The concept of signs and functions of social control. Internal and external social control

External social control is a set of forms, methods and actions that guarantee compliance with social norms behavior. There are two types of external control - formal and informal.

Formal social control based on official approval or condemnation, is carried out by public authorities, political and social organizations, the education system, means mass media and operates throughout the country, based on written norms - laws, decrees, resolutions, orders and instructions. Formal social control may also include the dominant ideology in society. Speaking of formal social control, they mean, first of all, actions aimed at making people respect laws and order with the help of government representatives. Such control is especially effective in large social groups.

Informal social control based on the approval or condemnation of relatives, friends, colleagues, acquaintances, public opinion, expressed through traditions, customs or the media. The agents of informal social control are such social institutions as family, school, religion. This type of control is especially effective in small social groups.

In the process of social control, violation of some social norms is followed by a very weak punishment, for example, disapproval, an unfriendly look, a smirk. Violation of other social norms is followed by severe punishments - the death penalty, imprisonment, exile from the country. Violation of taboos and legal laws is most severely punished, and certain types of group habits, in particular family habits, are most mildly punished.

Internal social control- independent regulation by the individual of his social behavior in society. In the process of self-control, a person independently regulates his social behavior, coordinating it with generally accepted norms. This type of control is manifested, on the one hand, in a sense of guilt, emotional experiences, "remorse" for social actions, on the other hand, in the form of an individual's reflection on his social behavior.

An individual's self-control over his own social behavior is formed in the process of his socialization and the formation of socio-psychological mechanisms of his internal self-regulation. The main elements of self-control are consciousness, conscience and will.

Human consciousness - it is an individual form of mental representation of reality in the form of a generalized and subjective model of the surrounding world in the form of verbal concepts and sensory images. Consciousness allows the individual to rationalize his social behavior.

Conscience- the ability of the individual to independently formulate his own moral duties and demand from himself their fulfillment, as well as to make a self-assessment of the actions and deeds performed. Conscience does not allow an individual to violate his established attitudes, principles, beliefs, in accordance with which he builds his social behavior.

Will- conscious regulation by a person of his behavior and activities, expressed in the ability to overcome external and internal difficulties in the performance of purposeful actions and deeds. The will helps the individual to overcome his inner subconscious desires and needs, to act and behave in society in accordance with his convictions.

Social control, in fact, is a process by which society, its individual spheres, management systems, subsystems, social units determine whether their actions or decisions are correct, whether they need to be adjusted.

Forms of social control[edit | edit wiki text]

Social control can be exercised in institutional and non-institutional forms.

1. institutional form social control is implemented through a special apparatus specializing in control activities, which is a set of state and public organizations (bodies, institutions and associations).

2. Non-institutional form social control - special kind self-regulation inherent in various social systems, control over people's behavior by the mass consciousness.
Its functioning is based mainly on the action of moral and psychological mechanisms, consisting of continuous monitoring of the behavior of other people and assessments of the conformity of its social prescriptions and expectations. A person becomes aware of himself by observing other members of society (organizations, groups, communities), constantly comparing himself with them, assimilating certain norms of behavior in the process of socialization. Society cannot exist without mental reactions, mutual evaluations. It is thanks to mutual contacts that people realize social values, acquire social experience and skills of social behavior.

A variety of institutional social control is state control.Among the types of state control are: political, administrative and judicial.

· Political control carried out by those bodies and persons who exercise the powers of the supreme power. Depending on the political and state structure, these are the parliament, regional and local elected bodies. Political control can be exercised to a certain extent by political parties that have received the support of the majority of the people, especially those represented in government.

· Administrative control carried out by the executive bodies of all branches of government. Here, as a rule, higher officials control the actions of subordinates, inspection and supervisory bodies are created that analyze the implementation of laws, regulations, management decisions, and study the effectiveness and quality of administrative activities.

· Judicial control all the courts at the disposal of the society are carried out: general (civil), military, arbitration and constitutional courts.

However, it is difficult for one state to respond to many social demands and demands, which leads to an aggravation social conflicts that have a destructive effect on the nature of public life. This requires effective feedback that ensures the participation of citizens in public administration, an important element of which is public control. Therefore, along with state control, public control is a special form of control - public control by society represented by the public, individual citizens, social organizations and movements, public opinion. In a modern democratic society, public control is primarily the activity of established institutions of civil society, formal and informal participation in them by individual citizens and their associations.

The term "social control" was first introduced by a French sociologist. He proposed to consider it one of the most important. Subsequently, R. Park, E. Ross, A. Lapierre developed whole theory, according to which it was a necessary means for ensuring the assimilation of elements of the culture that has developed in society.

Social control is a mechanism that exists to maintain order in society, aimed at preventing the undesirable, deviant and punishing them for it. It is carried out through regulation.

The most important condition for the functioning social system- predictability of actions and behavior of people. If it is not fulfilled, then it will collapse. For the stability of the system, society uses various means, which include social control, which performs a protective and stabilizing function.

It has a structure and consists of and sanctions. The former contain prescriptions, certain patterns of behavior in society (they indicate what people should do, think, say and feel). They are divided into legal (enshrined in laws, contain sanctions for their violation) and (expressed in the form of public opinion, the main instrument of influence is universal censure or approval).

Norms are classified by scale into those that exist in small, large groups and in society as a whole. The general ones include traditions, customs, etiquette, laws, mores, etc. Norms are the rights and obligations of a person in relation to others, the fulfillment of which is expected of him by those around him. They have strictly defined limits. These usually include social customs and traditions, manners, etiquette, group habits, taboos, social mores, laws.

To regulate human behavior, there are sanctions, with the help of which his “correct actions” are encouraged, and penalties are applied for committed violations. They can be very diverse, ranging from a disapproving look to imprisonment and even the death penalty. Sanctions are divided into 4 types: negative (punishment), positive (encouragement), formal (various awards, prizes, diplomas, scholarships, fines, imprisonment, etc.), informal (approval, praise, compliment, verbal reprimand, insulting tone).

