules and restrictions implies compliance with business etiquette. An important aspect of business communication is the ethics of relations between business partners.
Participants in business communication act as subjects of legal relations.
One of the features business speech- the widespread use of language formulas - stable language expressions used unchanged.
Laconism (optimally, the letter should not exceed the volume of one or two pages) is combined in business letters with the requirement for completeness of information, more precisely, with the principle of its sufficiency.
The requirement for the reliability of information means that a business message must reflect the actual state of affairs, give an unbiased, dispassionate assessment of events.
Standardization and unification - one of the mandatory properties of official business writing, to one degree or another characterizes all types of business papers.
Clarity and unambiguity of the language of the message is achieved by subject and communicative accuracy. Objective accuracy is the accuracy of a fact, correspondence to what is designated. Communicative accuracy is understood as the accuracy of the implementation of the writer's intention.
So, speaking about the general, most typical, properties of official business writing, the researchers note:
Functionality and rationality of the language and style of business writing;
Conciseness and sufficiency of informative content;
Logical and structured presentation;
Standardization and unification of language and text tools.
6.3 Requirements for registration of details of documents
When compiling a document, the design of all its details is of particular importance. Requisites are mandatory features established by law or administrative regulations for certain types of documents.
A set of documents is called a form.
There are two types of organization letterheads - angular and longitudinal. They differ in the location of the details that precede the text of the letter. Details are being transferred: the State Emblem of the Russian Federation, the Emblem of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, the emblem, the organization code, the main state registration number (OGRN) of the legal entity, the taxpayer identification number / reason code for registration (TIN / KPP), the document form code, the name of the organization - the addressee, reference data about the organization, name of the type of document, date, registration number of the document, reference to the registration number and date of the incoming document, place of compilation or publication of the document, addressee,
name of the organization, postal address, stamp of approval of the document, resolution, heading to the text, mark of control, text, mark of the presence of an application, signature, stamp of approval of the document, visas of approval of the document, seal imprint, mark of certification of the copy, mark of the executor, mark on the execution of the document and sending it to the case, a mark on the receipt of the document by the organization, the identifier of the electronic copy, postscript.
As can be seen from the above rules for the design of document details, each attribute performs a specific function and must meet state standards according to the design and location on the sheet (form).
6.4 Document types
Documentation is very diverse in terms of its functions, content and purpose, and the degree of accessibility of the information contained in it. Documents are divided into internal and external business correspondence. Documents exchanged between organizations are called official letters. According to the content and purpose, administrative, reporting, reference, planning and other types of documents are distinguished.
Depending on the sphere of human activity the documented information belongs to, management, scientific, technical, production, financial and other types of documents are distinguished.
According to the factor of availability of documented information, documents can be openly used, limited access and confidential.
Documents are divided into urgent, secondary, final, periodic, original, copy.
Structure and content of official documents
The management of any organization is vested with the right to issue administrative documents. In legal terms, administrative documents refer to normative legal acts.
The special role that administrative documents play in the management documentation system requires a more detailed description of the requirements for the structure, language and style of this type of documentation.
The main task of administrative documents is to give legal force to one or another action of the head.
The text of administrative documents consists, as a rule, of two parts: ascertaining and administrative.
Examples of documents included in the system of administrative documentation: resolution, decision, order, order, instruction.
Reference and information and reference and analytical documents: act, certificate, memo, analytical notes, statement, employment contract, agreement (contract), power of attorney.
Structure and content of official letters
In the scientific literature, there are several types of classification of official business correspondence. On a thematic basis, official business correspondence is rather conditionally divided into business and commercial. On a functional basis, letters are distinguished that require a letter of response, and letters that do not require a letter of response.
A mandatory response is required by such types of letters as a letter of inquiry, a letter of offer, a letter of complaint, a letter of appeal. Cover letters, confirmation letters, reminder letters, warning letters, notice letters, application letters do not require a response.
On the basis of the addressee, business letters are divided into ordinary and circular. According to the features of the composition, single-aspect and multi-aspect letters are distinguished. According to structural features, business letters are divided into regulated and non-regulated.
