Possible essays on social studies for the Unified State Exam. How to write an essay on social studies, ready-made essays. Unified State Exam in Social Studies

What could be more wonderful than school time? But despite this, we have to face many difficulties. The biggest obstacle that anyone who decides to graduate from 11th grade will have to go through is the Unified State Exam.

In almost all universities and in all areas you need to take a subject called social studies. The hardest part of the exam is the essay. Therefore, before writing, you need to draw up a plan for an essay on social studies and follow it strictly point by point. This is the only way to write a beautiful essay. An essay plan in social studies, as well as in other subjects, should contain three main parts: introduction, main part and conclusion. We will dwell on each point in detail.

Why do you need to know how to write essays?

Everyone forces us to express our thoughts consistently, correctly and with reason. This will definitely come in handy in life. Even if you just have a friendly conversation, then it would be appropriate here, not saturated with jargon and other “garbage” of the Russian language.

Also, writing essays teaches us to identify the main idea that they want to convey to us, analyze, and express our personal opinion about the problem.

If we talk about exams, then before writing you should develop a detailed plan for writing an essay on social studies. This will help you not get lost in your own thoughts and not move away from the main problem. Some people really like writing essays; all they need to do is write social studies in their heads. For the rest, it’s better to use a draft so that the plan is always in front of you.

The introduction and conclusion are short sections that are about three to four sentences each. All parts are separated by a paragraph. You should not write in a continuous canvas, it is very difficult for readers to perceive. You won't earn many points for such a "sheet".

Unified State Exam in Social Studies

The test part of the social studies exam is quite simple. Need to answer test questions, they all have 4 possible answers. The second part is a little more difficult. Here you are asked to fill in the missing words, complete the table, or connect the corresponding points.

The hardest part is C. Here you need to choose an expression (quote) of a famous person from several proposed options. Next, write an essay-argument on the topic of the statement. In order to cope with the work and get a good score, you need to make an outline for your social studies essay. The Unified State Exam is quite easy to pass if you prepare for it a little.

It is worth setting aside at least an hour a day for self-study either hire a tutor or attend specialized training courses. Pay special attention to the creative part. It is possible to create an essay plan for social studies (USE) so that it can be used for absolutely all topics. This is what we suggest you do right now. We will highlight the main parts that should be contained in your essay and give the main cliches. All this will greatly simplify your work during the unified state exam.

Plan

The plan for an essay on social studies is practically no different from that for other creative works. Now we will provide a detailed plan for the essay, we will describe in sufficient detail what should be included in each part. So, the plan for an essay in social studies is as follows:

Introduction. It is worth saying right away that there are no strict requirements for this work. The main thing is that the topic is disclosed. You need to demonstrate your knowledge of the theory and confirm it with facts from history, literature or life. Entry is not mandatory, but recommended. Many schoolchildren cannot imagine an essay without an introduction. If you find it difficult to start your essay right away with thoughts, give a short introduction (2-3 sentences). Here we can clearly formulate the problem. If there is no introduction, points for this are not reduced.
The meaning of the quote. This short section consists of no more than five sentences. It is not at all necessary to quote the entire statement. A link to the author will suffice, followed by an interpretation in your own words. Here, many use clichés, for example: “In the statement of the philosopher Feuerbach, a phenomenon (process or problem) is considered (or described) ...” or “The meaning of the statement ... is that ....” In the examples you will see how to use these forms correctly.
Theory. In this part you must write whether you agree with the author’s opinion or not. In most cases, students confirm the opinion and simply rewrite the quote using special terminology. Also in this part you can give examples to defend your point of view.
Data. It is better to avoid any general phrases; you need to give specific examples (“as we know from the chemistry course...”, “as the famous philosopher said...” and similar forms).
IN conclusion we need to summarize everything we said earlier. Schoolchildren often use this form: “Thus, the examples given allow us to assert that...” Instead of the ellipsis, you need to insert a reformulated main idea of the statement.

Introduction

The social studies essay (outline, cliches we have already provided) should be short, but reflect the main idea. In this part we will give you examples of possible introductions.

"Feuerbach is a famous German philosopher who argued that theory and practice are interrelated and complement each other."
“The most interesting quote for me was the statement of the American writer L. Peter, who spoke about the high purpose of economic culture.”

The meaning of the statement

“The meaning of the statement is very simple - you need to be able to save and correctly distribute resources, which will help stop hunger throughout the world.”
"Raising this problem, the author says that the younger generation understands little about adult life. They are like foreigners who do not know the customs and way of life of the inhabitants of this country."

Theory

Let's look at the plan for writing a social studies essay. Next, we must demonstrate our theoretical knowledge acquired in social studies lessons at school. Here are some examples:

“The behavior of each individual person is of great importance for the whole society. This is an isolated group, but connected with the world. It is the social status that determines the behavior model of each individual person. If someone stands out for his behavior, and this is unacceptable in society, then social control services are involved ..."
“My opinion is this: I completely agree with the author’s position. Indeed, laws play a big role in a person’s life. They help and protect from bad, immoral acts...”

Data

We have almost figured out how to write an essay on social studies; all that remains is to understand what examples can be given in the next paragraph. Facts could be something like this:

Literary. For example: “I would like to give an example from the book “Rich and Poor Dad,” where the author R. Kiyosaki says that economic freedom is very important...”
From education, science, media and so on.“As an argument, we can cite the history of the development of the science of chemistry. How did people gain knowledge about possible reactions? Of course, from experience..."

Conclusion

The last part consists of 1-2 sentences, for example:

“I completely agree with the statement, because only... can lead to...”
“Thus, the philosopher... expressed a rather clever thought... which requires analysis and reflection.”

In this article you will learn how to write an essay on social studies. Examples are attached.

First of all, it is necessary to understand that in order to learn how to write an essay in social studies, it takes quite a long time. Without preliminary preparation, it is impossible to write an essay that would be rated high by experts. Sustainable skills and good results appear after 2-3 months of work (about 15-20 essays written). It is systematic training and determination that bring high results. You need to hone your skills in practice with the direct help and careful supervision of a teacher.

Video - how to write an essay on social studies

If you haven't tried essay writing yet, watch the video.

Unlike an essay on literature or the Russian language, where the minimum amount of work is clearly specified and general reflection is allowed (“philosophizing” without specification), in an essay on social science the volume is not limited, but its structure and content are fundamentally different. A social studies essay is actually an answer to the question: “Do I agree with this statement and why?” That is why an essay on social science must contain strict argumentation, scientificity and specificity. At the same time, it should be noted that very paradoxical, unusual statements that require imaginative thinking and a non-standard approach to revealing the problem are often used as the topic of an essay. This inevitably leaves its mark on the essay writing style and requires maximum concentration of effort and attention.

I would also like to add that the exam essay is assessed by specific people. For an expert who checks from 50 to 80 papers a day to mark an essay as worthy of attention, this essay must not only meet all the requirements set out below, but also be distinguished by a certain originality, originality and originality - this is implied by the genre of the essay itself. Therefore, it is necessary not only to present scientific and factual material on the topic, but also to pleasantly surprise you with the originality and flexibility of your thinking.

Algorithm for writing essays during the Unified State Exam

First of all, during the exam you need to properly manage your time. Practice shows that writing an essay requires spending at least 1-1.5 hours out of the 3.5 hours allotted for the Unified State Exam in Social Studies. It is most advisable to start writing an essay after all other KIM tasks have been completed, because This type of work requires maximum concentration of the graduate’s efforts.
Carefully read all the topics offered to choose from.
Select topics that are understandable, i.e. – the student must clearly understand what this statement is about, what the author wanted to say with this phrase. In order to remove doubts about whether he understands the topic correctly, the graduate must restate the phrase in his own words, defining main idea. The student can do this orally or in a draft.
From the selected understandable statements, it is necessary to choose one topic - the one that the student knows best. It is necessary to note the fact that examinees often choose topics that are easy, in their opinion, but which turn out to be difficult when covering the topic due to the limited scientific and factual material on this issue (in other words, the phrase itself says everything, nothing can be added). In such cases, the essay comes down to a simple statement of the meaning of the statement in different options and is rated low by experts due to poor evidence base. Therefore, you need to choose the topic of the essay so that the student, when writing it, can fully demonstrate the completeness of his knowledge and the depth of his thoughts (i.e., the topic must be winning).
When choosing a topic for an essay, you must also pay attention to which social science the statement belongs to. Practice shows that a number of phrases can refer to several sciences at once. For example, I. Goethe’s statement “Man is determined not only by natural qualities, but also by acquired ones” may belong to philosophy, social psychology, and sociology. Accordingly, the content of the essay should vary depending on this, i.e. must be consistent with said basic science.
There is no need to write the entire essay as a draft. Firstly, due to limited time, and secondly, due to the fact that at the time of writing an essay some thoughts come, and at the time of rewriting - others, and redoing a finished text is much more difficult than creating a new one. In the draft, the graduate makes only an outline of his essay, approximate short sketches of the meaning of the phrase, his argumentation, the points of view of scientists, concepts and theoretical positions that he is going to present in his work, as well as the approximate order of their arrangement one after another, taking into account the semantic logic of the essay.
IN mandatory the student must express his personal attitude to the chosen topic in a clearly defined formulation (“I agree”, “I disagree”, “I don’t completely agree”, “I agree, but partially” or phrases that are similar in meaning and meaning). The presence of a personal attitude is one of the criteria on the basis of which experts evaluate an essay.
Without fail, the graduate must state his understanding of the meaning of the statement. Those. The high school student explains in his own words what the author wanted to say with this phrase. It is more advisable to do this at the very beginning of the essay. And if you combine the requirements of this paragraph with the provisions of the previous one, then this is what, for example, the beginning of an essay on philosophy “Before talking about the benefit of satisfying needs, you need to decide what needs constitute the benefit” will look like: “I completely agree with the statement of the great Russian writer of the second halfXIX– beginningXXcenturies L.N. Tolstoy, in which he talks about real and imaginary needs."
You need to be very careful in selecting arguments to support your point of view. Arguments must be convincing and justified. Data from relevant sciences are used as arguments, historical facts, facts from public life. Arguments of a personal nature (examples from personal life) are rated the lowest, so their use as evidence is undesirable. It should be remembered that any personal example can easily be “transformed” into an example from public life, from social practice, if you write about it in a third person (for example, not “The saleswoman in the store was rude to me, thereby violating my consumer rights”, A “Let’s say that the saleswoman was rude to citizen S. Thus, she violated his rights as a consumer.” The number of arguments in an essay is not limited, but 3-5 arguments are most optimal for revealing the topic. It should also be remembered that examples from history are most relevant in political science, partly in legal and sociological topics, as well as in philosophical topics related to the theory of social progress. Examples from social practice (public life) - in sociological, economic, legal topics. Data from the relevant sciences must be used when choosing any of the topics.
The use of terms, concepts, and definitions in an essay must be competent and appropriate in relation to the chosen topic and science. The essay should not be overloaded with terminology, especially if these concepts are not related to the chosen problem. Unfortunately, some graduates try to insert as many terms as possible into their work, violating the principle of expediency and reasonable sufficiency. Thus, they show that they have not learned to correctly use scientific terminology. The term should be mentioned appropriately; such a mention should indicate its correct understanding.
It is very welcome if a graduate in his essay indicates the points of view of other researchers on the issues under consideration, provides a link to different interpretations of the problem and different ways to solve it (if possible). Indication of other points of view can be direct (for example: “Lenin thought this way:..., and Trotsky thought differently:..., and Stalin did not agree with both of them:...”), but can be indirect, non-specific, non-personalized: “A number of researchers think this way:..., others think differently:..., and some suggest something completely different:....”
It is very welcome if the essay indicates who the author of this statement was. The indication should be brief but precise (see example in paragraph 8). If, when arguing your position on this issue, it is appropriate to mention the views of the author of the phrase, this must be done.
Arguments must be presented in strict sequence, the internal logic of presentation in the essay must be clearly visible. The student should not jump from one to another and return to the first again without explanation and internal connection, connecting the individual provisions of his work.
The essay must end with a conclusion that briefly summarizes the thoughts and reasoning: “Thus, based on all of the above, it can be argued that the author was right in his statement.”

Essay Examples on the topic of:

Philosophy “Revolution is a barbaric way of progress” (J. Jaures)

For the highest score

I completely agree with the statement of the famous French socialist, historian and political figure of the first half of the twentieth century, Jean Jaurès, in which he talks about the features of the revolutionary path social progress, about the distinctive features of the revolution. Indeed, revolution is one of the ways of progress, movement forward towards better and more complex forms of organizing the social order. But since a revolution is a radical disruption of the entire existing system, a transformation of all or most aspects of social life, occurring in a short period of time, this form of progress is always accompanied by a large number of victims and violence.

If we remember the revolutionary year of 1917 in Russia, we will see that both revolutions entailed the most severe confrontation in society and the country, which resulted in a terrible Civil War, accompanied by unprecedented bitterness, millions of dead and injured, unprecedented devastation in the national economy.

If we remember the Great French Revolution, we will also see the rampant Jacobin terror, the guillotine, “working” seven days a week, and a series of incessant revolutionary wars.

If we remember the English bourgeois revolution, we will also see a civil war and repressions against dissidents.

And when we look at the history of the United States, we will see that both bourgeois revolutions that took place in this country took the form of war: first, the War of Independence, and then the Civil War.

The list of examples from history can go on and on, but wherever a revolution occurs - in China, Iran, the Netherlands, etc. – everywhere it was accompanied by violence, i.e. barbarism from the perspective of a civilized person.

And even though other thinkers exalted revolution (like, for example, Karl Marx, who argued that revolutions are the locomotives of history), even though reactionaries and conservatives denied the role of revolutions in social progress, the point of view of J. Jaurès is closer to me: yes, revolution is a way of progress, a movement for the better, but carried out using barbaric methods, that is, using cruelty, blood and violence. Happiness cannot be created through violence!

For a small point

In his quote, the author talks about revolution and progress. Revolution is a way of transforming reality in a short time, and progress is moving forward. Revolution is not progress. After all, progress is reform. It cannot be said that the revolution does not produce positive results - for example, the Russian revolution allowed workers and peasants to get rid of a difficult situation. But by definition, revolution is not progress, because progress is all that is good, and revolution is all that is bad. I disagree with the author who classifies revolution as progress.