Types of social control

External (formal and informal) and internal.

Formal control is carried out by government agencies, social and political organizations, the media, based on official condemnation or approval and acting on the territory of the entire state. At the same time, the norms governing human activity are contained in laws, regulations, various instructions and orders. Formal social control is aimed at maintaining the existing order and respect for laws with the help of representatives of government agencies. Informal is based on the condemnation or approval of actions by friends, relatives, neighbors, colleagues, and so on. It is expressed in the form of traditions, customs, as well as through the media.

Internal social control involves the regulation by a person of his behavior on his own, based on generally accepted norms. It manifests itself in the form of emotional experiences, feelings of guilt and, in general, attitudes towards perfect deeds. The main elements of self-control are conscience, will and consciousness.

Indirect (based on identification with a law-abiding group) and direct social control, which is based on the availability of various ways to meet needs and achieve goals that are alternative to immoral or illegal.

Social control is a concept in sociology, meaning a purposeful activity to check the functioning of an object for compliance with some criteria. As a rule, public order is maintained in this way. Moreover, most often in practice, social control is control over the personality, although nothing prevents in a similar way to monitor different organizations, enterprises, etc. That also often happens.

It should be noted that deviant behavior and social control are inextricably linked. Without one there would be no other and vice versa. It is quite easy to give examples here, for example, alcoholics, drug addicts, representatives of certain subcultures attract the most public attention. Which is quite easy to explain: others involuntarily expect them to violate the order. And this happens quite often.

It should be noted that due to social control, the deviation is either corrected or removed one way or another from society. As a result, stability and security are ensured in this way. And the protective functions of social control are carried out.

But this also has a downside. Controlled behavior often limits individuals in the ability to realize themselves. And in traditional societies quite strongly.

The implicit prohibition of deviant behavior may not be expressed in any written form. Sometimes it exists in the form of morality, traditions, customs. And in this manifestation it is periodically quite rigid, interfering with development.

The development of social control led to the emergence of new varieties. At the same time, the old ones often remain relevant. Thus, their number is increasing. So, social control is presented in the form:

moral impact. It is both positive and negative. These are all sorts of ways of moral encouragement, approval of behavior, support, congratulations, expressions of gratitude, gratitude, growing popularity, etc. At the same time, a boycott, a sharply negative reaction, public ridicule, reprimand, censure in other ways act as a negative reaction.
State measures. Here the concept of social control is somewhat transformed. Many even put this option in a separate category.
legal influence. Law as a means of social influence, obstacles to deviant behavior turned out to be one of the most effective. At the same time, abuse can itself become a violation.
Production incentives and punishments. In fact, these are the norms and sanctions that apply to a single enterprise. Often the stimulation of the desired behavior occurs in an economic way.

It is worth noting that social science today distinguishes other varieties. For example, some researchers consider it necessary to point out family control, it is especially strong in relation to adolescents due to the power of parents over children, including legal ones.

Also, social control and deviation in close interaction can be observed in different religious groups. Here moral encouragement and punishment can alternate with quite real hardships and punishments.

Forms of social control

If we talk about the forms of social control, they were replaced as society developed. Historically, these were unspoken rules of conduct, customs and instructions. In the present, they have taken on a more formal character: laws, decrees, orders, instructions, regulations, etc.

Elements of social control

The main elements of social control are norms and sanctions. The first refers to the rules, a specific variant of behavior. It can be both quite strictly regulated (only in this way and nothing else, for example, a certain order of filing tax return), and to assume different options.

Sanctions concern the reaction of society to human behavior. They reward or punish, depending on whether the individual has done what is expected of him or not. In addition, the structure of social control also considers informal and formal sanctions. Let's take a closer look at each variety.

So, formal positive sanctions are official remuneration from state bodies, legal entities, officials, etc. Can be expressed in the form of medals, orders. There is a graduation ceremony honorary awards, souvenirs and more.

Informal positive sanctions - public reaction, compliments, praise, smiles, gifts, applause and so on. Often come from relatives or from strangers.

Formal negative sanctions are punishments that are provided for in the legislation. They mean arrest, fine, dismissal, prison term, restriction of some rights for a certain time, deprivation of privileges, etc.

Informal negative sanctions - refusal to communicate with loved ones, neglect, censure, breaking friendships. The individual is periodically perceived much worse than the official ones.

It should be noted that the structure of social control fully allows for the application of different sanctions, including the direction, for the same act. And one more thing: norms are also divided into technical and social. The latter reflects social life, trends and much more. Social norms and social control are very closely related to each other.

A social control mechanism?

How exactly does public control work? There are 3 main areas in total:

Socialization. As we grow, communicate, build a certain line of behavior in contact with others, we learn to understand what is condemned by society, and what is approved, why. Here, the methods of social control act slowly and imperceptibly for many, but at the same time they are the most effective. And it is not easy to overcome them even for an outright rebel. Many criminals, for example, reacted more strongly to the reaction of their inner circle than to the fact of breaking the law.
Group influence. Each individual is part of some social group. This is a family, a work team, some kind of community with which he identifies himself. And such a unit can have a rather strong impact on him.
Various forms of coercion. If for some reason the first 2 methods did not affect a person, then in this case the state in the person of law enforcement.

Often, all 3 methods mentioned can act simultaneously. Of course, within each group there is a division, since these categories are themselves very general.

Functions of social control

Security has already been mentioned. In addition, social control also stabilizes, so that the foundations do not change with each generation. And the norms themselves are often a kind of yardstick with which the individual compares his actions and evaluates his own behavior. It makes sense here to talk about inner work with yourself and about self-control.

What is combined with external control. It is a combination of different institutions that act on the individual, forcing him one way or another to socially useful behavior and forcing him to abandon what is really dangerous for others.