Commercial correspondence: commercial inquiry and response to an inquiry, a letter of offer (offer) and a response to an offer, a letter of claim (complaint) and a response to a complaint.
6.5 Unification of the language of business papers
Unification - bringing something to unified system, form, uniformity.
The standardization of official papers consists in the establishment of optimal rules and requirements for the development and execution of documents on a national scale.
A feature of the unification of the language of official documents is the formation of a system of standard language models that reflect typical situations of business communication.
With all the variety of written business communication, its initiator, as a rule, solves typical tasks:
informing the addressee;
drawing attention to the problem;
Motivation to action;
Giving legal status to any event;
Initiating and maintaining business relationships;
Resolution of conflict situations.
The goal set by the initiator of business communication determines not only the choice of language models, but, above all, thematic and functional type business paper.
The least laborious way to compose official letter is the use of standard texts and stencil texts.
Language formulas of official documents. For many years of practice in business correspondence, language formulas have been developed that make it possible to clearly and concisely state the motives, reasons and goals of the official message.
The following types of speech actions of written business communication are distinguished: message, notification, offer, refusal of an offer, request, demand, order, order, confirmation, statement, promise, guarantee, reminder, warning, refusal, expression of attitude.
Document language and style requirements
Special requirements are imposed on the language means and style of presentation of information in the document:
The unambiguity of the words and terms used;
Neutral tone of presentation;
Compliance with lexical, grammatical, stylistic norms that ensure accuracy and clarity of presentation;
Semantic sufficiency and conciseness of the text.
The semantic accuracy of a written statement is largely due to the accuracy of word usage. The word in the text of the document should be used only in one meaning, accepted in official business writing.
When using terms in business documentation, it is necessary to ensure that the term is understandable to both the author and the addressee.
Difficulties in understanding the test of a document can be caused by the unjustified use of borrowed words. The most typical mistake is the unmotivated use of foreign words instead of the usual words that already exist to denote concepts.
Documents should not use obsolete words and expressions (archaisms and historicisms).
In official business writing, rules for the location of definitions have developed. So, agreed definitions (expressed by adjectives) are placed before the word being defined, and inconsistent ones (scorched by the phrase) after it.
With a combination of agreed and inconsistent definitions the first usually precedes the second.
When constructing phrases, it should be borne in mind that most words in written business speech are used with only one word or with a limited group of words.
The main requirement for the information saturation of the document is the expedient amount of information included, necessary and sufficient for the implementation of the communicative task.
The structure of the text of the document (a logical connection of semantic aspects) should be "transparent", easily perceived.
In multi-aspect documents, the presentation of each aspect of the content should begin with a new paragraph, highlighted in red. Each subsequent sentence of the paragraph should be connected to the previous one. Experts distinguish between two types of context: sequential and parallel.
When compiling business papers, the informational role of word order in a sentence should be taken into account. In oral speech, the most significant word is distinguished by intonation. In written speech, the informational role of a word or phrase increases towards the end of a sentence.
The standard aspects of the language of business writing include the unification of abbreviations widely used in business letters.
Speech etiquette in the document. Etiquette is the established order of behavior somewhere. Business etiquette is the order of conduct established in the field of business communication.
In written business communication, etiquette manifests itself in the form and content of documents and, above all, in the formulas of appeal, expression of requests, refusals, claims, methods of argumentation, formulation of instructions, etc. The choice of etiquette words is determined, first of all, by the communicative assignment of the message. Only culture, tact and objectivity in assessing certain production situations can suggest the correct choice of words and expressions.
6.6 New trends in the practice of Russian business writing
The nineties of the 20th century became a period of significant changes in the economy and in the field of social relations. They touched almost all aspects of life, including the sphere of business communication.
New situations of business communication require the improvement of the forms of documentation support. New types of documents are emerging. The lexicon of official business writing is replenished with new terms.
The legal and legal aspects of the relationship between the employee and the employer are fixed with the help of such documents as an employment contract, labor agreement, contract.