Essay outline

Introduction
1) A clear indication of the problem of the statement:
“The statement I have chosen concerns the problem...”
“The problem with this statement is...”
2) Explanation of the choice of topic (what is the significance or relevance of this topic)
“Everyone is concerned about the question...”
“The RELEVANCE of this topic lies in...”
3) Reveal the meaning of the statement from the point of view of social science, 1-2 sentences
4) Introduction of the author and his point of view
“The author argued (said, thought) from such a point of view...”
5) Your own interpretation of this phrase, YOUR OWN POINT OF VIEW (DO YOU AGREE OR NOT)
“I think...” “I agree with the author of the statement...”
6) Expressing your position, moving on to the main part of the essay

P.S. It would be a plus if in the introduction you provide information about the author of the statement and insert a definition of the chosen field of the essay (philosophy, politics, economics, law, etc.)

Argumentation:
1) Theoretical argumentation of the problem. At least 3 aspects of the theoretical discussion of the topic must be presented.
For example: reveal the concept itself, give examples, analyze features, functions, classifications, properties.
2) Practical argument or example from public life

Very often, graduates preparing for the Unified State Exam in social studies choose this strategy - they write all the quotes on the issues of one science out of the five offered in. This does not seem to be the right way to prepare! Without regularly working with quotes on other topics, you narrow your choice in the exam, do not repeat the material in essay form, and risk that on the Unified State Exam you will come across a quote that you cannot explain.

A more effective way to prepare for writing an essay in social studies is to combine knowledge of several writing templates with regular completion of a large number of tasks 29 on different topics. We have already presented you with one of the most and Today - an example of a polemical essay template.

What is a polemical essay?

In most cases, we immediately agree with the author of the quote, adapt to his thought and justify it with arguments. The majority of those taking the Unified State Exam in social studies consider this to be correct, if only because they are “afraid” to argue with the wise. However, sometimes a thought is so all-encompassing that it is seen differently. Let's give an example of how to write a polemical essay, expressing a thought that corresponds to the author's thoughts. Let's take the following quote:

29.2 Economics.

Gary Becker is an outstanding American economist, winner of the 1992 Nobel Prize in Economics for basic research in Economic Behavior. This thought sounds quite logical from his lips.

Becker G. Nobel Prize Laureate in Economics.

However, it is immediately clear that this thought reduces all human behavior to one thing - the satisfaction of material needs. What about spiritual ones? So let's try to argue!

We do it right away K1(“the meaning of the statement is revealed, understood”).

The author of this statement claims that any action of people is explained by simple economic feasibility. But then how can we tell our children what love, happiness, self-sacrifice and patriotism are? I fundamentally disagree with Becker's opinion.

We express our opinion here. We do this in the most convincing way: “... to our children”! We continue to argue, show intelligence and knowledge of related sciences - philosophy, history. This is criterion 3 (K3).

I remember famous quote the great Russian writer and philosopher F.M. Dostoevsky that “all the happiness of mankind is not worth one tear of one child.” It was to happiness and revenge that A. Hitler led his people, freeing up “living space” for the Germans in the East. Everyone remembers what this led to. One hundred million dead and a sea of shed tears are living proof of this.

A social studies essay can look beautiful and literary. We use the statements of other famous people, we use the effects: “a tear of one child”, “a sea of shed tears”. Now you need to fulfill criterion 2 (K2), apply terms, theoretical provisions (the quote refers to the science of economics, let me remind you).

The period of initial accumulation of capital, as is known from the course of economics, precedes the formation of capitalism and the market. Entrepreneurs strive to obtain start-up capital at any cost for further business development. However, from the point of view of morality, humanism, and universal human values, these periods in history look like “dark pages.” This includes the robbery of colonies, the destruction of entire peoples (North American Indians, for example), and the “criminal nineties” in Russia.

Terms used capital, initial accumulation, entrepreneurship. Confirmed with examples from social practice. We draw a conclusion, formulate our own point of view (if you criticize, suggest)! We show our life experience and continue to use terms.

To paraphrase the author, we can say that “happiness is in money.” But it seems to me that it is in the smile of relatives, physical and spiritual health, usefulness to society. Therefore, I believe that any human behavior is not justified by the desire for material wealth. They are important, but not paramount!

To summarize, here is our essay:

29.2 Economics.

I have come to the conviction that the economic approach is comprehensive, it is applicable to all human behavior" (G. Becker)

The author of this statement claims that any action of people is explained by simple economic feasibility. But then how can we tell our children what love, happiness, self-sacrifice and patriotism are? I fundamentally disagree with Becker's opinion.

I remember the famous quote from the great Russian writer and philosopher F.M. Dostoevsky that “all the happiness of mankind is not worth one tear of one child.” It was to happiness and revenge that A. Hitler led his people, freeing up “living space” for the Germans in the East. Everyone remembers what this led to. One hundred million dead and a sea of shed tears are living proof of this.

The period of initial accumulation of capital, as is known from the course of economics, precedes the formation of capitalism and the market. Entrepreneurs strive to obtain start-up capital at any cost for further business development. However, from the point of view of morality, humanism, and universal human values, these periods in history look like “dark pages.” This includes the robbery of colonies, the destruction of entire peoples (North American Indians, for example), and the “criminal nineties” in Russia.

To paraphrase the author, we can say that “happiness is in money.” But it seems to me that it is in the smile of relatives, physical and spiritual health, usefulness to society. Therefore, I believe that any human behavior is not justified by the desire for material wealth. They are important, but not paramount!

Short rules for writing an essay:

We continue to comply with the writing of Unified State Exam essays in social studies in any template:

1. Our essay is as short and specific as possible!

2. We immediately reveal the meaning of the quote and perform K1.

3. We apply the terms of the science to which the quote relates, we perform K1!

4. We present facts from other sciences, show our horizons, and perform K3.

5. We show intelligence, tie facts and conclusions to the topic.

6. We defend our point of view correctly, but confidently!

Good luck writing social studies essays regularly!

Here is another example for you to practice a polemical essay from the Unified State Exam 2016, try writing it, we will discuss it in the comments, as well as in our group

Examples of essays on social studies for the Unified State Exam

Essay samples

“A child at the moment of birth is not a person, but only a candidate for a person” (A. Pieron).

It is necessary to understand what meaning A. Pieron put into the concept of man. At the moment of birth, the child is already a person. He is a representative of a special biological species, Homo Sapiens, with inherent specific features of a given biological species: large brain, upright posture, tenacious hands, etc. At the moment of birth, a child can be called an individual - a specific representative of the human race. From birth, he is endowed with individual traits and properties unique to him: eye color, body shape and structure, the design of his palm. This can already be defined as individuality. Why then does the author of the statement call the child only a candidate for a person? Apparently, the author had in mind the concept of “personality”. After all, man is a biosocial being. If a person is given biological traits from birth, then he acquires social ones only in a society of his own kind. And this happens in the process of socialization, when the child learns, through education and self-education, the values of a particular society. Gradually he turns into a personality, i.e. becomes a subject of conscious activity and has a set of socially significant traits that are in demand and useful in society. It is then that he can fully be called a human being. How can this assumption be confirmed? For example, on March 20, 1809, in Sorochintsy, a son was born into the family of the landowner Vasily Gogol - Yanovsky, baptized with the name Nikolai. This was one of the landowner's sons born on this day, named Nicholas, i.e. individual. If he had died on his birthday, he would have remained in the memory of his loved ones as an individual. The newborn was distinguished by characteristics characteristic only of him (height, hair color, eyes, body structure, etc.). According to the testimony of people who knew Gogol from birth, he was thin and weak. Later, he developed traits associated with growing up and an individual lifestyle - he began to read early, wrote poetry from the age of 5, studied diligently at the gymnasium, and became a writer whose work was followed by all of Russia. He showed a bright personality, i.e. those features and properties, signs that distinguished Gogol. Apparently, this is precisely the meaning that A. Pieron intended in his statement, and I completely agree with him. When a person is born, he must go through a long, thorny path in order to leave a mark on society, so that descendants will proudly say: “Yes, this man can be called great: our people can be proud of him.”

“The idea of freedom is connected with the true essence of man” (K. Jaspers)

What is freedom? Independence from powerful of the world what money and fame can give? Lack of bars or overseer's whip? Freedom to think, write, create without regard to generally accepted canons and public tastes? This question can only be answered by trying to figure out what a person is. But here's the problem! Every culture, every era, every philosophical school gives his answer to this question. Behind each answer is not only the level of a scientist who has comprehended the laws of the universe, the wisdom of a thinker who has penetrated the secrets of existence, the self-interest of a politician or the imagination of an artist, but there is also always hidden a certain position in life, a completely practical attitude towards the world. And yet. From all the various, contradictory ideas about man, one general conclusion follows: man is not free. He depends on anything: on the will of God or gods, on the laws of the Cosmos, the arrangement of stars and luminaries, on nature, society, but not on himself. But the meaning of Jaspers’s expression, in my opinion, is that a person cannot imagine freedom and happiness without preserving his personality, his unique, inimitable “I”. He does not want to “become everything,” but “wants to be himself in spite of the universe,” as the author of the famous “Mowgli” R. Kipling wrote. A person cannot be happy and free at the cost of trampling on his personality, renouncing his individuality. Truly ineradicable in man is the desire to create the world and himself, to discover something new, unknown to anyone, even if this is achieved at the cost of his own life. Becoming free is not an easy task. It requires from a person the maximum effort of all spiritual forces, deep thoughts about the fate of the world, people, about his own life; a critical attitude towards what is happening around and towards oneself; search for the ideal. The search for the meaning of freedom sometimes continues throughout life and is accompanied by internal struggle and conflicts with others. This is precisely where human free will manifests itself, since from a variety of life circumstances, options, he himself has to choose what to prefer and what to reject, what to do in this or that case. And the more complex the world around us, the more dramatic life is, the more effort is required from a person to determine his position and make this or that choice. This means that K. Jaspers was right in considering the idea of freedom to be the true essence of man. Freedom is a necessary condition for his activity. Freedom cannot be “gifted,” because unsought freedom turns out to be a heavy burden or turns into arbitrariness. Freedom, won in the fight against evil, vices and injustice in the name of affirming goodness, light, truth and beauty, can make every person free

“Science is merciless. She shamelessly refutes favorite and habitual misconceptions” (N.V. Karlov)

We can completely agree with this statement. After all, the main goal of scientific knowledge is the desire for objectivity, i.e. to study the world as it exists outside and independently of man. The result obtained should not depend on private opinions, preferences, or authorities. On the path to searching for objective truth, a person passes through relative truths and errors. There are many examples of this. Once upon a time, people were absolutely sure that the Earth was disk-shaped. But centuries passed, and the journey of Fernando Magellan refuted this misconception. People learned that the Earth is spherical. The geocentric system that existed for millennia was also a fallacy. The discovery of Copernicus debunked this myth. The heliocentric system he created explained to people that all the planets in our system revolve around the Sun. The Catholic Church forbade the recognition of this truth for more than two hundred years, but in this case, science really turned out to be merciless to people’s misconceptions. Thus, on the way to absolute truth, which is final and will not change over time, science passes through the stage of relative truths. At first, these relative truths seem final to people, but time passes and with the emergence of new opportunities for a person to study a particular area, absolute truth appears. It refutes previously acquired knowledge, forcing people to reconsider their previous views and discoveries.

“Progress only indicates the direction of movement, and it is indifferent to what awaits at the end of this path - good or evil” (J. Huizinga).

It is known that progress is the movement of the development of society from simple to complex, from lower to higher. But Long story humanity proves that moving forward in one area leads to a rollback in another. For example, replacing a boom firearms, flintlock - automatically testifies to the development of technology and related knowledge and science. The ability to kill a mass of people at once with deadly nuclear weapons is also unconditional evidence of the development of science and technology of the highest level. But can all this be called progress? And therefore, everything that has appeared in history as something positive can always be contrasted as something negative, and very much that is positive in one aspect can be said to be negative in another. So what is the point of the story? What is the direction of its movement? What is progress? Answering these questions is far from easy. The very abstract concept of progress, when trying to apply it to the assessment of certain events specifically - historically, will certainly contain an insoluble contradiction. This inconsistency is the drama of history. Is it inevitable? But the fact is that the main character of this historical drama is the man himself. Evil is, as it were, inevitable, because a person sometimes receives as a result something for which he did not strive at all, which was not his goal. And the objective fact is that practice is always richer, always exceeds the level of knowledge achieved, which gives rise to a person’s ability to use what has been achieved differently in other conditions. Evil, therefore, like a shadow, pursues good. Apparently this is what the author of this statement meant. But I would like to continue the discussion and encourage people, especially scientists, to think about their future discoveries. After all, to define what is truly progressive there is a concept developed throughout the history of mankind. Expressed by the word “humanism,” it denotes both the specific properties of human nature and the assessment of these properties as the highest principle of social life. What is progressive is what is combined with humanism, and not just combined, but contributes to its elevation.

“Revolution is the transition from untruth to truth, from lies to truth, from oppression to justice, from deception and suffering to straightforward honesty and happiness.”

(Robert Owen)

A revolution is often called a social explosion, which is why, in my opinion, a revolution does not completely solve the problems that have arisen in life.

In Russia's historical past, the most significant revolution was the October 1917 revolution. Its most important result was the beginning of the construction of communism, which meant a radical change in the life of the entire country. And if this is the same truth, justice and honesty that Owen speaks of, then why is Russia now trying with all its might to join the Western model of development and doing everything to become a capitalist country in the full sense of the word? And this despite the fact that in Soviet times Russia achieved a lot: it became a superpower, was the first to carry out a human flight into space, and won the Second World War. It turns out that the revolution did not lead our country to the truth. Moreover, by the end of 1991, Russia found itself on the brink of economic disaster and famine.

Is it necessary to talk about social revolutions, if even during the scientific and technological revolution in the modern world many questions arise. Among them are environmental problems, rising unemployment, and terrorism.

On the one hand, during the scientific and technological revolution, healthcare is improved, the most hopeless patients are saved from death by the efforts of doctors, and on the other hand, weapons of mass destruction, including bacteriological ones, are produced. The media daily cover millions of events taking place in all corners of the planet, informing and educating people, but at the same time, the media act as a manipulator of human consciousness, will, and reason.

Many more examples of revolutions can be cited, but the conclusion remains clear: a revolution is a multilateral and contradictory process, during which the problems being solved are replaced by others, often even more complex and confusing.