The Importance of Social Control

The exercise of control by society is a basic condition for the survival of society. Otherwise, individual individuals could simply destroy it. Protection and stabilization have already been mentioned above. It should also be noted that such control acts as a kind of border. It also acts as a deterrent.

That is, any single individual could try to express his dissatisfaction with a neighbor or business partner in a criminal way. Moreover, the effectiveness of the work of law enforcement agencies in certain regions of Russia is so low that not everyone is afraid of the law.

However, the fear of judgment from parents or elders in the settlement is much stronger. He was entrenched in the process of socialization. And therefore, now for individual representatives of society, the word of the head of the family is more important than the law. This can not be called unequivocally positive, but such a deterrent works. Therefore, its importance should not be underestimated.

In sociology, two main processes of social control are distinguished: the application of positive or negative sanctions for the social behavior of an individual; interiorization (from the French interiorisation - transition from outside to inside) by an individual of social norms of behavior. In this regard, external social control and internal social control, or self-control, are distinguished.

External social control is a set of forms, methods and actions that guarantee compliance with social norms of behavior. There are two types of external control - formal and informal.

Formal social control, based on official approval or condemnation, is carried out by state authorities, political and social organizations, the education system, the media and operates throughout the country, based on written norms - laws, decrees, resolutions, orders and instructions. Formal social control may also include the dominant ideology in society. Speaking of formal social control, they mean, first of all, actions aimed at making people respect laws and order with the help of government representatives. Such control is especially effective in large social groups.

human consciousness- it is an individual form of mental representation of reality in the form of a generalized and subjective model of the surrounding world in the form of verbal concepts and sensory images. Consciousness allows the individual to rationalize his social behavior.

In the process of social behavior, an individual has to constantly fight with his subconscious, which gives his behavior a spontaneous character, therefore self-control is the most important condition for people's social behavior. Typically, individuals' self-control over their social behavior increases with age. But it also depends on social circumstances and the nature of external social control: the tighter the external control, the weaker the self-control. Moreover, social experience shows that the weaker the individual's self-control, the tougher external control should be in relation to him. However, this is fraught with great social costs, since strict external control is accompanied by social degradation of the individual.

In addition to external and internal social control of the social behavior of an individual, there are also: 1) indirect social control based on identification with a reference law-abiding group; 2) social control, based on the wide availability of a variety of ways to achieve goals and satisfy needs, alternative to illegal or immoral.

Lawful Conduct from legal point view, it is such behavior that is consistent with the requirements of legal norms. From a social point of view, this is behavior that brings good, socially useful behavior. Lawful behavior is the main type of legally significant behavior. Illegal behavior is not as widespread as lawful. Because most people do not even notice that they are doing the right things during the day. When everything goes without conflict, people do not notice it. Lawful Conduct is an act that is included in the subject legal regulation and corresponds either to the principles of law, or based on these principles of legal norms and dispositions of protective norms. It is the result of the implementation of legal norms. Lawful behavior is the only social useful view legal behaviour. Lawful behavior is the goal of the legislator, law enforcement agencies. The entire system of the state apparatus is subordinated to ensuring a lawful summing up.

Signs of a legitimate behavior:

1. Lawful behavior always appears in the form of an act (action or inaction).

2. Lawful behavior is socially useful behavior, i.e. contributes to the progressive progressive development of society and individuals.

3. Lawful conduct is the most massive view legal behavior.

4. Lawful behavior is sometimes incorrectly assessed in terms of mass character. For example, in the case of mass misconduct, the legislator revises certain norms.

Lawful behavior can classify on various grounds.

According to the objective side of lawful behavior (according to the external form of manifestation of lawful behavior):

1. Actions - active lawful behavior.

2. inaction - passive lawful behavior.

On the subjective side of lawful behavior (mental side):

1. Active-conscious lawful behavior - based on the inner conviction of the subject to act lawfully.

2. Positive (habitual) behavior - is carried out within the framework of the formed habitual activity of the individual to comply with and enforce legal norms, i.e. a person does this by force of habit, by force of upbringing.

3. Conformist lawful behavior - such lawful behavior, which is not based on a deep inner conviction of the subject, but on the fact that everyone around him does this.

4. Marginal lawful behavior - when the subject acts lawfully because of fear of adverse consequences for misbehavior.

In areas of public life in which lawful behavior is implemented:

1. Lawful behavior in the economic sphere.

2. Lawful behavior in the political sphere.

3. Lawful behavior in the cultural sphere, etc.

According to the subject carrying out lawful behavior:

1. Lawful behavior of a person (individual, citizens and officials).

2. Legal Behavior of Organizations legal entities.

3. Lawful behavior of the state, its bodies, officials.

By industry legal norms governing lawful conduct:

1. Constitutional lawful behavior.

2. Criminal lawful conduct.

3. Civil lawful conduct, etc.

Another classification:

1. socially necessary(socially necessary) lawful behavior. For example, paying taxes.

2. socially acceptable lawful behaviour. Go hunting. There is no need for everyone to go there, but they allow the opportunity to hunt, they allow it.

May be desired lawful behaviour. For example, participation in elections is a socially desirable legitimate behavior. Or receiving higher education, the state is very interested in this. And not desirable.

Lawful behavior can be individual and collective they differ significantly from each other. It is basically impossible to exercise the right to strike individually. It is always a collective lawful behavior.

By subjects: lawful behavior; lawful behaviour. It is possible to speak about the lawful behavior of the states.

In the scientific literature, there are several concepts of lawful behavior:

1. Lawful behavior is considered to be that which corresponds to the prescriptions of legal norms.

2. Lawful is any behavior that is not prohibited by legal norms.

Both of these concepts are not true for the following reasons:

First:

· Given the existence of gaps in the legislation, we can say that this definition is not correct.

· Not every legal norm is an expression of law, there are norms that are not related to law enforcement, i.e. and behavior arising from such norms is not lawful either.