Russia's entry into the system of world economic relations determines the need for compliance of the domestic practice of business communication, business writing with world standards, including at the level of terminology. This is one of the main reasons for the active penetration of foreign words and terms into Russian official and business written speech.
It can be said that today the Russian official and business writing is going through a stage of transformations, changes that manifest themselves both at the level of concepts and at the level of terminology.
Tendencies of greater linguistic freedom, expressiveness of the language of the message are manifested, first of all, in the language and style of advertising business correspondence.
Advertising in business speech. Recently, information and advertising documents have become widespread: product offer; communication to potential consumers about the types of goods and services produced; summary.
Information and advertising letters are often built according to the model: a rhetorical question is an informational text that is the answer to the question posed. The main requirement for the text of an advertising message (however, as well as the texts of business messages of other types) is information content and persuasiveness. A promotional business letter must contain a specific commercial offer.
A typical resume includes:
Personal data of the applicant (last name, first name, patronymic, date and place of birth, marital status);
Addresses and phone numbers of the applicant, indicating the time for contacts;
The name of the vacancy for which the resume author is applying;
The main text, which includes a list of places of work and (or) study in chronological order, indicating the full official name of the organization, the period of time spent in them, the name of the position held;
Additional information (freelance work experience, social activity, professional retraining);
Other information (related knowledge and skills: foreign languages, foreign trips, computer skills, driving a car);
Distinctions and awards, academic degrees;
Interests, inclinations related to the intended professional activity of the position applicant;
Other supporting information;
The date the summary was written;
Applicant's signature.
6.7 Features of Russian and foreign schools of business writing
To a large extent, new trends in Russian business writing are due to the expansion of business ties with foreign partners.
The main feature of Russian official business writing is still strict functionality, the so-called "telegraphic" style. While in Western and American business correspondence, the same requirements are imposed on the letter as on the development of an advertising nature.
The main condition for the persuasiveness of any business document is its proof. However, in the practice of Western and American business correspondence, it is generally accepted that persuasiveness.
The domestic practice of business correspondence is characterized by the so-called "We-approach" in the presentation of information, i.e. the addresser and addressee of a business message are considered as "collective" subjects. Western and American schools of business writing present both the "We" approach and the "I" approach.
In the practice of domestic business correspondence, the text of the letter is not always preceded by an appeal. The conclusion as a special courtesy etiquette formula that completes an official message has also not yet become generally accepted and mandatory for all types of business correspondence in the domestic practice of business correspondence. By the standards of Western and American business writing, the appeal and conclusion are essential elements of any type of formal message.
The degree of courtesy in different national cultures of business correspondence is different. For a Russian official business letter, the manifestation of courtesy and cordiality, in general, is not typical (and in an official document it is unacceptable). Western and American business writing is based on the recognition that the success of the business begins with the expression of respect and respect for the client (business partner), and the formulas of courtesy and cordiality allow you to establish closer contact with him.
For domestic business correspondence, the transpersonal nature of the presentation is traditional, characterized by extreme rationality, rigidity of the language forms and models used. The business message of Western official business correspondence is characterized by elements of a conversational style, greater freedom in the choice of words and the syntactic construction of sentences, and an appeal to the personality of the addressee.
The differences between the Russian and foreign schools of official correspondence are quite significant in terms of the design of the structural elements of a business letter. The sequence of elements that make up the name and address of the recipient is also different.
Typical details of an international business letter are:
title;
Document Number;
Special postage stamps;
Privacy Notice;
Destination;
Indication of the desirability of familiarization;
Appeal;
Title to the text;
Courteous conclusion;
Signature;
A note about performers;
Applications;
Copies of the letter;
P.S.
There are currently three main styles in common use: block, modified block, and simplified.
Acquaintance with the traditions of a foreign school of business writing expands the general idea of the norms, techniques and style of written business communication. However, the mechanical transfer of language standards, rules for the design of business papers adopted abroad to the practice of domestic business correspondence cannot be considered productive, since this contradicts the general requirement for the unification of the language and style of documents, destroys established traditions.