Religion is wisdom justified by reason

I completely agree with this statement and want to prove the truth of this saying using the example of famous BOOKS that contain such wisdom that humanity will always turn to.

New Testament. It is already 2 thousand years old. With his birth, he created an unprecedented, unprecedented excitement in hearts and minds, which has not calmed down to this day. And all this because it contains wisdom that teaches humanity kindness, humanism, and morality. This book, written simply and without any embellishment, captures the greatest mystery - the mystery of human salvation. People can only fulfill these Great Wisdoms: do not kill, do not steal, do not offend your neighbor, honor your parents. Is this bad wisdom? And when people forget to implement these wisdoms, misfortune awaits them. In our country during the years Soviet power the people were excommunicated from this book. All this led to the destruction of the spirituality of society, and therefore to lack of will. And even the communists, drawing up their law - Moral Code communist, took as a basis the moral principles contained in the Bible. They just exposed them in a different form. This proves that the wisdom of this book is eternal.

Koran. This is the main book of Muslims. What is she calling for? Particular attention is paid to nobility, which, in turn, implies respect for parents. The Koran teaches Muslims to be firm in word and obligatory in deeds and actions. It condemns such base human qualities as lies, hypocrisy, cruelty, and pride. Is this bad wisdom? They are reasonable.

The given examples prove the correctness of the above statement. All world religions contain such wisdom that instructs people only to do good deeds. Showing people the way at the end of the tunnel.

Science reduces our experiences of fast-flowing life.

One cannot but agree with this statement. Indeed, with the advent of science, the progress of mankind began to accelerate, and the pace of life of human society is accelerating every day. All this happens thanks to science. Before its appearance, humanity moved rather slowly along the path of progress. It took millions of years for the wheel to appear, but it was only thanks to scientists who invented engines that this wheel could be driven at a higher speed. Human life has accelerated dramatically.

For thousands of years, humanity has had to look for answers to many seemingly unsolvable questions. Science did this: the discovery of new types of energy, the treatment of complex diseases, the conquest of outer space... With the beginning of the scientific and technological revolution in the 50-60s of the 20th century, the development of science became the main condition for the existence of human society. Time requires a person to quickly solve global problems on which the preservation of life on Earth will depend.

Science has now come to every home. It serves people by truly reducing the experiences of fast-paced life: instead of washing by hand - an automatic washing machine, instead of a floor rag - a washing vacuum cleaner, instead of a typewriter - a computer. And what can we say about the means of communication that have made our Earth so small: in one minute you can receive a message from places located on different parts of the world. The plane takes us in a few hours to the most remote corners of our planet. But just a hundred years ago it took many days and even months. This is the meaning of this statement.

Political strength is strong if and only if it is based on moral strength.

Of course, this statement is correct. Indeed, a politician must act based on moral laws. But for some reason, many people associate the word “power” with the opposite opinion. There are many supporting examples of this in history, ranging from ancient Roman tyrants (for example, Nero) to Hitler and Stalin. And modern rulers do not shine with examples of morality.

What's the matter? Why do deeply moral norms such as honesty, conscience, commitment, truthfulness in no way fit into political power?

Apparently, a lot has to do with the nature of power itself. When a person strives for power, he promises people to improve their lives, restore order, and establish fair laws. But as soon as he finds himself at the helm of power, the situation changes dramatically. Many promises are gradually forgotten. And the politician himself becomes different. He already lives by different standards, he has new views. Those to whom he promised are increasingly moving away from him. And others appear nearby who are always ready to be at the right moment: to advise, to suggest. But they no longer act in the interests of society, but in their own selfish interests. As people say, power spoils a person. Perhaps this is true. Or maybe there are other reasons? Coming to power, a politician understands that he is unable to cope with the burden of problems that the state faces: corruption, the shadow economy, organized crime. In such difficult conditions, there is a retreat from moral principles. We have to act tough. It seems to me that it is better to rephrase this statement as follows: “A political fortress is strong if and only if it is based on the force of law.” For politics, this makes the most sense. Only the laws must also be moral...

This book will help students prepare for writing a mini-essay on the Unified State Exam in social studies (task 29). Recommendations for writing a mini-essay are provided, an overview of typical topics grouped into five content blocks (“Philosophy”, “Economics”, “Social Relations”, “Political Science”, “Law”), as well as essay samples.

With the help of this book, students will become familiar with the topics offered in the exam and the rules for choosing them, and will also learn to write a mini-essay on social studies with the highest score.

Writing a mini-essay on a social science topic is the last task of the control and diagnostic materials of the unified state exam in social studies. It is the most difficult to complete, since the student must independently formulate the problem, justify it with the necessary theoretical arguments, and illustrate it with specific examples.

We suggest that you first familiarize yourself with the typical topics proposed for writing a mini-essay on the unified state exam in social studies.

Overview of typical topics suggested for writing a mini-essay

The topics of the mini-essays are grouped into five content blocks. The theme is aphoristic statements of famous people, thinkers, public figures, publicists, containing one or another topical social scientific problem.

Block "Philosophy"

The first block represents topics conditionally combined into a section "Philosophy". This section is as comprehensive as possible in terms of the topics presented. Firstly, topics are proposed for consideration that reveal the specifics of society as a whole as a system of integral connections and interactions between its constituent elements. So, for example, we can cite the statement of the ancient Roman thinker and political figure L. A. Seneca: “Society is a set of stones that would certainly crumble if each stone did not support the others.” Having chosen a similar topic, the student will have to reveal the problem of the integrity of society, the interconnection and interdependence of its constituent institutions.

Also typical in the philosophical block, topics related to the concept of “social progress” are traditionally presented. Let us take as an example the statement of N. G. Chernyshevsky: “Progress is the elevation of man to the dignity of man” or the aphorism of J. Renan: “Industrial progress is not at all parallel in history with the progress of art and true civilization.” In both cases, it is necessary to reveal the essence of progress and formulate a position on the relationship between the technical and humanitarian components in progressive changes.

When thinking about social progress, it is also necessary to consider individual methods, forms, manifestations social change, compare and contrast them with each other. So, for example, there is a statement by the French scientist and politician, socialist J. Jaurès: “Revolution is a barbaric way of progress.” Having decided to write a mini-essay on this topic, it is important to remember that the problem should be formulated not in the understanding of revolution as a form of social progress, but much more broadly - as an understanding of the essence of social progress as a whole and a comparison of its main forms: evolution and revolution, an explanation of thought the author about the barbarity in implementing social changes, the cost of what people usually associate with the progressiveness of change. Thus, the universal rule when writing a mini-essay is to present an expanded problem field of the topic. This approach allows us to identify a larger number of aspects and conduct a comparative analysis of various aspects and aspects.

The philosophical section also includes topics affecting the relationship between man and society with nature, problems of the environmental crisis, and the crisis of human consumer attitudes towards the environment. An example of this theme is the statement of F. M. Dostoevsky: “...Contact with nature is the most the last word all progress, science, reason, common sense, taste and excellent manners.” Environmental issues are most relevant for modern man and his worldview. Expanding on this topic, one can come to the concept of “coevolution” of society and nature, formulated by the famous Russian scientist N. Moiseev.

It seems relevant to include in the content themes of aphorisms and statements addressed to the specifics of modern society, its innovative essence, and dynamism. As an example, let's take the statement of Steve Jobs, the founder and head of Apple: “Innovation today gives birth to a leader.”

The philosophical section includes the topics of philosophical anthropology, philosophical understanding of the essence and purpose of man, the relationship between man and the world in which he lives, and understanding the meaning of human existence. As an example, let us cite the aphorism of the Russian religious philosopher P. Florensky: “Man is in the world, but man is as complex as the world. The world is in man, but the world is as complex as man.” The topic seems extremely difficult to write, as it will require the graduate to have complex and abstract philosophical reflections on human nature, on the reflection of the universe in man, on the relationship of the world - the cosmos with the microcosm, man. It seems that the choice of such a topic can only be recommended to graduates who are well prepared in philosophical issues, who know how and love to reason.

An important problem in philosophical anthropology is the question of the relationship between man and society and other people. Let us take as an example the statement of the 19th century German philosopher I. Fichte: “Man is intended to live in society; he must live in society; he is not a complete, complete person and contradicts himself if he lives in isolation.” Expanding the topic, we introduce the concept of personality as a set of socially accentuated qualities of a person, we prove the organic connection of a person with society, his development in contacts and in communication with people. In an essay, you can use a logical technique “by contradiction,” that is, model the situation of human development without contact with people, in isolation, for example, show it using the example of the Lykov family, hermits discovered in the Altai taiga. In addition, one can give examples that in many nations the most severe punishment was the expulsion of a person from his hometown, village, family, deprivation of his usual circle of interaction and communication.

Also related to the problems of philosophical anthropology can be attributed the statement of the Austrian doctor and thinker S. Freud: “Work, like nothing else in life, connects the individual with reality. In his work he is at least securely tied to a part of reality, to human society.” When choosing this topic, it is important to reveal the role of labor in the formation of the human personality, to show the interconnection and interdependence, the interdependence of man and society.

The most difficult essay topics to cover in an exam are those that touch upon epistemological problems, problems of truth, the cognizability of the world, and a person’s comprehension of himself. Let us illustrate this category with the following examples: “It is difficult to understand in what other way one can come to the truth and master it, if one does not dig and look for it, like gold and hidden treasure” (D. Locke); “The main obstacle to knowing the truth is not a lie, but the semblance of the truth” (L. N. Tolstoy); “Every truth is born as a heresy, and dies as a prejudice” (T. Huxley); “A person can recognize himself only in people” (I. Goethe). The choice of such problems will require the graduate to reveal the concept of “cognition”, the specifics of the process of cognition, the complexity of the paths of cognitive activity, the concept of “truth”, its properties and criteria. The last of the above topics involves approaching the problem of self-knowledge, the peculiarities of a person’s knowledge of himself through the prism of relationships to him and understanding of him by other people.

In addition, the philosophical block of topics also includes issues related to the philosophy of culture. This range of topics is quite wide. Topics related to the phenomenon of spirituality, the place and role of spiritual culture in the life of society and individuals. Included are topics related to understanding the role of culture in the socialization of a person, with the formation of the creative, creative essence of a spiritual personality. Disclosure of the place and role of each form of spiritual culture - science, art, religion, morality, education - in the development of society is a very likely topic for an essay. Let us give a number of topics as examples.

Thus, statements related to education and school are regularly present in the content of topics. The statement of the English entrepreneur and philanthropist J. Peabody - “Education is a debt that the present generation must pay to the future” - touches on the problem of the place and role of education in ensuring the continuity of the development of society. Expanding the topic, it is necessary to formulate the concept of “education”, to reveal its functions both from the point of view of the individual and from the point of view of society. In this topic, we suggest paying attention to the specifics of modern education, when representatives of the older generation and teachers can no longer offer complete knowledge to students and the younger generation in a pure and ready-made form. The multi-information environment, the generation and rapid obsolescence of information imply an emphasis on mastering not so much a store of knowledge as cognitive and practical skills, methods of activity, certain value guidelines, and competencies.

Since modern civilization is unthinkable without scientific breakthroughs, fundamental discoveries, and human perception of the world in the paradigm of scientific knowledge, topics devoted to the specifics and significance of science in the development of society are regularly encountered. As examples, let us cite the statement of the famous scientist, one of the founders of positivism in philosophy, G. Spencer: “Science is organized knowledge.” Or the statement of the physicist A. Einstein, the founder of the theory of relativity: “Science is an attempt to bring the chaotic diversity of our sensory experience into conformity with some unified system of thinking.” When discussing the topic, we pay attention to systematization, logical orderliness, consistency of scientific conclusions and concepts, the formation of scientific knowledge into integral schools and directions. In addition to revealing the concepts of “science”, “scientific knowledge”, we describe in detail the signs of scientific knowledge, the difference between scientific knowledge and other, non-scientific knowledge (ordinary, aesthetic, religious). We believe it is necessary to illustrate the topic with examples from the history of science, the development of scientific knowledge, and the contribution of scientists to the formation of a holistic picture of the world. Let's say we provide information about the creation by scientists of the theory of light (wave - corpuscular - quantum).

Topics related to art and artistic culture deserve our attention. They allow you to make interdisciplinary connections, analogies, and use material acquired in literature lessons, world artistic culture, and visits to museums, exhibitions, and expositions. As an example, let us cite the statement of the German philosopher G. Hegel: “Every piece of art belongs to its time, its people, its environment.” When revealing the topic, we focus on the connection between works of art and life, historical events, social phenomena that have found their figurative reflection in them. In the theoretical section of the essay, we reveal the concept of “art” and formulate its main features. Examples include the work of Renaissance artists who organically reflected the humanistic ideology of early modern Europe, as well as creative activity Itinerant artists, composers, united in the “Mighty Handful”. It would be very interesting to present works that reflect the aesthetics of postmodernism and are in tune with the rhythm, complexity, and dynamics of modern civilization.

Let us take as an example another statement by G. Hegel: “Genuine immortal works the arts remain accessible and give pleasure to all times and peoples.” In this topic, on the contrary, we focus on the universal, universal content of great works of art, reflected in artistic creativity essential, eternal for man moral ideals, searches, problems. It is interesting to reveal in this topic the fundamental concept of “humanism”, “humanistic values”; it should be emphasized the eternal relevance of the search for harmony between man and nature, with the people around him. As examples, one should refer to the works of ancient culture, the culture of the Renaissance, the Russian spiritual Renaissance, represented by the work of Theophanes the Greek, Andrei Rublev, and the master Dionysius.

The problem of humanism and moral values is key in revealing topics devoted to the role and significance of morality as a phenomenon of the spiritual culture of society. This problem, in particular, is reflected in the statement of the 20th century scientist and humanist A. Schweitzer: “A person can be called moral only when life is so sacred to him that he values the lives of plants and animals on an equal basis with the life of his neighbor, and when he willingly devotes himself to helping all living beings who need this help.” When writing an essay on this topic, we give a broad interpretation of the concept of morality and humanism, emphasize the specificity of Schweitzer’s “reverence for life”, draw attention to the inseparability of the humanistic moral attitude towards man, people and the ecological worldview, respect for nature, recognition of the harmonious development of man in unity with natural environment. By giving specific examples on this topic, you can talk about the activities of humanitarian and environmental volunteer organizations and foundations, helping animals on the verge of destruction, helping animals on the street without the care of their owners, etc. It is important to emphasize the active, positive essence moral principles moral life and activity.