· Behavior should not correspond to the entire structure of legal norms, but only to a hypothesis (in regulatory norms) or disposition (in protective norms).

Second: law is not the only and universal regulator of social relations - it does not cover all spheres of life and there is such behavior that is an legally neutral, but at the same time negative for public life.

In every society, people appear - outstanding and "simple" - who violate the existing norms in it - moral, legal, aesthetic. society, social stratum, group of norms, values, ideals, i.e. normative standards. In other words, deviant behavior has deviant motivation. Examples of such behavior are the lack of a greeting at a meeting, hooliganism, innovative or revolutionary actions, etc. Deviant subjects are young ascetics, hedonists, revolutionaries, the mentally ill, saints, geniuses, etc.

Human actions are included in social relationships and systems (family, street, team, work, etc.) with general normative regulation. That's why deviant is behavior that violates the stability of processes social interaction. Equilibrium(stability) of social interaction involves the integration of the actions of many, which is violated by the deviant behavior of one or more people. In a situation of deviant behavior, a person, as a rule, focuses on a situation that includes (1) other people and (2) general norms and expectations. Deviant behavior is caused both by dissatisfaction with others and by norms of relationships.

For example, consider the social connection of a student with parents while studying at a university. Parents expect from him a good study, which is difficult to combine with the roles of an athlete, lover, worker, etc. The student begins to study unsatisfactorily, that is. deviant. To overcome this deviance, there are several possibilities. First of all, you can change your needs, which will affect the assessment of other people and regulations. So, a student can give up the motivation for excellent studies and limit himself to satisfactory. Further, you can change the object of your need and thereby alleviate the tension in the social connection. For example, he can convince his parents that his work alleviates the burden of the family's expenses for his studies at the university. And finally, the student can leave home, stop being oriented towards his parents and start being oriented towards his friends and girlfriends.

Deviation And conformism- two opposite types of behavior, one of which is focused only on the actor, and the other - also on the society in which he lives. Between conformal and deviant motivation of people's actions is indifferent. It is distinguished by the absence of both conformal and alienated orientation to objects and situations, which in this case turn into neutral ones.

Deviation includes three elements: 1) a person with values (orientation to others) and norms (moral, political, legal); 2) evaluating a person, group or organization; 3) human behavior. The criterion for deviant behavior is moral and legal norms. They are different in different types of societies, so behavior that is deviant in one society will not be so in another.

For example, in a bourgeois society focused on personal success, actions such as the exploits of Pavka Korchagin or Alexander Matrosov are considered deviant. And in Soviet society, focused on the interests of the state, they were officially considered heroic. The contradiction between the orientation towards the individual and the orientation towards society is characteristic of the entire history of mankind; it has found its expression in two opposite types of personalities: collectivist and individualist.

Depending on the relationship with people T. Parsons identifies two types of deviant behavior:

1. Personality cares about establishing and maintaining relationships with others. She may seek to dominate the other, to put him in a subordinate position. This is often due to deviant motivation and behavior. This is often done by members of criminal groups.

2. Personality inferior others, subject to them. In these cases, it can take the path of deviant motivation and behavior, especially in relation to an active and strong personality. Thus, in the Bolshevik leadership, passive adaptation to Stalin and the Stalinist hierarchy became the reason for the deviance of many people.

Classification of deviant behavior depending on attitude to standards(needs, values, norms) in society was developed by Merton (in 1910), who identified the following types of deviant behavior:

Total conformism(normality) of behavior, acceptance of cultural norms. This is the behavior of a person who has received a good education having a prestigious job, advancing on career ladder etc. Such behavior realizes both one's own needs and is focused on others (standards are observed). This, strictly speaking, is just the only type of non-deviant behavior, in relation to which different types deviations.

Innovative behavior, on the one hand, means agreement with the goals of one's life activity, approved in a given society (culture), but, on the other hand, does not follow the socially approved means of achieving them. Innovators use new, non-standard, deviant means to achieve socially useful goals. In post-Soviet Russia, many innovators engaged in the privatization of state property, the construction of financial "pyramids", extortion ("racketeering"), etc.

ritualism brings the principles and norms of this society to the point of absurdity. Ritualists - a bureaucrat who requires compliance with all formalities from the petitioner, and strikers who work "by the rules", which leads to a halt in the work itself.

Retreatism(escape from reality) is a type of deviant behavior in which a person rejects both goals approved by society and ways (means, time, costs) to achieve them. Such deviant behavior is inherent in homeless people, drunkards, drug addicts, monks, etc.

Revolution(rebellion) is a form of deviant behavior that not only denies outdated goals and behaviors, but also replaces them with new ones. The Russian Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, rejected the goals and means of the bourgeois-democratic society that was taking shape in Russia in 1917 after the overthrow of the autocracy, and restored the latter on a new ideological, political, economic and social basis.

From what has been said, it is clear that conformity and deviation are two opposite types of behavior that mutually presuppose and exclude one another. From the description of the types of deviation it follows that it is not an exclusively negative type of human behavior, as it might seem at first glance. Yuri Detochki, in the film "Beware of the Car" for the sake of noble goals - the fight against speculators and "shadow companies" - stole cars from them, and transferred the proceeds from the sale to orphanages.

The formation of deviant behavior goes through several stages: 1) the emergence of a cultural norm (for example, orientation towards enrichment in post-Soviet Russia); 2) the emergence of a social stratum that follows this norm (for example, entrepreneurs); 3) the transformation into deviant forms of activity that do not lead to enrichment (for example, in our case, the miserable life of many workers and employees); 4) recognition of a person (and social stratum) as deviant by others; 5) reassessment of this cultural norm, recognition of its relativity.

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In sociological science, 4 fundamental forms of social control are known:

external control;

internal control;

control through identification with the reference group;

control through the creation of opportunities to achieve socially significant goals by means that are most suitable for a given person and approved by society (the so-called "multiple possibilities").