Name: Russian language and culture of speech for technical universities.
The textbook has been prepared taking into account the requirements of the State Educational Standard. It discusses the features of improving the spelling, punctuation and speech skills of writing, provides algorithms for spelling with a word and syntactic work with a sentence. The characteristic of the language as a sign system of information transfer is given.
The functions, basic units and types of communication, its methods are considered. Particular attention is paid to the quality of speech, compliance with language norms, the main functional styles of the modern Russian literary language are described. The elements of classical rhetoric are outlined, the specifics of the formation of skills in creating a scientific and technical text are analyzed.
For technical areas and specialties of universities.
In our country, it has historically developed so that for a long time the study of the Russian language was limited for a significant part of younger generation within the framework of the secondary school. In higher educational institutions of a non-philological profile, it simply was not carried out. Today, this kind of educational orientation has clearly demonstrated its inferiority. It became obvious that the training of highly qualified specialists without thorough training in their Russian language is unproductive. An engineer who has the necessary technical knowledge but has little vocabulary, who is not able to choose the appropriate words for a clear transmission of thoughts and who finds it difficult to correctly present the information received, undoubtedly, loses in front of colleagues who have received serious language training.
HEAD
Preface 3
CHAPTER 1
1.1. Working with spelling 6.
1.2. Working with punctograms 14
2.1. Improvement of speech skills 28
CHAPTER 2. VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION AS A KIND OF INTERACTION OF PEOPLE 36
2.1. The concept of communication 36
2.2. Basic functions and units of communication 37
2.3. Types of communication 40
2.4. Conditions for the effectiveness of everyday communication 42
2.5. Business communication: code, national characteristics, forms of business communications 43
2.6. Non-verbal means of communication 51
CHAPTER 3. LANGUAGE AND ITS PROPERTIES 75
3.1. Language as a sign system for transmitting information 75
3.2. Properties of the language as a whole (universals) 80
3.3. The word as a unit of language. Concept and word. Ways of developing the meanings of a word, transferring meanings 88
3.4. The systemic nature of vocabulary. Types of word formation 96
CHAPTER 4. QUALITIES OF LITERAL SPEECH 102
4.1. The concept of the Russian national language 102
4.2. Varieties of the Russian national language 105
4.3. Oral and written forms of the Russian literary language 107
4.4. The concept of a culture of speech 109
4.5. Righteousness as a quality competent speech. The concept of the norm and types of norms of the modern Russian literary language 111
4.6. Violations of the norms of the modern Russian literary language and ways to overcome them 112
4.6.1. Violations of orthoepic norms and ways to overcome them 112
4.6.2. Violations morphological norms and ways to overcome them 118
4.6.3. Violations of syntactic norms and ways to overcome them 142
4.7. Accuracy as the quality of literate speech 151
4.8. Logic as a quality of literate speech 156
4.9. Purity as a quality of literate speech 160
4.10. Relevance as a quality of literate speech 169
4.11. Expressiveness and richness as qualities of literate speech 170
CHAPTER 5. FUNCTIONAL STYLES OF THE MODERN RUSSIAN LANGUAGE. STYLE OF SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL LITERATURE 188
5.1. From the history of Russian style 188
5.2. Stylistic richness of the Russian language 194
5.3. The main features of the official business style 198
5.4. Specificity of conversational style 203
5.5. Key Features journalistic style 206
5.6. Style of scientific, scientific and technical» popular science and educational literature 211
CHAPTER 6. FOUNDATIONS OF CLASSICAL RHETORIC 225
6.1. Oratory of antiquity 225
6.2. Rhetorical Traditions in Russia 241
6.3. Invention 256
6.4. Disposition 264
6.5. Elocution 269
6.6. Memory 269
6.7. Azscio 273
GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL AND SCIENTIFIC TERMS 278
GLOSSARY OF LINGUISTIC TERMS 305
Literature 314
Dictionaries 316
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