The philosophical section concludes with topics touching on the specifics and peculiarities of religion as a form of spiritual culture and a person’s way of understanding the world around him and himself. Problems associated with understanding the place and role of religion, religious faith in human life seems to be extremely complex, requiring a high level of social science training from the graduate. Here are a few topics that reflect religious themes. Firstly, the statement of the German poet and playwright F. Schiller: “In the face of his gods, man paints his own portrait.” In the context of the presented topic, it is necessary to reveal the essence of religion as a special, specific form of social consciousness, to formulate the reasons for the emergence of religious beliefs, to show the connection of religious dogmas and rituals with the level and conditions of social existence of peoples, the cultures and civilizations they created. You can also dwell on the essential functions of religion in a person’s life, a reflection of his inner spiritual world and moral searches. As an example, in particular, one can cite the historical conditionality of religious reformations, talk about the spiritual quest of modern man, and the birth of new religions. The theme set by the statement of the French writer Anatole France is similarly revealed: “Religions, like chameleons, are colored by the color of the soil on which they live.” The context of this topic is unthinkable without providing examples from history that tell about the emergence of various religions. For example, one can characterize the specifics and features of the paganism of the ancient Slavs, touch upon the problem of dual faith in Rus', the combination of pagan and Christian foundations in its spiritual tradition.

A more complex context is religious and philosophical, it is represented by the statement of the Russian philosopher Pavel Florensky, theologian and historian of religions: “Religion is - or at least claims to be - the artist of salvation, and its job is to save. What does religion save us from? She saves us from us, - saves our inner world from the chaos lurking in it.” When discussing the topic, we pay attention to the worldview, cognitive, axiological, compensatory aspects of religion. We show how a holistic religious and philosophical picture of the world, generated by human consciousness, determines it life path, moral guidelines.

A different context is touched upon by the statement of the American thinker and political figure B. Franklin: “Without the blessing of heaven, everything that has been created by man can be destroyed, even if his well-being is based on hard work, frugality, foresight and prudence.” Franklin focuses our attention on the fact that every person needs a spiritual, moral foundation for his own existence, activity, and work. It is necessary to measure what has been done with the values and ideals embodied in the idea of God.

The topics of the philosophical block have both pronounced advantages and obvious difficulties in choosing. The advantage lies in their unconditional breadth, the possibility of revealing an extremely wide range of concepts and theoretical positions. This, in essence, is where the difficulties lie, since philosophical topics are more difficult to reveal using specific examples, positions, and situations. The conceptual range of philosophical topics is also complex. Most of the concepts found in them are ambiguous and have different meanings and interpretations.

Block "Economy"

The second block of topics covers the problems of the economic section of the Social Studies course. Their basic difference is their specificity, operational-applied nature, operating with a set of phenomena, processes that daily worry every person and are associated with the material aspects of his existence.

Let’s begin our review of key topics in the economic section with a statement from L. Peter: “Economics is the art of satisfying limitless needs with limited resources" The problematics of the topic lie in the field of the most general, basic issues of economic theory, understanding the essence of the economy as a sphere, an area of social life, understanding the limitations of the economic benefits available to people. Expanding on the topic, we introduce the concept of “economic choice” or “opportunity cost”, list the main factors that determine the choice, and give specific examples of limited goods and their use.

The key fundamental principles of economic activity include division of labor and economic specialization. Let us consider, for example, the statement of the classic of economic thought A. Smith: “The greatest progress in the development of the productive power of labor, and a large part of the art, skill and intelligence with which it is directed and applied, have apparently been a consequence of the division of labor.”

Within the framework of this topic, first of all, we introduce the very definition of the concept of “division of labor”. We present the factors on which the choice of model and type of economic activity is based. In the topic format, we need to touch upon both the principle of “absolute advantage” and “relative” or “comparative advantage” as the basis for choosing the economic profile of a country, region, or company.

General theoretical issues also include a topic that reveals the relationship and interdependence of economics with politics. As an example, let us cite the statement of A. Minchenkov: « Economics is friends with politics only on favorable terms.” Expanding on the topic, we emphasize that economics is characterized by maximum rationalism and pragmatism, while in politics there may be more emotional, opportunistic factors due to the struggle for power. And rationality in politics is somewhat different than in economics. In this regard, sometimes political decisions can cause crisis phenomena and processes in the economy. And, on the contrary, the harmonization of economic rationality and political interest always gives a positive increase.

General economic problems include the statement of the famous liberal economist F. von Hayek: “Economic control is inseparable from control over the entire life of people, because by controlling the means, one cannot help but control the goals.” In our opinion, in this topic it is also necessary to focus on the problem of economic choice, the dependence of decisions made on the specifics, goals and objectives of specific societies, economic and political systems.

Most economic topics are associated with an understanding of the essence, specifics, differences of the market economic system, and the peculiarities of the functioning of the market mechanism based on balancing supply and demand. Key problems in revealing the specifics of a market economy: market and economic freedom, market and competition, producer orientation in the market to consumer preferences, market and the dominant private form of ownership and private interest.

Here are a few typical topics that touch on this issue:

“We assume a free play of the forces of supply and demand in the market” (A. Marshall).

"Most effective remedy to achieve and ensure well-being - competition” (L. Erhard).

“Competition is centralized planning carried out by many independent individuals” (F. von Hayek).

When writing essays based on the above statements, we present the very concept of a market economy, reveal its specifics, introduce the concepts of demand, supply, the law of demand and the law of supply, the formation of market equilibrium.

When discussing the topics raised in the statements of L. Erhard and F. von Hayek, it is necessary to particularly touch upon the concept of market competition and its functions.

An alternative to a market economy is the economic model of state socialism - a planned, command-administrative economy. To illustrate this, let us quote W. Churchill’s phrase: “If you destroy the free market, you create a black market. Where there are ten thousand regulations, there can be no respect for the law." Of course, Churchill is a consistent opponent and critic of the planned economic system. When characterizing a planned economy, in our opinion, it is necessary to touch upon the objective reasons for the emergence of such a business model, to show the reasons for the economic inefficiency of a planned state economy.

A significant place in the structure of essay topics in the economic section of social science is given to microeconomic problems: the place and role of the company in a market economy, the principles of company management, and in making business decisions. Here it is necessary to turn to the characteristics of the basic models and principles of marketing and management, and pay attention to the specifics of effective personnel management in a modern company. For example, when compiling an essay based on the statement of famous specialists in the theory of company management T. Peters and R. Waterman, “Until you understand the consumer, you cannot understand the essence of your enterprise,” we pay attention to the leading role of the consumer in making business decisions. For its successful functioning, a company needs to study not only the current state of the market, current trends in the development of consumer demand, but also the prospects for its change. Only the most accurate understanding of needs will allow you to build an effective business strategy and allow the company to correctly position itself in the market.

The following statements are also related to this topic:

“Markets change, tastes change. Therefore, companies and entrepreneurs in market competition must also change” (E. Wang).

“It is not the employer who issues the salary, the employer only distributes the money. The salary is paid by the client” (G. Ford).

“Marketing is about telling people (or distributing among people) a story about your benefits, and so that these people can appreciate such benefits” (S. Godin).

“All commerce is an attempt to foresee the future” (S. Butler).

“The pursuit of profit is the only way in which people can satisfy the needs of those whom they do not know at all” (F. von Hayek).

Theoretical arguments, conceptual range, problematic provisions are related to the company's orientation towards demand. Only a few specific accents can be taken into account. For example, in an essay based on a statement by E. Wang, pay attention to the dynamism of the market situation, to the various factors influencing its change. Having chosen the statement of G. Ford, the founder of the largest automobile company in the United States, in examples we should turn to the experience of specific companies, the development of specific businesses, both successful and not so successful. The reasons for the failures of companies or even the bankruptcy of some of them are primarily due to miscalculations in analyzing the state of the market and identifying customer preferences.

Among the topics often found in the control measurement materials of the Unified State Examination in social studies, statements about the place, role and importance of the banking system and credit relations in economic life are regularly found. Let us take as an example the statement of H. Ford: “A successful banker is on average less intelligent and far-sighted than a successful entrepreneur, and yet the banker practically dominates the entrepreneur in society through his dominance over credit.”

Expanding on the topic, we need to introduce the concept of a bank as a special institution of the financial system and reveal its main functions. First of all, we dwell on the function of lending, providing free funds to enterprises as the main source of business financing. In this regard, it is necessary to touch upon the mechanism for establishing the discount rate of bank interest - the main instrument that affects the cost of borrowed money for business development.

Let us especially highlight the statement of K. Geppert and K. Pat: “A central bank is a bank through which the state intervenes in the affairs of private banks and which, unlike them, can itself print the money it needs.” Discovering this topic will require us to have a good knowledge of the position of the central bank in the country's financial system. We need to reveal the features of the Central Bank, show the diversity of its functions as a “bank of banks”, a key coordinating element of the banking system, a partner and operator of the government’s economic activities, as an issuing center, a center for forming financial policy, and anti-inflationary activities.

Some topics touch on problems of meaning, the role of the state in the modern market economic system. In particular, let us cite the statement of one of the leading liberal economists M. Friedman: “The role of the government in a free society is to do what the market cannot do for itself, namely, to determine, establish and maintain the rules of the game.”

The basic concept in this topic for us will be the concept of “market imperfection”, that is, those situations, cases in which market mechanisms are no longer able to regulate in full economic activity, ensure compliance with the principles of social justice, integrity and stability of society. We also present the main directions of state participation in the economic life of modern society, the state’s impact on macroeconomic stability, the fight against inflation, and support for the most important enterprises in conditions of an economic crisis and economic recession. It is important for the state to participate in building a system of social partnership between business and trade unions that express the interests of employees, in regulating the situation on the labor market, combating unemployment, etc.

The focal topic is the topic relating to the problem of developing and adopting the state budget as the main financial plan of the state, including a list of its income and expenses. An example is the statement of M. Stans: “Developing a budget is the art of evenly distributing disappointments.” Expanding on the topic, it is necessary to touch upon the principles of budget formation, the connection of the budget with key directions of state policy, and the alignment of state priorities in the expenditure side of the budget.

It is necessary to describe the main items of income that form the budget, highlight and describe the main expenditure items, and explain concepts such as “budget deficit,” “budget surplus,” and “balanced budget.” As examples, we give specific examples of budget balancing in modern Russia and other countries of the world.

Less common in exam materials are topics devoted to the problems of trade, exchange, principles and logic of their development.

Let us also turn to topics that are related to the peculiarities of managing modern companies and modern management models.

We offer several topics that address this issue:

“Every evening, 95% of my company’s assets go home in cars. My task is to create such working conditions that the next morning all these people will want to come back. The creativity they bring to the company creates competitive advantage"(D. Goodnight).

“The importance of non-productive assets is growing today. Ideas, people, group work, communication, enthusiasm and, finally, knowledge” (M. Weber).

By choosing these topics, we speak out about the features of modern innovative companies based on creative potential, high professional competencies of employees, the priority role and importance of human capital. First of all, the modern economy is an economy of knowledge, information, technology, and intelligence. In principle, it is impossible to limit a modern worker to the function of accurately executing orders, instructions and instructions from a boss or manager. Vertical directive management models are being replaced by systems of horizontal connections, cooperation, and interactions. Freelancing has become widespread in the modern world. This is exactly what should be written about in the context of the above topics.

Let’s touch on a few more topics and problems encountered in the “Economy” section. So, we may well come across topics related to the role, essence, and functions of money in the economic life of society. Topics in which it is necessary to formulate the concept of money, reveal and explain the functions of money in the economy. Let us take as an example the statement of K. Marx: “Wealth in money is nothing other than wealth in products converted into money.”

An important and relevant topic is the problem of inflation, inflationary processes and expectations in the modern economy. Inflationary processes are also characteristic of the Russian economy, and each of us daily faces its manifestations and consequences: rising prices, declining real incomes and wages of citizens, etc.

Let's bring typical topic on the problem of inflation - the statement of M. Friedman: “Inflation is the only form of punishment without legal grounds.” The topic is quite clear and transparent in terms of its disclosure. We introduce the very concept of “inflation”, reveal the main causes and factors of its occurrence, the dangers that inflation brings to economic entities, participants in economic relations and activities. It is important, in the context of these topics, to propose and explain a set of specific measures that the government can take to combat inflation.

Concluding the review of the topics presented in the economic section, we present topics that characterize the specifics, role and importance of business and entrepreneurial activity in the economic life of society. Topics like these are quite common in exam materials. Their choice can be fully supported by relevance, connection with the specific economic reality with which each of us comes into contact, since each of us is a consumer of goods produced by certain enterprises and businesses.

Here are the topics devoted to entrepreneurship, the functions and meanings of entrepreneurial activity, and the responsibility of business to society:

“If business is good, stocks will eventually follow suit” (W. Buffett).

“A business without profit is the same business as a pickled cucumber is a candy” (C. F. Abbott).

"Business - most exciting game, in which maximum excitement is combined with a minimum of rules” (B. Gates).

In this case, we begin the theoretical section of the essay with the definition of entrepreneurship, describe the functions and basic principles of entrepreneurial activity, and write about the social responsibility of modern business to society.

As examples of topics related to entrepreneurship and the development of competitive business, we can give an example from history, where it would be appropriate to talk about such entrepreneurs as Henry Ford, the founder of the American automobile production in Detroit Ford Motor Company, John Rockefeller, the founder of one of the largest oil companies. Standard Oil companies. An illustration from modern times can be used to describe the activities of Bill Gates himself, the founder of Microsoft, Steve Jobs, the founder of Apple, etc.

Block “Social Psychology” and “Sociology”

The third block of topics covers two areas of social science knowledge: "Social Psychology" And "Sociology". It should be noted that it is the statements from this block that are most often chosen by graduates at the unified state exam. And this is not accidental, since the topic is most close and understandable to high school students and is associated with their personal social experience and social practice.

The key problem of social psychology is the formation of personality, the acquisition by an individual of socially accentuated qualities and properties.

Here are a number of statements in which the concept of “socialization” appears as a basic concept:

“Nature creates man, but society develops and forms him” (V. G. Belinsky).

“They are not born a person, they become a person” (A. N. Leontyev).

“People are not born, but become who they are” (K. A. Helvetius).