1) The first form of control - external social control- a set of social mechanisms that regulate the activities of the individual. External control can be formal and informal. Formal control is based on instructions, prescriptions, norms and regulations, while informal control is based on the reactions of the environment.

This form is the most well-known and understood, but in modern conditions seems to be inefficient, since it involves constant monitoring of the actions of an individual or a social community, therefore, a whole army of controllers is required, for whom someone must also follow.

2) The second form of control - internal social control- this is a self-control exercised by a person, aimed at coordinating one's own behavior with the norms. Regulation in this case is carried out not within the framework of interaction, but as a result of feelings of guilt or shame that arise when the learned norms are violated. For the successful functioning of this form of control in society, there must be an established system of norms and values.

3) The third form - control through identification with a reference group- allows you to show the actor possible and desirable for society models of behavior, outwardly seemingly without limiting the freedom of choice of the actor;

4) The fourth form - the so-called "multitude of possibilities" - suggests that by showing the actor a variety of possible options for achieving the goal, society will thereby protect itself from the actor's choice of those forms that are undesirable for society.

Kasyanov V.V. considers a slightly different classification. He has social control in the following forms:

· Compulsion, the so-called elementary form. Many primitive or traditional societies successfully control the behavior of individuals through moral norms

· Influence of public opinion. People in society are also controlled with the help of public opinion or with the help of socialization in such a way that they perform their roles unconsciously, naturally, due to the customs, habits and preferences accepted in this society.

· Regulation in social institutions and organizations. Social control is provided by various institutions and organizations. Among them are organizations specially created to perform a controlling function, and those for which social control is not the main function (for example, school, family, mass media, administration of institutions).

· group pressure. A person cannot participate in public life based only on internal control. His behavior is also imprinted by his involvement in social life, which is expressed in the fact that the individual is a member of many primary groups(family, production team, class, student group, etc.). Each of the primary groups has a well-established system of customs, mores and institutional norms that are specific both for this group and for society as a whole.

37. Deviant behavior, its causes.

The process of socialization (the process of assimilation by an individual of patterns of behavior, social norms and values necessary for his successful functioning in a given society) reaches a certain degree of completeness when the individual reaches social maturity, which is characterized by the acquisition by the individual of an integral social status (a status that determines the position of a person in society). However, in the process of socialization failures and failures are possible. A manifestation of the shortcomings of socialization is deviant (deviant) behavior - these are various forms of negative behavior of individuals, the sphere of moral vices, deviation from principles, norms of morality and law. The main forms of deviant behavior include delinquency, including crime, drunkenness, drug addiction, prostitution, and suicide. Numerous forms of deviant behavior indicate a state of conflict between personal and public interest. However, deviant behavior is not always negative character. It may be associated with the desire of the individual for something new, an attempt to overcome the conservative, which hinders moving forward.

Consider different kinds social deviations.

1. Cultural and mental deviations. Sociologists are primarily interested in cultural deviations, that is, deviations of a given social community from the norms of culture. Psychologists are interested in mental deviations from the norms of personal organization: psychoses, neuroses, and so on. People often try to associate cultural deviations with mental ones. For example, sexual deviations, alcoholism, drug addiction and many other deviations in social behavior associated with personal disorganization, in other words, with mental disorders. However, personal disorganization is far from the only reason deviant behaviour. Usually, mentally abnormal individuals fully comply with all the rules and norms adopted in society, and, conversely, for individuals who are mentally quite normal, very serious deviations are characteristic. The question of why this happens is of interest to both sociologists and psychologists.

2. Individual and group deviations.

o individual, when an individual rejects the norms of his subculture;

o group, considered as conformal behavior of a member of a deviant group in relation to its subculture (for example, adolescents from difficult families spending most of their lives in basements. The "basement life" seems normal to them, they have their own "basement" moral code, their own laws and cultural complexes. In this case, there is a group deviation from the dominant culture, as adolescents live in accordance with the norms of their own subculture) .

3. Primary and secondary deviations. Primary deviance refers to the deviant behavior of the individual, which generally corresponds to the cultural norms accepted in society. In this case, the deviations committed by the individual are so insignificant and tolerable that he is not socially qualified as a deviant and does not consider himself as such. For him and for those around him, deviation looks like just a little prank, eccentricity, or, at worst, a mistake. Secondary deviation is a deviation from the norms existing in the group, which is socially defined as deviant.

4. Culturally acceptable deviations. Deviant behavior is always evaluated in terms of the culture accepted in a given society. It should be highlighted necessary qualities and behaviors that can lead to socially approved deviations:

o super-intellectual. Increased intelligence can be considered as a way of behavior that leads to socially approved deviations only when a limited number of social statuses are achieved .;

o special inclinations. Allow to show unique qualities in very narrow, specific areas of activity.

o overmotivation. Many sociologists believe that intense motivation often serves as a compensation for hardships or experiences suffered in childhood or adolescence. For example, there is an opinion that Napoleon had a high motivation to achieve success and power as a result of the loneliness he experienced in childhood, or Niccolò Paganini constantly strived for fame and honor as a result of the need and ridicule of his peers suffered in childhood;

There are three types of theories in the study of the causes of deviant behavior: physical type theories, psychoanalytic theories, and sociological or cultural theories. Let's dwell on each of them.

1. The basic premise of all theories of physical types is that certain physical traits of a person predetermine the various deviations from the norms committed by him. Among the followers of the theories of physical types are C. Lombroso, E. Kretshmer, W. Sheldon. There is one main idea in the works of these authors: people with a certain physical constitution tend to commit social deviations that are condemned by society. However, practice has shown the inconsistency of theories of physical types. Everyone knows cases when individuals with the face of cherubs committed the gravest crimes, and an individual with coarse, "criminal" facial features could not offend even a fly.