Having chosen the above statements of the Russian critic V. G. Belinsky, the modern Russian psychologist A. N. Leontiev and the French enlightenment philosopher K. A. Helvetius as a topic for writing an essay, we formulate the problem - the formation of personality, the socialization of the individual, the role and significance in this process of natural factors, innate qualities and social factors associated with the impact of society on humans. Expanding the topic, we dwell on the characteristics of socialization as the process of an individual’s mastering of experience, ways of interacting with society, assimilation of values, knowledge, practical and cognitive skills, and social competencies. A person at birth is an individual - a single and typical representative of the human race, endowed with innate inclinations biological basis for the formation of abilities. Talking about the socialization of an individual, we dwell on the primary stage of this process, which takes place in the first years of human life, in childhood, under the dominant influence of such an agent of socialization as the family. We show the role of activity in the process of formation personal qualities.

In addition to the family, the most important institutions of socialization are education, professional activity, social activity, and the cultural environment. Talking about the impact of these factors, we give a description of secondary socialization, its features, the expansion of the range of social roles, the choice of directions and agents of socialization by the socializing subject himself.

By selecting examples for the topic, you can turn to specific situations illustrating the development of human abilities and qualities, imagine literary images, for example, the formation of the personality of the heroes of works of Russian classical literature (L. N. Tolstoy, F. M. Dostoevsky, I. S. Turgenev, etc.). It is advisable, in our opinion, to write about the features of the socialization of adolescents and youth in modern society, the influence of the computer revolution, the online world, and social communities in which modern teenagers participate.

Such topics are very convenient for presentation personal experience and personal social practice of the graduate. You can talk about the impact that family, school, and small society had on personal qualities.

The phrase of the modern Russian psychologist A.G. Asmolov was repeatedly encountered among exam topics: “One is born as an individual, one becomes an individual, one defends individuality.”

Considering the topic, we dwell on the concepts of “individual”, “personality”, “individuality”. We especially consider ways to protect our individuality - the unique, unrepeatable properties of an individual. In this regard, it is appropriate to dwell on such phenomena as conformism, opportunism, the adjustment of individual people to the position of the majority, and, on the contrary, nonconformism, a person’s commitment to his preferences, views, and beliefs, regardless of the position of the majority.

The same problem is presented in a more unique and complex way in the statement of the writer M. de Unamuno: “Demanding from someone that he become different is the same as demanding from him that he stop being himself. Every personality preserves itself, allowing changes in its way of thinking and being only if these changes can fit into the unity and continuity of its spiritual life.”

Consideration of various models and directions of socialization involves the statement of the British thinker of the era of rationalism F. Bacon: “In every person nature grows either as grains or as weeds; let him water the first in a timely manner and destroy the second.”

It can be emphasized that a person is born neither good nor bad; such assessments are socially significant and socially accentuated assessments. Only other people entering into social connections and interactions with individual, can evaluate his qualities and actions as positive or negative. The conditions of socialization, environment, family, and loved ones determine what qualities will be formed in a particular person. The choice of which path - good or evil - to choose depends on him, provided that the boundaries between these concepts are adequately formed and he can clearly distinguish one from the other.

A special aspect of the problem of human socialization in society is represented by the statement of the French educator Jean D’Alembert: “There is nothing more dangerous in society than a person without character.” It seems relevant to disclose in the context of this topic a person’s moral choice, behavior in society, defending one’s beliefs, faith, position or submission to external circumstances, opinions and influence of other people.

Why are conformism, opportunism, and choosing a position close to Griboyedov’s hero Molchalin dangerous in human society? First of all, unprincipledness, readiness to recognize any dominant position, submit to evil, endure one’s own humiliation and the humiliation of others.

The most important socializing influence on a person, the process of education, is the subject of the statement of the English historian E. Gibbon: “Every person has two upbringings: one that others give him, and the other, more important, which he gives himself.”

When composing the text, in the theoretical section of the essay we reveal the essence of the concept of “education”. The process of education is a purposeful influence on a person with the aim of forming certain moral values, attitudes, behavioral standards, and beliefs. We describe in detail the “external” education that comes from family, school, social groups, society as a whole. We especially pay attention to the process of self-education, the influence of the individual on himself, the formation of certain qualities in himself, the desire to develop good, positive, moral qualities. Moral guidelines, the system of coordinates in which a person navigates when choosing the path of good or evil, depend on the level and degree of education of the individual, the development of his intellectual qualities.

Similar is the statement of the German philosopher I. Kant: “A person can become a person only through education. He is what his upbringing makes him.”

Let us offer a few more statements devoted to the problem of educating the individual, the formation of positive moral qualities, socially approved values and guidelines.

“Education should be able to make both body and soul the most beautiful and best” (Plato).

“Good parenting is the ability to hide how much we think about ourselves and how little about others” (M. Twain).

“Education must find its path between the Scylla of complete freedom of action and the Charybdis of prohibition” (S. Freud).

“Education is an art, the application of which must be improved over many generations” (I. Kant).

“Education is a difficult matter, and improving its conditions is one of the sacred duties of every person, for there is nothing more important than the education of oneself and one’s neighbors” (Socrates).

The process of forming personal qualities, the ability to control oneself, and manage one’s passions is touched upon in the statement of the Russian writer L.N. Tolstoy: “Power over oneself is the highest power, enslavement to one’s passions is the most terrible slavery.” By choosing this statement for writing an essay, we focus on the importance of the process of self-education of the individual, cultivating the ability to control oneself and control one’s emotions. In the context of the topic, we can raise the issue of the meaning of social control and self-control, and characterize the place of etiquette rules in the structure of social control.

The process of interconnection and interaction between the individual and society, the significance of social foundations, relationships, the environment in the formation of personal qualities, the ability to interact with the social environment, other people is touched upon in the statement of the French educational philosopher D. Diderot: “Man was created to live in society; separate him from him, isolate him - his thoughts will become confused, his character will harden, hundreds of absurd passions will arise in his soul, extravagant ideas will sprout in his brain like wild thorns in a wasteland.”

When considering the topic, we consider giving examples that prove the impossibility of normal personal development without relationships with society. For example, in traditional Japan, the most severe punishment was depriving a person of communication with his loved ones, imprisonment in mountain caves, and loneliness.

For a number of topics, the key concept is the concept of activity - a specific form of activity inherent in a person and characterized by such properties as purposefulness, awareness, and transformative nature. Activity is a universal form of human existence, the only opportunity for him to open up, form a set of personal qualities, and develop abilities. Let us pay attention to the statement of the Russian psychologist B. M. Teplov: “Ability cannot arise outside of the corresponding specific activity.” In addition to the concept of activity, the context of the topic involves the disclosure of such concepts as inclinations and abilities. The levels of development of abilities include giftedness, talent and genius. We affirm that only activity makes it possible to transform natural inclinations into giftedness, talent and even genius. It is important to think through examples that confirm theoretical principles. For example, talk about the formation of the abilities of famous scientists, writers, musicians, actors, outstanding athletes, etc.

In fact, one should also write about activity and its role in the formation of personality in the following statements:

“How can you know yourself? Only by action, but never by contemplation. Try to fulfill your duty, and you will immediately know yourself” (J.V. Goethe).

“A personality is characterized not only by what it does, but also by how it does it” (F. Engels).

“Man is nothing more than a series of his actions” (G. Hegel).

The active essence of a person makes it possible to objectify and manifest his qualities. Through deeds, through actions, one can judge a person, what he is like, what he can do, what influence he has on other people, social processes.

The statement of the scientist Charles Darwin, “Inspirations of conscience in connection with repentance and a sense of duty are the most important difference between man and animal,” raises the problem of significant differences between man and representatives of the animal world. The scientist recognizes the key element of difference as the moral qualities and values inherent in man, human conscience, which does not allow a person to do evil.

A person’s moral quest, his search for himself, his place in life, understanding the world and other people are the problems raised in the statement of the Austrian writer S. Zweig: “Whoever has once found himself can no longer lose anything in this world. And whoever once understands the person in himself understands all people.”

The problems of personality formation, the development of human qualities, abilities and talents are addressed by the German philosopher I. G. Fichte. He states: “It is inherent in the concept of man that his final goal should be unattainable, and his path to it should be endless.” And similar in meaning: “A person has different aspirations and inclinations, and the purpose of each of us is to develop our inclinations to the best of our ability.” Having decided to write an essay on any of the above statements, we focus on the concepts of “individual”, “personality”, “activity”, “socialization”. We emphasize that the development and improvement of the human personality is carried out throughout his entire life, a person is the creator of himself, the creation of his personality begins with the first moments of his stay on earth after birth and ends with his death. The peculiarity of a person is his desire for change, the infinity of the process of self-improvement, reformatting himself.

D. Diderot in the statement “People who are outstanding for their talents must spend their time as required by respect for themselves and their offspring. What would posterity think of us if we left them nothing?” also draws our attention to the contribution of man to the development of the world, society, and civilization.

An important content block of topics is topics that reveal the role and significance of various social norms in the life of society. Norms are rules of behavior rooted in society and ensuring its integrity and progressive development. In the structure of social control there is a variety of social norms - regulatory mechanisms public relations, behavior of individuals and social groups.

A set of statements devoted to the meaning of norms involves the disclosure of a key concept - the essence of social control, various rules developed by people, society, over the long centuries and millennia of its existence.

Let's look at specific statements:

“Along with state laws, there are also laws of conscience that make up for the omissions of legislation” (G. Fielding).

“Moral strength cannot be created by paragraphs of law” (K. Marx).

“Some unwritten laws are stronger than all written ones” (L. A. Seneca).

“It is much more important to instill morals and customs in people than to give them laws and courts” (O. de Mirabeau).

Having chosen any of the above statements about social norms, their regulatory impact on social relations, the behavior of social subjects, we pay attention to the comparative characteristics of the effect of legal norms and moral norms. The problem of the essay can be formulated as follows: the author raises the question of the role and significance in the life of society of such social norms as legal and moral norms. In the theoretical section of the essay, first of all, we reveal the concept of norms, pay attention to the specifics and features of legal and moral norms, and compare the scope of action of these social regulators. In examples it is necessary to show situations in which moral norms operate, which have much more subtle, informal, psychological mechanisms of influence on the individual. It is advisable to touch upon the issues of applying moral and legal sanctions to people.

The topics we have commented on include statements such as:

“Whether it be public or private life, business or domestic, private or relating to other people, there is not a single event in life that is devoid of moral obligations” (Cicero).

“For my action to have moral value, my conviction must be associated with it. It is immoral to do something out of fear of punishment or to gain from others. good opinion about myself” (G. Hegel).

There are also focal topics in the content of the topics proposed in the exam for writing an essay, which draw our attention to such an element of social control as sanctions. Let us quote the statement of the German philosopher and economist K. Marx: “Punishment is nothing more than a means of self-defense of society against violation of the conditions of its existence.”

The basic concept for exploring this topic is the concept of social sanctions. Social sanctions are understood as ways and measures of society's influence on people's behavior. If the behavior is approved, then positive sanctions are imposed on the individual, stimulating this behavior. If society condemns a person’s action, negative sanctions will be imposed on him.

Since Marx mentions punishment, the focus of our essay will be on negative sanctions, the characteristics and functions of which we should dwell especially on.

Examples should also be selected to illustrate the use of negative social sanctions as ways to protect society and the social fabric from destructive, destructive influences. We advise you to give one example of a legal nature, the punishment of criminals, while it is advisable to give another example about the operation of norms of public morality.

A mechanism such as public opinion has a specific impact on people’s behavior. It is public opinion that, as a rule, ensures the effectiveness of compliance with moral standards and etiquette. Let's get acquainted with the statement of P. Buast: “Public opinion is a flow; even when we manage to divert its current, we are forced to follow it.”

In dictionaries, public opinion is understood as a special form of mass consciousness, in which the attitude (hidden or explicit) of various groups of people to events and processes of real life that affect their interests and needs is manifested. Public opinion is expressed publicly and influences the functioning of society and the behavior of specific people. It is the possibility of open, public expression of the population on topical problems of public life and the influence of this expressed position on the development of socio-political relations that reflects the essence of public opinion as a special social institution. Moreover, public opinion is a combination of many individual opinions on a specific issue affecting a group of people. Having revealed the functions of public opinion as a regulator of social life, we give examples in which this particular mechanism contributed to the resolution of a particular situation and determined the behavior of subjects in it.

An important mechanism that regulates people's behavior, dictating methods of communication, interaction, mutual understanding and mutual acceptance, are the norms and rules of good manners - the rules of etiquette. In a civilized society they are very, very important; it is no coincidence that the Russian proverb says that a person is greeted by his clothes. It is the first impression that is created about a person by how he looks, how he meets people, and how he behaves. Let us turn to another problem related to social norms and social control, - etiquette standards.

Let's look at a few statements that touch on this problem:

Statement by J. de La Bruyère “People are too careless about what they call their character; they should remember that being kind is not enough - they must also seem kind, since they strive to be welcoming, friendly, benevolent, in short, human beings” focuses on such an aspect of etiquette as establishing positive contact with others, creating a friendly, favorable attitude towards personality of the communication environment.

F. Bacon's aphorism “Virtue and wisdom without knowledge of the rules of behavior are like foreign languages, because in this case they are usually not understood” convinces us that without observing certain rules of behavior other people simply will not understand us.

The same Bacon claims that “rules of conduct are the translation of virtue into a public language.” Having decided to write an essay on this topic, we draw attention to how important it is to build communication, observing the rules of good manners; we provide illustrations from life, literature, and our own experience of communication and interaction with people.

Statements similar in topic:

“Courteous manners do not always speak of justice, kindness, condescension and gratitude, but they at least create the appearance of these properties, and a person appears in appearance as he should be in essence” (J. de La Bruyère).

“The essence of courtesy is the desire to speak and behave in such a way that our neighbors are pleased with us and with themselves” (J. de La Bruyère).

“Courteous manners highlight virtues and make them pleasant. Politeness and good manners are absolutely necessary to enhance any other virtues or talents. Without them, no knowledge, no perfection appears in the proper light” (F. Chesterfield).

“The basis of all good manners is one concern - concern that a person does not interfere with another, so that everyone feels good together” (D. S. Likhachev).

Describing the importance of etiquette norms, we dwell on their assimilation in the family, in childhood. And, indeed, the basic rules of decency are formed in our childhood, when our parents and loved ones explain to us how to behave and how not to behave. We also suggest giving examples from history of how certain etiquette norms were formed, for example, greeting with an open palm in Ancient Rome testified to a man’s peacefulness and the fact that he does not have a weapon. It should also be remembered that every nation, every culture has its own rules. For example, among Eastern peoples it is not customary to offer to shake a woman’s hand. It would be decent for a woman to be the first to shake hands with a man in greeting, if she considers this possible.

A number of significant topics presented in the sociological section are devoted to the place, role and importance of the family in raising children, in the formation of a person’s social status, in ensuring the integrity and stability of society.

Let's look at a few typical statements to present this thematic block. Let us turn to the statement of the famous Ukrainian teacher V. A. Sukhomlinsky: “The family is the primary environment where a person must learn to do good.” Expanding the topic of family in the proposed context, we pay attention to the educational, socializing function of the family. The family is presented as a key agent of primary socialization. In a family, a child first of all learns kindness, justice, and compassion.

French writer V. Hugo in the phrase “Any social doctrine that tries to destroy the family is unsuitable and, moreover, inapplicable. Family is the crystal of society” draws our attention to the connection between family and society. We formulate the definition of family as a social institution, show the relationship between family and society in the economic, social, political, cultural spheres, in the upbringing and education of children.

A similar context for understanding the family is presented in the statements of the French writer O. de Balzac “The family will always be the basis of society”, the Indian poet R. Tagore “The family is the basic unit of any society and any civilization”, the American teacher F. Adler, who argued: “The family is this is a society in miniature, on the integrity of which the security of the entire large human society depends.”

Let us dwell on two more statements by V. A. Sukhomlinsky about the family. The phrase “In family life, one must take into account the thoughts, beliefs, feelings, and aspirations of a loved one. While preserving your dignity, you must be able to give in to each other” addresses the problem of mutual understanding between family members, the need to take into account the interests and needs of each member, and respect for each other. Only then can you achieve agreement and harmony in relationships with loved ones. In a certain sense, by yielding to loved ones, limiting our requests in the interests of people close to us, we learn how to relate to people in other groups and communities. In these essays we focus on understanding the family as a special small group, revealing the nature of the bonds and connections that arise in families.

The phrase of V. A. Sukhomlinsky “In marriage, mutual education and self-education does not stop for a minute” draws our attention to the institution of marriage as the fundamental basis of the family. Disclosure of this aspect will require reference to the legal status of the family, the rights and responsibilities of spouses, and the conditions for the stability of the marriage union. A similar context of content is assumed when writing an essay based on the statement of M. T. Cicero: “Marriage is the first stage of human society.”

An interesting formulation of the question about the essence and characteristics of the family is in the statement of G. Hegel: “The first necessary relationships into which an individual enters with others are family relationships. These relations, however, also have a legal side, but it is subordinated to the moral side, the principle of love and trust.” Expanding on the topic, we show how the formation of personal qualities occurs in a family, characterize the specifics of family relationships regulated by moral norms, as well as special relationships between relatives subject to regulation by legal norms.

The problem of connecting the family, family education with the formation of civic identity and the development of patriotic feelings is relevant. F. Bacon, in particular, mentions this: “Love for the Motherland begins with the family.” Each family, ensuring that the younger generation assimilates values, foundations, traditions, a sense of a small homeland, and involvement in the memory of their ancestors, most successfully forms stable patriotic feelings and moral maturity. A similar context is found in the statement of Ugo Foscolo: “Nature, having created people as they are, gave them great consolation from many evils, endowing them with family and homeland.” As an example, we recommend the implementation in Russian schools of the children's research project “My Genealogy”, within the framework of which children learn about their ancestors and create their own family tree.

The complex, philosophical aspect of family issues is raised by a quotation from the dogmatic constitution “Light to the Nations,” adopted at the Second Vatican Council in 1964: “The family is a kind of domestic church.” When commenting on this topic, it is necessary to dwell on the community of the church as a collection of people and families, as a special small group. Just like the church, the family has strict rules and regulations. Both the church and the family have a certain sacred meaning for a person.

And finally, here is a statement that raises the problem of the particularity and specificity of the family in the modern information society. Its author, M. Cooley, says: “ Big family the end comes, and behind it comes the end for married couples; we can only keep cats and parrots.” Revealing the problem, we dwell on the analysis of the crisis of the traditional family model in the modern world, the growth of individualism, individual space for each family member. In a modern family, there really are no longer the bonds that bound people in the past - joint work, a clear division of roles in the family, a woman’s concern for the safety of the family hearth. A complex society, a variety of contacts, a rich information environment draws a person, especially a young person, beyond the family circle. Generational conflicts between children and parents are intensifying. The unity between spouses weakens, each of them creates their own social circle, their own environment, and both spouses often spend most of their time at work. For many women, social status and career become more important than family life and everyday life. When speaking on this topic, it is necessary to get acquainted with the points of view and opinions of modern scientists, sociologists and psychologists who study family problems.

The sociological section concludes with the problems of ethnic groups, ethnic identity, interrelation and interaction between peoples. Ethnic communities occupy a special place in the system of social groups. The main context of statements included on this issue in examination materials is related to the disclosure of the very concept of ethnicity, nation, people, the justification of the need for interconnection, respect and tolerant attitudes between people belonging to different ethnic groups. We also touch upon the concept of national culture and national mentality, self-awareness. As an example, let us cite the statement of Academician D.S. Likhachev: “Peoples are not communities surrounded by walls, but associations harmoniously coordinated with each other.”

The problem of national memory, involvement in one’s own history and roots is touched upon in the statement of Z. Herbert: “A people who loses their memory also loses their conscience.” The French writer V. Hugo addresses the problem of the moral and intellectual development of a people as a measure of its greatness and place in historical space. The author states: “The greatness of a people is not measured by its numbers, just as the greatness of a person is not measured by its height; the only measure is his mental development and his moral level.”

And finally, the most interesting statements of Russian thinkers:

“People are compared to a plant, they talk about the strength of the roots, the depth of the soil. They forget that a plant, in order to bear flowers and fruits, must not only be rooted in the soil, but also rise above the soil, must be open to external foreign influences, to dew and rain, to free wind and sunlight" (B . Soloviev).

“Only kind and talented people can maintain majestic calm of spirit and humor in any, even the most difficult, circumstances. Proverbs, sayings, jokes, born in the depths masses, they talk about a healthy, powerful organism” (V. Dahl).

Block "Political Science"

Let’s move on to the consideration and analysis of a block of topics related to the political science section of the “Social Studies” course. Chapter "Political science" always traditionally selected by a smaller number of graduates compared to the previous section. This is due to objective factors: the complexity of political theory itself, the need to describe the majority theoretical models, developed by political science (democracy, rule of law, democratic elections, civil society, etc.). At the same time, political science issues seem to be particularly relevant, in demand, addressed to civic activity, events and facts of social life, interesting for high school students.

A certain difficulty in writing essays on political science can be recognized as the need for an analytical presentation of the material, detached from emotional attachment to a specific position, which not all graduates are able to withstand.

Let us dwell on the main problems presented in the political science block. First of all, this is an understanding of the essence of power, the nature of power relations in society, primarily as volitional relations aimed at influencing some subjects on the behavior and will of others. Let us give the following statements as specific examples:

The German philosopher F. Nietzsche writes: “Wherever I found living things, I found the will to power.” The author emphasizes that power is organically connected with human life and is generated by the desire to regulate the lives of other people. People’s activity is aimed at being influential, authoritative, at least in that closest circle of friends and relatives, which determines our social environment.

The nature of public power, its meaning, purpose in human society are touched upon in the statement of the English philosopher-educator T. Hobbes: “As long as people live without common power, they are in a state of war of all against all.” Expanding the topic, we describe, first of all, the functions of power, such as regulating a wide range of social relations, coordinating the interests of people, preventing and resolving conflicts, organizing joint activities of people in groups, and society as a whole.

Similar substantive aspects are touched upon by the philosopher and economist F. von Hayek in the following phrase: “The point is not only that the very desire to organize the life of society according to a single plan is largely dictated by the thirst for power. More importantly, to achieve their goals, collectivists need power, and on an unprecedented scale.”

Russian public and statesman V. Zubkov addresses the problem of power resources in the statement: “Where power cannot give strength to law, power establishes its own law.” Expanding on the above topic, it is necessary to dwell on the very concept of sources or resources of power, the features of their use in managing society. In particular, the above statement defines law and force as the main resources of power. The author believes that these resources are alternative to each other. Power, based on legal mechanisms and levers, applies force and coercion, strictly limited by law, in a manner recognized and approved by citizens. The same power that resorts to the direct use of force and violence thereby devalues laws, formal grounds, and the agreement between society and government.

The French writer P. Valery notes: “Power loses all its charm if it is not abused.” The statement touches on the aspect not only political power, extending its influence to all members of society, to regulate the most important and significant range of social relations, but also to any manifestations of power relations in society, for example, in families. The author comprehends the very nature of power, its influence on the person who possesses it. It is extremely difficult for a ruling entity to limit its influence, especially if it is not limited by someone or something, for example, by law.

French revolutionary, active participant in the Paris Commune L. E. Varlin turns to the ways and methods by which power influences society. His statement “Cruelty is the last refuge of any crumbling power” is, at first glance, paradoxical. Dictators and all-powerful rulers often resort to cruelty and violence. However, Varlen is convinced that a truly strong and stable government does not need cruelty; it only needs authority, legal mechanisms, and trust from the people. Again, we introduce the concept of power resources and the characteristics of the use of each of them.

The English philosopher E. Burke turns to another power resource - wealth. Wealth sometimes allows us to resolve issues for which neither force nor legal methods are sufficient. Burke writes: “If wealth is power, any power will certainly get its hands on wealth one way or another.” At the same time, since wealth and financial opportunities allow one to influence and influence people and circumstances, people who have other resources will make efforts to become owners of wealth as well.

The English writer E. Bulwer-Lytton also touches on the problem of the relationship between power and wealth. His statement “There is no democratic society in which wealth does not create a kind of aristocracy” also draws our attention to the fact that material, financial resources, property makes it possible to acquire positions of power in society. Expanding the topic, you can dwell on the concept of “aristocracy”, compare the aristocracy of the family, hereditary and aristocracy of wealth.

A number of topics are addressed to understanding the essence of politics as a phenomenon. In the context of these topics, we pay attention to the disclosure of the concept of “politics”, describe and comment on the functions and purpose of politics in society. Let us dwell on the statement of the French statesman, the country's president, Charles de Gaulle: “Politics is too serious a matter for politicians to deal with alone.” It simultaneously raises two interrelated problems: understanding the role and significance of politics in society, as well as the need for active participation of citizens in political life society, the impossibility of transferring power only to politicians.

Expanding on the topic, we provide a definition of the policy and comment on it. Next, we list and characterize the functions of the policy. This must be done to explain that politics is indeed a serious matter. Next, we reveal the meaning of the political participation of citizens and write about the danger of political absenteeism for the fate of democratic authorities.

The French writer, speaker, and statesman C. de Montalembert speaks about the role of politics: “You may not be involved in politics, but politics is still involved in you.” The author emphasizes the comprehensive nature of the political, the penetration of politics into the fabric of human relations, and the regulation of social processes. Regardless of whether we vote or not, political power decisions affect us, our lives. In the context of this topic, it is also necessary to describe in detail the essence of the policy and its functions.

The current problem of political theory at all times has been the relationship between politics and morality. For example, the French educator G. de Mabley wrote: “Good politics is indistinguishable from good morality.” According to the author, the development of political decisions should be determined and consistent with universal principles of morality. You can pay attention to the public, transparent nature of modern politics, wide coverage of political events in the media. It is all the more important that citizens recognize the moral relevance and justice of political action.

A moral politician will be supported by society, people, and will be able to rely on the power of moral authority.

The relevance of moral guidelines and imperatives in politics is also emphasized by the Russian writer F. Iskander: “Nothing needs morality more than politics, and no one hates politics more than moral people.” According to the writer, it is always difficult for a politician to follow the principles of morality; often political choice is determined more by rationality and pragmatism and to a lesser extent by morality. Therefore, there are often cases when highly moral people avoid participating in politics, but thereby only increasing the moral deficit in political life with their attitude.

The problem of politics and morality is also touched upon by the Russian lawyer B. N. Chicherin in the statement “The government must find support in the thoughts and feelings of the people.” According to the thinker, support from the people, solidarity of thoughts, feelings and aspirations of people with the activities of rulers is the most important pillar of power. Without a doubt, only the government that is consistent with moral principles and principles will sincerely support the people.

The French writer and diplomat J. de Bourbon-Busset emphasizes another aspect of politics: “Politics is the art of balancing between those who want to enter it and those who do not want to leave it.” This statement touches on the problem of the relationship between the ruling elite and counter-elites seeking to gain power and participate in political decision-making. We draw attention to such an aspect of politics as the art of regulating relations between people, coordinating and balancing various interests. In the theoretical section of the essay we include a definition of the political elite and reveal its functions.

The key political institution is the state. Let us turn to the characteristics of statements dedicated to the state and its role in the life of society.

Russian philosopher N.A. Berdyaev wrote: “The state does not exist in order to turn earthly life into paradise, but in order to prevent it from finally turning into hell.” This is the most abstract, generalized view of the institution of the state. In the theoretical section, it is quite appropriate to introduce the concept of the state, to reveal its most significant functions aimed at regulating public life and creating legal mechanisms for influencing society.

The educational philosopher Jean Marie Arouet (Voltaire) touches on the issue of the quality of public administration, emphasizing the need for qualified, gifted people called upon to make and implement government decisions. His statement “The state is made weak by a lack of money, but of people and talents” clearly recognizes the supremacy of talent and professionalism over material means. And indeed, even with significant financial resources, but without quality managers or competent politicians, the state cannot be saved from crisis and shocks.

The French political philosopher J. Bodin believes that “The State is the exercise by sovereign power of fair management of many families and what is in their possession.” Having chosen this topic, we focus on revealing the characteristics and functions of the state. It is important to pay attention to the concept of “state sovereignty”, explaining it as the principle of the supremacy and independence of state power, the ability for it to independently make a wide range of decisions. Next, we focus on the characteristics of the internal functions of the state: economic, social, law-making, etc.