2. At the heart of psychoanalytic theories of deviant behavior is the study of conflicts occurring in the mind of the individual. According to the theory of Z. Freud, each person has an area of the unconscious under the layer of active consciousness - this is our mental energy, in which everything natural, primitive is concentrated. A person is able to protect himself from his own natural "lawless" state by forming his own I, as well as the so-called super-I, determined solely by the culture of society. However, a state may arise when internal conflicts between the Self and the unconscious, as well as between the super-I and the unconscious, destroy the protection and our inner content, which does not know culture, breaks out. In this case, there may be a deviation from the cultural norms developed by the social environment of the individual.

3. In accordance with sociological, or cultural, theories, individuals become deviants, since the processes of socialization they go through in a group are unsuccessful in relation to certain well-defined norms, and these failures affect the internal structure of the personality. When the processes of socialization are successful, the individual first adapts to the cultural norms surrounding him, then perceives them in such a way that the approved norms and values of the society or group become his emotional need, and the prohibitions of culture become part of his consciousness. He perceives the norms of the culture in such a way that he automatically acts in the expected manner of behavior most of the time. The presence in everyday practice of a large number of conflicting norms, the uncertainty in connection with this possible choice of a course of action can lead to a phenomenon called anomie by E. Durkheim (a state of absence of norms). According to Durkheim, anomie is a condition in which a person does not have a strong sense of belonging, no reliability and stability in choosing a line of normative behavior. Robert K. Merton made some changes to Durkheim's concept of anomie. He believes that the reason for the deviation is the gap between cultural purposes society and socially approved (legal or institutional) means of achieving them. For example, while society supports the efforts of its members in the pursuit of increased wealth and high social status, the legal means of members of society to achieve such a state are very limited: when a person cannot achieve wealth through talent and ability (legal means), he may resort to deceit, forgery or theft, not approved by society.

38. Socialization. The main agents and stages of socialization.

Socialization- the formation of a personality - the process of assimilation by an individual of patterns of behavior, psychological attitudes, social norms and values, knowledge, skills that allow him to successfully function in society. Human socialization begins at birth and continues throughout life. In its process, he assimilates the social experience accumulated by mankind in various spheres of life, which allows him to perform certain, vital social roles.

Socialization agents

The most important role in how a person grows up, how his formation will go, is played by people in direct interaction with whom his life flows. They are usually called agents of socialization. At different age stages, the composition of agents is specific. So, in relation to children and adolescents, such are parents, brothers and sisters, relatives, peers, neighbors, teachers. In adolescence or youth, agents also include a spouse, work colleagues, etc. In terms of their role in socialization, agents differ depending on how significant they are for a person, how interaction with them is built, in what direction and by what means. they exert their influence.

Levels of socialization

In sociology, two levels of socialization are distinguished: the level of primary socialization and the level of secondary socialization. Primary socialization occurs in the sphere of interpersonal relations in small groups. The immediate environment of the individual acts as the primary agents of socialization: parents, relatives and distant relatives, family friends, peers, teachers, doctors, etc. Secondary socialization occurs at the level of large social groups and institutions. Secondary agents are formal organizations, official institutions: representatives of the administration and schools, the army, the state, etc.

39. Public opinion: ways of studying, functions, problems of truth.

Public opinion- the point of view of various social groups on a problem, averaged and supported by the majority, taking into account the development of mass consciousness and the role representations of the social group about behavior and thinking within society.

public relations In most cases, they can use public opinion polls that are constantly published in the media, and, if necessary, obtain such information from commercial organizations conducting sociological research. In Russia, for example, this is professionally done by the All-Russian Center for the Study of Public Opinion (VTsIOM), the Russian Internet resource "Public Library",

The main method on which the study of society is based is observation. There are three most common types of PR research:

Sociological research. Their task is to find out the attitudes and opinions of people, that is, their considerations about certain subjects.

A communication audit conducted to analyze inconsistencies that arise in communication between the management of organizations and target groups of the public.

informal research. These include the accumulation of facts, the analysis of various information materials and others, that is, methods that do not require direct intervention in the work of the objects of study.

Consider sociological research. Distinguish two general type sociological research:

1. Descriptive research. They provide an opportunity to take a snapshot of a certain specific situation or existing conditions. Opinion polls are a typical example.

2. Problem research. Their purpose is to explain how this or that situation has developed, why certain opinions and attitudes prevail.

Sociological research consists of four elements: sampling, questionnaire (questionnaire), interview, analysis of results.

Sampling - the selection of a group of survey units, which should represent the totality of people (the object of study), whose opinion the researcher seeks to know. There are two factors to consider when selecting a sample:

Determination of the method of probabilistic sampling;

Compliance with the principle of objectivity.

Given these factors, two main methods of selecting respondents can be used: random and non-random. The first method is more scientific, the second is less formal. Random selection gives each member of the population the opportunity to be included in the sample. There are four types of random samples.

1. Simple random sample. A general list of the population is compiled, and then the required number of units for the survey is selected from it by the principle of chance. The size of a random sample depends on the size of the population and its homogeneity.

2. Systematized random sampling. It is similar to a simple random sample. But here there is a random starting point in the general list of the population and a certain reference step. The reliability of this type of sample is somewhat lower.

3. Stratified random sample. It is used to study different segments of groups (strata) of the population.

4. Sample formed by cluster selection. Cluster sampling involves first dividing the population into small homogeneous subgroups (clusters), and then the corresponding representative selection of potential respondents from each of them.

Non-random selection. Such samples are divided into two types - fit and quota.

1. Suitable samples are formed on the principle of "seize the opportunity." These are predominantly unstructured, unsystematized samples designed to clarify an opinion or point of view (as an example, journalistic interviews on the street).

2. Quota (target) samples provide a public opinion researcher with the opportunity to select respondents according to certain characteristics (women, men, representatives of certain races, national minorities, property status, etc.). The quota is set in proportion to the share of each of the groups in the total population. The advantage is the homogeneity of the studied sample, the reliability of the study.