A number of statements touch on the problem of government transformations, reforms, the need for the state to have the strength and capabilities for modernization and renewal. Jean de La Bruyère emphasizes: “With innovations and changes in the state, rulers usually think not so much about the need for reforms, but about their timeliness; There are circumstances that suggest that one should not irritate people too much; there are others, from which it is clear that he can be ignored.” Any state, in order to maintain the dynamism of development, relevance for citizens, and the ability to respond to the challenges of the time, must carry out reforms. Sometimes these transformations can be painful and unpopular for the people. The experience and wisdom of rulers should tell them what limit of trust they have among their own citizens. If the authorities do not enjoy authority, trust, and stable support, their room for maneuver when carrying out reforms is quite small. Such a government will not be able to carry out even the necessary reforms.

The founder of British conservatism, E. Burke, develops the same theme: “A state that is unable to change is unable to survive.” The author draws attention to the need for renewal and development for the state. Only in this case can it secure its future. Being in a state of stagnation, stagnation, the state ceases to meet the demands of the time, crisis phenomena will inevitably intensify in it. At a certain point in historical time, such states disintegrate. However, the same Burke repeatedly emphasized that reforms in the country should not be carried out just for the sake of reforms. They must be determined by the time itself, the era, and must be based on the traditions and foundations of the state. The author also wrote: “The country cannot be treated as a blank sheet of paper on which you can write whatever you want.”

One of the key concepts of political science is the “rule of law state”. The aphorisms presented in the exam versions are also devoted to its essence and features. Basic principle rule of law - separation and independence of powers, separation of three branches of government: legislative, executive, judicial. The doctrine of separation of powers was developed by enlightenment philosophers. Significant contributions to it were made by C. de Montesquieu and J.-J. Rousseau. Montesquieu develops the theory of separation of powers. It distinguishes between legislative, executive and judicial powers. Through the separation of powers, as well as a system of checks and balances, it is possible to ensure respect for the rights and freedoms of citizens.

I. Kant made a great contribution to the philosophical justification of the theory of the rule of law. Kant viewed the state as an association of many people subject to legal laws. I. Kant created a holistic doctrine of the rule of law. He believed that the source of state development was social antagonism. There is a contradiction between the tendency of people to live together and their inherent ill will and selfishness. Resolving this contradiction, ensuring real equality of all members of society, according to I. Kant, is possible only in the conditions of a universal legal civil society governed by the rule of law. The rule of law is a sovereign union of the will of the persons who form the people. They also form the legislative branch. The executive branch is subordinate to the legislative branch and, in turn, appoints the judicial branch. This method of organizing power, according to I. Kant, should ensure not just the separation of powers, but also their balance.

Let us take as an example the statement of J.-J. Rousseau: “The legislative power is the heart of the state, the executive power is its brain.” Expanding on the topic, we present the concept of “rule of law”, characterize the principle of separation of powers and its meaning. We give examples of how the system of checks and balances between branches of government operates in a rule-of-law state, guaranteeing the country from arbitrariness and despotism. We believe it is necessary, in the context of the topic, to reveal in detail the functions and significance of each of the branches of government, to reveal the essence of parliamentarism.

Another principle of the rule of law is the rule of law, the equality of everyone before the law and the court. This is what Voltaire said: “Freedom consists in depending only on laws.” It is state laws that outline the space within which civil liberties can be realized, understood, first of all, as the opportunity to make an independent choice and take responsibility for it.

You can often get topics related to political leadership and its functions in the political section. Let's present several topics in which the key concept is “political leadership”.

American psychologist G. S. Hall emphasizes: “The politician does not represent the majority, but creates the majority.” Topic Context - Impact political leader to the masses, formulating a political program for the nation, attracting citizens to his side. The majority of people in society may not initially support the goals of a politician or share his ideas. But if he is a true leader, he will be able to convince people that he is right and lead them. The topic opens up the opportunity for us to dwell on the presentation and characterization essential functions political leader, select examples from history or modern political life about the influence of strong leaders on the mood of nations.

F. Bacon touches on another aspect of political leadership, noting: “A person, by ruling over others, loses his own freedom.” This aspect can be called the burden, duty, responsibilities that the leader assumes. Possessing supreme power in the state, he deprives himself of ordinary human life, ordinary communication, subordinating his entire life to his mission, imposing very serious restrictions on himself.

British Prime Minister W. Churchill noted: “The difference between a statesman and a politician is that a politician focuses on the next election, while a statesman focuses on the next generation.” The choice of this topic for writing an essay is connected with the understanding of the concept of “politician” - a person who focuses on the current political situation and, in fact, is indifferent and irresponsible to what awaits the country in the future, and the concept of “statesman” - a person who thinks in the long term a strategic perspective for his country, thinking about the fate of his people, the country, its future.

Topics devoted to the characteristics of a democratic society, the essence and nature of democracy as a special type of political regime are regularly included in the political science section.

The problem of democratic governance, the mechanism of functioning of a democratic regime is touched upon in the statement of the Dutch thinker B. Spinoza: “Effective governance is possible only under the condition of reasonable control over both the decision itself and its implementation, not only from above, but also from below.” The author sees the specificity of democracy in the fact that it is built on a balance of interests of the governing elites and ordinary citizens representing the government’s partner - civil society. Effective control It is from below that the institutions of civil society are implemented. Such control in our time is manifested through the organization of independent public examinations of laws adopted by the authorities, public discussions of government initiatives, various shapes direct democracy. The relationship and dialogue between government and society is the most important feature of a modern rule of law state.

American lawyer F. Frankfurter also draws attention to the mechanisms of democratic government. His statement “The history of freedom has largely been the history of control over compliance with procedural requirements” will require us to disclose and characterize democratic procedures, first of all, the election of power, mechanisms feedback between government and society, mechanisms of checks and balances between branches of government, the functioning of an effective and independent judiciary.

US President General D. Eisenhower says: “The slogan of true democracy is not “Let the government do it,” but “Let us do it ourselves.” In this topic we should focus on revealing the importance of an active and responsible citizen's position for democratic government. The trend in the development of a democratic state is precisely the shift of powers from government bodies to civil society institutions and public initiatives. In order for public initiatives to be effective, they must receive resources and authority, be able to make decisions independently and bear responsibility for them. The higher the level of general and political culture of a society, the more the society will assume regulatory powers and take upon itself the solution of generally significant issues. For example, in modern Russia, civil initiatives related to the solution of environmental problems, animal protection organization, charity, implementation of various social projects.

In fact, the same problematic aspect can be seen in the statement of the German writer G. Mann: “Democracy is, in essence, the recognition that we are all responsible for each other as a society.” A mature civil society is interested in coordination of actions, responsibility of citizens for what is happening in the country, and active involvement in social processes.

When characterizing democratic government, we often pay attention to the dominance of the position of the majority. It is the majority that forms the government program, laws adopted in the country, and political decisions. But in a totalitarian society, the majority also triumphs. Consequently, the most important principle of a democratic state is the protection of the rights of the minority, the opportunity for them to freely and unhinderedly defend their views. We write about this in an essay based on the statement of the British Prime Minister C. Attlee: “Democracy is not just the rule of the majority, but the rule of the majority respecting the rights of the minority.”

The German scientist and publicist W. Schwebel presents a special view of democracy: “Democracy is better, the sadder the experience of citizens facing it.” Having chosen this topic, we write about the fact that a young democracy does not immediately allow citizens to see and realize all its advantages. On the contrary, the people have to go through a long path of trial and error, master the complex procedures of democratic government, and improve their own political culture. Often, many people become disillusioned with democracy, not realizing that they have not even encountered it and have not lived under truly democratic orders. Only after going all this way do the people have a chance to grow and form a truly mature democracy.

A current and significant topic is the presentation and characteristics of elections in a democratic society. Here are several topics in which it is necessary to thoroughly disclose the features of democratic election procedures.

“In a democracy, the ignorance of one voter can harm everyone else” (J.F. Kennedy).

“Only those people who are constantly aware of what is happening have the right to choose their government” (T. Jefferson).

“The future of a democratic society does not need to be learned from the stars; it can be read on the faces of voters” (V. Shwebel).

“Democracy cannot be higher than the level of the human material from which its voters are composed” (J.B. Shaw).

“In a democratic society, a harmless citizen becomes dangerous as soon as he turns into a voter or consumer” (V. Schwebel).

Expanding on these topics, we pay attention to what kind of voter, what kind of citizen is necessary for the functioning of representative democracy. The basic concept that needs to be considered in the context of election topics is political participation. It is the active and responsible position of the voter that allows the formation of a worthy and effective government. To explain the danger of voters' passivity and their indifference to election procedures, we introduce the concept of “political absenteeism.”

The independence of the media, acting as the “fourth estate,” is recognized as an essential factor for a strong and sustainable democracy. We reveal the functions of the media as a political institution in the context of the theme set by the aphorism of C. Colton: “Despotism cannot exist in a country until freedom of the press is destroyed, just as night cannot fall until the sun has set.”

The key institution of the political system of society is political parties. Let's imagine the statement of the Russian philosopher I. A. Ilyin: “A political party is a union of people who have united in order to achieve the laws they need.” Having chosen a topic, we reveal in the theoretical section the essence of political parties, their characteristics, functions in the political process, typology.

True democracy is impossible without effective opposition. The role of the opposition is reflected in the topics proposed in the examination materials. Let's look at a few statements:

“The opposition is absolutely necessary. A true statesman, and indeed every reasonable person, will derive more benefit from communicating with his opponents than with the most ardent supporters” (B. Franklin).

“The opposition is a safety valve through which the excess of the people’s strength and energy comes out, a valve that cannot be closed without running the risk of explosion” (B. Constant).

“You can only rely on what resists” (J. Andrieu).

In the proposed topics, we pay attention to the essence of the opposition in a democratic society, we present the differences between constructive opposition and destructive opposition, aimed at destroying society, violent actions, and reveal the functions of the opposition in the political process.

Block "Jurisprudence"

Block "Jurisprudence" completes a set of topics for writing an essay in social studies.

First of all, the topic of the essays touches on the very essence of law, legal norms in society, revealing the specifics of law as a social regulator.

Let's give examples of current topics.

“The great business of legislation is to create a public good out of the greatest number of private interests” (P. Buast).

“Law should be primarily adapted to what happens often and easily, and not very rarely” (axiom of Roman law).

“Laws must be obeyed” (axiom of Roman law).

“There are two peaceful forms of violence: law and decency” (J. W. Goethe).

The most important concept when discussing these topics is the concept of law. Law is defined as a set of generally binding norms developed and approved government agencies provided by the power of state coercion. The following definition of law can be given: law is a set of rules of behavior that define the boundaries of freedom, equality of people in the implementation and protection of their interests, regulating the struggle and coordination of free wills in their relations with each other, enshrined in a law or other official act, the implementation of which enforced by the coercive power of the state. In any civilized society, law acts as a state regulator of social relations, consolidating and developing them.

The concept of “right” has several semantic aspects. Depending on the wording of the topic, we take a closer look at some of them.

In the basic definition, law is reduced to a set of unambiguous and documented government regulations, i.e., it actually coincides with the law. Law in this sense is usually called positive law.

However, a number of researchers suggest that law is not created by the state, but exists initially, as it follows from the natural needs and nature of man. Every person from birth has natural rights and freedoms - the right to life, work, freedom of thought and speech, etc. The state does not create these rights, but simply confirms and protects them. Right as the claim of people to life and to everything that contributes to its preservation and development is called natural law.

In addition, right refers to the possibility of a subject enshrined in law, for example, the right of property or the right to be elected to government bodies. This is the so-called right in the subjective sense. Finally, law can be interpreted extremely broadly, denoting all legal phenomena, including positive law, natural law, and law in the subjective sense. In this case, we talk about law in a broad sense. Regulating social relations V various fields in human life and society, law contributes to the solution of important problems: it harmonizes the interests of different people, helps resolve conflicts, determines the measure of human freedom in society, and also serves as an exponent of the ideas of social justice.

In an essay on the Roman legal axiom “Laws must be observed,” we pay attention to the purpose and functions of law. We need to argue for the importance of complying with legal norms. Revealing the functions of law, we emphasize that the essence of law is the ordering and organization of social relations. With the help of law, social relations are built according to those patterns and models that are established in legal norms.

In a separate paragraph we describe and characterize the main functions of law:

regulatory, ensuring the ordering of social relations, when legal norms establish rights and obligations, powers, establish how participants in relations can use and fulfill them;
protective - rules of law presuppose measures of protection, protection of subjective rights from violations, establish methods by which a person can be forced to fulfill an obligation, to bear responsibility in case of violation of a norm;
evaluative - legal norms provide an assessment of behavior from the point of view of legality or illegality;
the function of influencing the consciousness and behavior of people - law, by securing stimulating and limiting means, thereby shapes attitudes and motives for human behavior.

Let us also cite a similar statement by Socrates: “I consider it obligatory for everyone to obey the laws unquestioningly and unswervingly.”

In an essay on the statement of the German poet and statesman J. V. Goethe “There are two peaceful forms of violence: law and decency,” we focus on the specific features of law that distinguish it from the norms of decency (standards of morality, morality). If morality is developed in society in the process of its evolutionary development and is ensured by the strength of public opinion, established ideas of people about good and evil, then the rules of law are adopted by the state, competent state bodies, formalized (exist in a normative form), and secured by the power of the state.

Explaining the need for strict adherence to legal norms, we can characterize such a phenomenon as “legal nihilism”, disrespect for the law, denial of its value and significance.

The philosophical aspects of the essence and purpose of law are touched upon in the statement of V.S. Solovyov: “The task of law is not at all to turn the world lying in evil into the Kingdom of God, but only to prevent it from turning into hell before the time comes.” We write about the formation of law as a social regulator, describe the relationships that are subject to legal regulation, and again dwell on the functions of law. We emphasize that social relations based on strict compliance with legal norms guarantee the individual the protection of his life, property, and legitimate interests. A person who is in the legal field is aware of both his rights and opportunities, as well as his responsibilities and self-limitations.

Similarly, we write an essay based on another phrase by V.S. Solovyov: “The law, in the interest of freedom, allows people to be evil, does not interfere with their free choice between good and evil; it only interferes in the interest of the common good to an evil person become a villain."

V. S. Solovyov, who paid considerable attention to the philosophy of law, also noted: “The essence of law consists in the balance of two moral interests: personal freedom and the common good.” We reveal several semantic aspects of law, show how the legal order organically combines the interests of the individual and society, outlines the facets of mutual responsibility and the facets of free choice.