Questionnaire. Rules for constructing a questionnaire:

1. The questionnaire should include only those questions that will help in achieving the goal.

2. When starting to develop a questionnaire, first of all, you should write an introduction, which indicates who and for what purpose is applying to him, emphasize the confidentiality of information.

3. In the questionnaire, use structured, closed questions. Such questions provide for the similarity of answers such as “very satisfied”, “satisfied”, “not satisfied”, “not at all satisfied”.

4. Questions should be designed in such a way that they are accessible and specific.

5. Do not formulate preconceived questions.

6. Do not combine two different questions into one.

7. Questions should be asked that cover the whole problem.

8. The questionnaire must always be tested. You need to show the developed questionnaire to your colleagues and listen carefully to their comments and suggestions.

Interview. There are several types of interviews: personal, telephone, group (focus groups).

Group interviews are the most common form of research work in PR practice.

Functions of public opinion:

The functions of public opinion differ depending on the nature of the interaction of the opinions of certain social institutions or individuals first of all, on the nature of influence, the impact of the first on the second, on the content of the opinion expressed, on its form. Public opinion is characterized by the following functions: expressive (in a narrower sense, control); advisory; directive.

The expressive function is the broadest in its meaning. Public opinion always takes a certain position in relation to any facts and events in the life of society, the actions of various institutions, leaders of the state. This feature gives this phenomenon the character of a force standing above the institutions of power, evaluating and controlling the activities of institutions and leaders of parties, the state.

The second function is advisory. Public opinion gives advice on how to resolve certain social, economic, political, ideological, interstate problems. This opinion will be fair if, of course, the institutions of power are interested in such answers. Listening to these advices, "leading leaders", groups, clans are forced to correct decisions and methods of management.

And, finally, the directive function of public opinion is manifested in the fact that the public makes decisions on certain problems. social life having an imperative character, for example, the will of the people during elections, referendums. In these cases, the people not only give a mandate of trust to this or that leader, but also express their opinion. Imperative statements occupy a very significant place in politics.

Depending on the content of judgments formed by the public, the opinion can be evaluative, analytical, constructive and regulatory. An evaluative opinion expresses an attitude towards certain problems or facts. It contains more emotions than analytical conclusions, conclusions. Analytical and constructive public opinion are closely related: the adoption of any decision requires a deep and comprehensive analysis, which requires elements of theoretical thinking, and sometimes hard work of thought. But in terms of content, analytical and instructive opinions do not coincide. The meaning of regulatory public opinion is that it develops and implements certain norms of social relations and operates with a whole set of norms, principles, traditions, customs, mores, etc. that are not written by law. Usually it implements the code of rules that is enshrined in the moral consciousness people, groups, collectives. Public opinion can also act in the form of positive or negative judgments.

truth and falsity of statements public depend primarily on the reasoning subject himself, as well as the sources from which he draws knowledge.

degree of truth of an opinion based on personal experience(passed through the prism of personal experience), depends on the speaker's judgment. Quite often in life one comes across extremely mature “youngsters” and completely “green” elders, just like “theoreticians” who are far from direct practice, but nevertheless possessing the truth and who have fallen into the most gross mistakes “from the plow”. ". The nature of this phenomenon is simple: people, regardless of direct experience, are more or less literate, educated, more or less competent, capable of analysis.

40. The essence and concept of culture. Common and difference in cultures.

Culture is understood as...

· a set of material and spiritual values created and being created by mankind and constituting its spiritual and social existence.

· a historically determined level of development of society and man, expressed in the types and forms of organization of life and activities of people, as well as in the material and spiritual values they create. (TSB)

The total volume of human creativity (Daniil Andreev)

· a complex, multi-level sign system that models a picture of the world in every society and determines the place of a person in it.

Culture forms the personalities of the members of society, thereby it largely regulates their behavior.

According to anthropologists, culture consists of four elements.

1. Concepts (concepts). They are found mainly in the language. Thanks to them, it becomes possible to streamline the experience of people.

2. Relationships. Cultures not only single out certain parts of the world with the help of concepts, but also reveal how these constituent parts are interconnected - in space and time, by meaning (for example, black is the opposite of white), on the basis of causation (“spare the rod - spoil child”). Our language has words for earth and sun, and we are sure that the earth revolves around the sun. But before Copernicus, people believed the opposite was true. Cultures often interpret relationships differently.

Each culture forms certain ideas about the relationship between concepts related to the sphere of the real world and to the sphere of the supernatural.

3. Values. Values are generally accepted beliefs about the goals that a person should strive for. They form the basis of moral principles.

Different cultures may prioritize different values (heroism on the battlefield, artistic creativity, asceticism), and each social system establishes what is a value and what is not.

4. Rules. These elements (including norms) regulate people's behavior in accordance with the values of a particular culture. For example, our legal system includes many laws against killing, injuring or threatening other people. These laws reflect how much we value the life and well-being of the individual. In the same way, we have dozens of laws prohibiting burglary, embezzlement, property damage, etc. They reflect our desire to protect personal property.

How important culture is for the functioning of the individual and society can be judged by the behavior of people who are not covered by socialization. The uncontrolled, or infantile, behavior of the so-called children of the jungle, who were completely deprived of human contact, indicates that without socialization, people are not able to adopt an orderly way of life, master the language and learn how to earn a livelihood.

Each society has carried out its own selection of cultural forms. Each society, from the point of view of the other, neglects the main thing and is engaged in unimportant affairs. In one culture material values hardly recognized, in another they have a decisive influence on people's behavior. In one society, technology is treated with incredible disdain, even in areas essential to human survival; in another similar society, constantly improving technology meets the requirements of the time. But each society creates a huge cultural superstructure that covers the whole life of a person - both youth, and death, and the memory of him after death.

As a result of this selection, past and present cultures are completely different. Some societies considered war to be the noblest human activity. In others, she was hated, and the representatives of the third had no idea about her. According to the norms of one culture, a woman had the right to marry her relative. Norms of other culture strongly forbid it.

Even a cursory contact with two or more cultures convinces us that the differences between them are innumerable. We and They travel in different directions, They speak a different language. We have different opinions about what behavior is crazy and what is normal, we have different concepts of a virtuous life. It is much more difficult to determine the common features common to all cultures - cultural universals.

Sociologists distinguish more than 60 cultural universals. These include sports, body decoration, community work, dancing, education, funeral rites, gift giving, hospitality, incest prohibitions, jokes, language, religious practices, tool making, and attempts to influence the weather.

However, different cultures may be characterized different types sports, jewelry, etc. Environment is one of the factors causing these differences. In addition, all cultural characteristics are conditioned by the history of a certain society and are formed as a result of a unique development of events. On the basis of different types of cultures, different kinds of sports, bans on consanguineous marriages and languages have arisen, but the main thing is that they exist in one form or another in every culture.

There is a tendency in society to judge other cultures in terms of the superiority of one's own. This tendency is called enthocentrism. The principles of ethnocentrism find clear expression in the activities of missionaries who seek to convert the "barbarians" to their faith. Ethnocentrism is associated with xenophobia - fear and hostility to other people's views and customs.

41. Interaction of culture and economy.

Traditionally, culture has been the subject of study in philosophy, sociology, art history, history, literary criticism, and other disciplines, while the economic sphere of culture has been practically not studied.

At the initial stages of the development of human society, the term "culture" was identified with the main type economic activity that time - agriculture.

At the initial stages of the study of economic culture, it can be defined through the most general economic category "mode of production",

Economic culture should include not only relations of production, but also the totality of social relations that have an impact on the technological mode of production, material production, and on a person as its main agent. Thus, in a broad sense, economic culture is a set of material and spiritual socially developed means of activity, with the help of which the material and production life of people is carried out.

In the structure of economic culture, it is necessary to single out the main structure-forming factor. One such factor is human activity.

any labor activity is associated with the disclosure of the creative abilities of the producer, but the degree of development of creative moments in the labor process is different. The more creative the work, the richer cultural activities person, the higher the level of work culture.

Labor culture includes the skills of owning tools of labor, conscious management of the process of creating material and spiritual wealth, the free use of one's abilities, the use of the achievements of science and technology in labor activity.

There is a general tendency to increase the economic cultural level. This finds expression in the use of the latest technology and technological processes, advanced methods and forms of labor organization, the introduction of progressive forms of management and planning, development, science, knowledge in improving the education of workers.

long time the state of economic culture was "described" within the strict framework of the glorification of socialism. However, as the main downward trend in all economic indicators (growth rates of production and capital investment, labor productivity, budget deficit, etc.) was revealed, the inoperability of economic system socialism. This made us rethink our reality in a new way and start looking for answers to many questions. Practical steps are being taken towards the market, the democratization of property relations, the development of entrepreneurship, which, undoubtedly, is evidence of the emergence of qualitatively new features of the economic culture of modern society.

42. Forms of culture. Problems of mass culture.

Culture - a set of material and spiritual values created and being created by mankind and constituting its spiritual and social existence.

Most modern societies culture exists in
the following main forms:

1) high, or elite culture - fine art,
classical music and literature produced and consumed by the elite;

2) folk culture- fairy tales, songs, folklore, myths, traditions,
customs;

3) mass culture - a culture that has developed with the development of means
mass information created for the masses and consumed by the masses.

There is a point of view that mass culture is a product of the mass itself. Media owners only study the needs of the masses and give what the masses want.

Another point of view is that popular culture
the product of the intelligentsia hired by the media owners
information. This is a means of manipulating the masses, imposing them
their values and standards of life.

World culture is a synthesis of the best achievements of all the national cultures of the peoples inhabiting our planet.
national culture - the highest form of development of ethnic culture, which is characterized not only by the presence of a peculiar cultural system based on social solidarity and experience cohabitation in a certain territory, but also the presence of a high professional level of culture and global significance

Mass culture can be international and national. As a rule, it has less artistic value than the elite or folk. But unlike elite culture, mass culture has a larger audience, and in comparison with popular culture, it is always authorial.

43. Types of sociological research. Stages sociological research.

sociological research can be defined as a system of logically consistent methodological, methodological and organizational-technical procedures, interconnected by a single goal: to obtain reliable data about the phenomenon or process being studied, about the trends and contradictions of their development, so that these data can be used in the practice of managing social life .

Sociological research includes four successive stages: research preparation; collection of primary sociological information; preparation of the collected information for processing and its processing; analysis of the information received, summing up the results of the study, formulation of conclusions and recommendations.

A specific type of sociological research is determined by the nature of the goals and objectives set in it. It is in accordance with them that three main types of sociological research are distinguished: exploratory, descriptive and analytical.

Intelligence research solves tasks that are very limited in their content. It covers, as a rule, small surveyed populations and is based on a simplified program and a compressed toolkit.

Exploratory research is used for a preliminary examination of a certain process or phenomenon. The need for such a preliminary stage, as a rule, arises when the problem is either little or not studied at all.

Descriptive research - more complex view sociological analysis, which allows you to make a relatively holistic view of the phenomenon under study, its structural elements. Comprehending, taking into account such comprehensive information helps to better understand the situation, more deeply substantiate the choice of means, forms and methods of managing social processes.

A descriptive study is carried out according to a complete, sufficiently detailed program and on the basis of methodically tested tools. Its methodological and methodical equipment makes it possible to group and classify elements according to those characteristics that are identified as significant in connection with the problem under study.

Descriptive research is usually used in cases where the object is a relatively large community of people who differ different characteristics. It can be a team of a large enterprise where people work different professions and age categories with different work experience, level of education, marital status etc., or the population of a city, district, region, region. In such situations, the allocation of relatively homogeneous groups in the structure of the object makes it possible to alternately evaluate, compare and contrast the characteristics of interest to the researcher, and in addition, to identify the presence or absence of links between them.