In the topic set by S. Johnson’s statement “The law is the highest manifestation of human wisdom, using the experience of people for the benefit of society,” it seems that emphasis should be placed on legislative activity, describe the stages of discussion and adoption of laws, and provide specific examples of legislative initiatives in Russia that resulted in the adoption regulations. For example, you can turn to laws restricting smoking in public places, the sale of alcoholic beverages, laws increasing liability for environmental violations, cruelty to animals, etc. It is no secret that many legislative initiatives are born in the very thick of public life, and legislators respond to objective requests from society. Cicero’s statement “Laws are invented for the benefit of citizens” is similar in terms of issues.

The Greek philosopher Democritus emphasizes that “the law reveals its beneficial effect only to those who obey it.” In the context of the topic, we introduce the concepts of “law and order” and “legality”, and reveal the meaning of lawful and unlawful behavior.

Only those citizens whose behavior complies with legal regulations that operate in the legal field can count on protecting their interests by legal means. And on the contrary, people who do not respect the law, who do not believe in its power and significance, and who are disdainful of the restrictions prescribed by law, sooner or later face measures of legal liability imposed on those who have violated the law.

In the content of essay topics, there are also those in which the emphasis should be on the principles of the rule of law, the rule of law, the equality of all before the law and the court. Only if everyone obeys the laws can the law be effective.

The Roman philosopher Seneca emphasizes that equality is a basic condition for the stability of the state. His phrase “Equality of rights does not lie in the fact that everyone enjoys them, but in the fact that they are granted to everyone” was proposed as a topic for the essay.

The French existentialist philosopher Albert Camus wrote: “Whoever is inflexible about his rights has a stronger sense of duty.” In this case, the idea of the unity of rights and responsibilities of the individual is emphasized. Expanding the legal field of the individual inevitably also entails increased responsibility. Right is not grace; the possession of rights turns into the need to defend and implement them, to be responsible for the choices made.

The obligation to respect the law, to protect one’s rights is the substantive core of the statement of the German lawyer Rudolf Iering: “Protection of the right is a duty to society. He who defends his own right defends the right in general.”

Here are some more statements:

“The only way to guarantee a voice for the people you agree with is to stand up for the rights of those with whom you disagree” (E. H. Norton).

“The law does not know class crimes, does not know differences in the circle of persons among whom its violation is committed. He is equally strict and equally merciful to everyone” (A.F. Koni).

“The true equality of citizens consists in all of them being equally subject to the laws” (J. D’Alembert).

Considerable attention is paid to the consideration of the essence and purpose of justice in society, the place of the judge in ensuring law and order. Let us dwell on topics related to justice issues.

“Public order depends on justice. Therefore, by right, the place of judges is in the first row of the social hierarchy. Therefore, no honors or signs of respect can be considered excessive for them” (Napoleon Bonaparte).

“In essence, the name and form of government have no importance: if only justice is given to all citizens, if they are equal in rights, the state is governed well” (Napoleon Bonaparte).

“Justice should be considered as giving to each his own” (M. T. Cicero).

“An honest man, sitting in the judge’s chair, forgets about personal sympathies” (M. T. Cicero).

“The judge is the speaking law, and the law is the dumb judge” (M. T. Cicero).

“If you want to be an impartial judge, look not at the accuser, but at the case itself” (Epictetus).

“A judicial decision is accepted as truth” (an axiom of Roman law).

“Justice is the unchanging and constant will to give everyone his rights” (Justinian).

By revealing topics related to the activities of courts and the implementation of justice, we update them by emphasizing the importance of an independent and principled judiciary as a necessary guarantee of the rights of citizens, their protection from violence and arbitrariness. In the theoretical section of these works, it is important to formulate a definition of justice and characterize the most important principles of an effective judicial power. We present the principles of independence of the judiciary from the legislative and executive, irremovability and independence of judges, adversarial proceedings, presumption of innocence, absence of accusatory bias, publicity and openness of court hearings. It is important to emphasize the equality of citizens before the law and the courts.

Rules for choosing a topic

Let us dwell on several important rules that should be taken into account when choosing a topic for writing an essay for the exam. They will help you navigate the topics and choose the best phrase to write.

At least eight similar rules-recommendations can be proposed.

Rule 1

When reading all the statements proposed in the option, we ask ourselves the question: “What is the statement about?” And only having precisely defined the problem, realizing that we understand it, do we immediately think about the range of concepts that will need to be revealed, theoretical positions and examples that are appropriate to give in the essay to argue our position. Thus, a plan for writing an essay should appear in our head immediately upon becoming familiar with the topic. Conversely, if the problem identified in the statement is unclear, we do not choose it. For example, in the statement of the Russian philosopher S. N. Bulgakov “The world is a hieroglyph of truth”, in the section “Philosophy”, in principle, it is impossible to identify the problem and adequately disclose it. Similar topics with insufficiently clear problems regularly appear in exam options.

Rule 2

Try to choose succinctly formulated topics. If the topic is formulated using an unnecessarily long statement or several sentences, then it loses functionality. An excessively long statement is more difficult to comment on and pay attention to individual aspects. And, secondly, it is more difficult to formulate the problem core if the formulation is verbose. The essence seems to dissolve in it. Here is an example of such a long topic:

“Man is created to live in society; separate him from him, isolate him - his thoughts will become confused, his character will harden, hundreds of absurd passions will arise in his soul, extravagant ideas will sprout in his brain like wild thorns among a wasteland” (D. Diderot).

We prefer to choose topics that are succinctly formulated and compact, such as Socrates’ statement: “The state raises people: the beautiful - good, the opposite - bad.”

Rule 3

Good topics are those when we read them and immediately have an intellectual and emotional response; we either support the author, agree with him, share his position, or we deny it, disagree, or want to argue. This property of a topic can be defined as a problematic context. For example, Gabriel de Mabley’s statement “Good politics is indistinguishable from good morals.” Naturally, we will support the author’s position; our thoughts will immediately begin to work on theoretical argumentation on the topic and selection of examples. Conversely, it is more difficult to work with a descriptive topic in which the problematic aspect is missing. For example, statements that coincide with the definition of certain social science concepts. Let's say:

“Socialization is the process of assimilation by a human individual of patterns of behavior, psychological attitudes, social norms and values, knowledge, skills that allow him to function successfully in society” (L. A. Petrovsky). The difficulty of covering this topic is also due to the fact that the key concept itself is given in the designation of the topic, thus the question arises with the construction of a theoretical block.

Rule 4

Among the statements encountered in the exam, there are ascertaining-axiomatic ones, which are also devoid of problematic wording. For example, the Roman legal axioms given in the “Jurisprudence” section. Let’s say “the laws must be obeyed.” We may well choose such topics, but we should remember the need to give them a problematic context, to add it to the topic. So, when revealing this topic, we lay down the semantic context of “the role and purpose of law in society.”

Rule 5

When writing an essay, we must remember to strictly adhere to the scientific style of writing, focusing on the use of scientific social science concepts and definitions. Therefore, there is a temptation to get confused journalistic style letters when choosing a journalistically formulated topic, for example, the already familiar phrase of Bill Gates “Business is a fascinating game in which a minimum of rules is combined with a maximum of excitement.” When choosing a similar journalistic topic It is important to remember the non-journalistic nature of the text. You should abstract from the journalistic context and strictly adhere to the scientific style of presenting the material.

Rule 6

Sometimes there are topics whose problems and content go beyond the scope of school content, rather representing university material on social science courses. For example, there were topics on the philosophy of history (V. Rozanov), research methodology in the social sciences (T. Giddens). In such a case, topics should not be chosen. It will not be possible to reveal them on the basis of a school course.

Rule 7

The chosen topic should be comfortable for us in terms of the volume of theoretical material. This space should allow us to explore various theoretical aspects and give us greater flexibility in handling the material. And on the contrary, it is much more difficult to write an essay on topics formulated in an excessively local, focal manner. Topics like this are very difficult to cover. For example, the statement “If you expect prices to rise, they will rise” (the first anti-inflationary law) can be considered such a theme. There is no scope here to consider inflation as a whole, but only one of its aspects. Too narrow to cover the topic.

Rule 8

It is better to avoid topics that are tied specifically to any country or its specifics. This will complicate the consideration of the problem in a general social scientific context.

Algorithm for writing a mini-essay on social studies

Our essay includes six content blocks.

The first block is the formulation of the problem, its relevance

This block is introductory. It matches the first paragraph. In it we need to formulate the essence of the problem revealed in the essay. You can start with the words “The statement I have chosen touches (concerns, addresses, addresses, etc.)”, or “The author in his statement touches on the problem...”, or “The topic raised in the statement...”. Next, we give the formulation of the problem itself, for example, “the formation of the human personality, the importance in this process of natural and social factors" We build the second and, possibly, third sentence on the justification of the significance, relevance, importance of our chosen topic, interest in it. The context and rationale for relevance depends on the chosen problem. It can be associated with modern society and man, eternal universal issues, the specifics of modern civilization, etc.

This block coincides with the second paragraph. In it we reveal and describe two aspects that can be presented in two to four sentences. The first sentence of a paragraph is a representation of the author's point of view. For example, “The German philosopher I. Kant believes that...”, then we introduce the statement itself, let’s say “Whoever fearfully worries about losing his life will never rejoice in it.” Then we give our interpretation of the author’s thought, for example, “Thus, the author draws our attention to the fact that a person, in order to live brightly, fully, actively, should not be afraid of activity, emotions, responsibility, should not be afraid of life and joy.” In the event that we do not agree with the author, we will present our own, alternative point of view.

Both first blocks will give us the first point in the essay.

Third block - theoretical argumentation

From the third paragraph we begin presenting theoretical arguments and reveal the theoretical content of the social science problem. This block covers not one argument, but three to five. In each paragraph we focus on revealing one of the theoretical aspects. This block will allow us to earn two points.

The first paragraph of the theory should be devoted to revealing the basic concept or concepts. Here is a definition of the concept. But we do not leave it without explanations and comments, bringing it to a complete paragraph.

In the second paragraph we reveal either the characteristics, functions, or properties of the objects in question.

In the third paragraph we reveal and explain the theoretical position, possibly of a debatable nature.

Certain topics will allow us to increase the number of theoretical paragraphs to four or five.

Fourth block - illustrating theoretical material with specific examples

We recommend giving at least two examples. It is desirable that the examples be different in type. Thus, one can give examples from history, presenting historical material, from modern social life, its various spheres, from literature, the history of science, etc.

The fourth block will bring us another point.

Fifth block - examples from social practice confirming the correctness of the opinions expressed

In the fifth block, we give a special example based on personal social experience, personal social practice, personal reflection on the problem, receiving the last fifth point for it.

The sixth block is conclusions.

The block is devoted to conclusions, a conclusion that we build based on the formulation of the problem.

Algorithm in action

“The state raises people: the beautiful - good, the opposite - bad” ( Socrates)

The statement I have chosen touches on the problem of the influence of government regulations on the formation of the moral qualities of citizens. In the modern world, we have the opportunity to communicate with citizens of different countries; surprisingly, civic qualities also provide information about the government structure of the country from which they came. Therefore, understanding this relationship is important for navigating the modern world.

The ancient Greek philosopher Socrates said: “The state raises people: the beautiful - good, the opposite - bad.” Thus, the author is convinced that state orders are the most important factor shaping civic qualities, moral attitudes and guidelines of people. As the state is, so are the people who make it up.

The state means special organization political power, which has significant resources to regulate a wide range of social relations. The most important feature of a state is sovereignty - the supremacy and independence of state power, its ability to exercise its powers.

In the life of society, the state performs a number of significant functions, including economic, social, and law enforcement. Socrates, when he says “the state raises people,” means a cultural-ideological, or educational function. Its essence is the formation of civic identity, the development by the younger generation of certain qualities, values, and commitment to the state.

Understanding exactly what qualities and how certain states will form in their citizens is associated with the characteristics of the political regime, a special form of the state, which reveals methods of public administration, ways of interaction between government and society, and the government’s perception of its own citizens.

A beautiful state, according to Socrates, is a democratic state. Democracy is a political system based on the idea and principles of democracy. Democratic orders require broad participation of the people in governance, development and adoption of political decisions. A democratic state needs an active, active, competent and responsible citizen who has both political knowledge and experience in implementing political procedures.

The opposite state is a totalitarian dictatorship. The totalitarian government does not need an active, thinking citizen. We need a good executor, whose duty is to strictly and clearly carry out what is prescribed by the authorities. A kind of “cog man” in a cumbersome state machine. People in a totalitarian society are deprived of the feeling and sense of freedom, but they are also freed from responsibility. They are committed to power and deeply distrustful of each other.

Let us illustrate the theoretical arguments with specific examples. Thus, any modern democratic state, for example the Russian Federation, aims to educate citizens in a democratic spirit. Special courses have been introduced into the school curriculum that teach about the structure of the state, the electoral process, and the constitutional rights of citizens. Many schools organize meetings with elected deputies and conduct excursions to legislative bodies. To develop civic competencies, school parliaments and presidents are elected. The goal is to form active and responsible citizens.

In a totalitarian society, the authorities seek to enslave citizens, suppress them, cripple them morally. Thus, in fascist Germany, Hitler’s government made millions of Germans complicit in its crimes. Convinced that “the Fuhrer thinks for each of us,” the Germans put up with concentration camps, denounced their neighbors and colleagues, and committed crimes against humanity while fighting in SS or Wehrmacht units. And only the death of the fascist regime forced the Germans to take the path of moral recovery and repentance.

For me, a school is a kind of state. To paraphrase the words of Socrates, we can admit: “The school produces graduates: the beautiful - the good, the opposite - the bad.” My school is a wonderful democratic school where the opinions of every student are respected and valued. By electing a school council, we learn how to conduct an election campaign, master voting rights and competencies. I am convinced that my school raises and educates us as good citizens.

Having examined the theoretical provisions and examples, we are convinced that the government, the state and citizens are organically connected with each other. As the state is, so are the citizens it educates.

Assessment criteria for assignment 29

Please carefully read the mini-essay evaluation criteria below.

Among the criteria by which the completion of task 29 is assessed, criterion K1 is decisive. If the graduate, in principle, did not disclose the problem raised by the author of the statement, and The expert gave 0 points for criterion K1, then the answer is not checked further. For the remaining criteria (K2, K3), 0 points are given in the protocol for checking tasks with a detailed answer.